1.

5 Inverse functions & logarithms

1
1. inverse function •Éb f (x)

2. logarithmic function ˙bÉb loga x

1
3. inverse trigonometric function •˙iÉb arcsin or sin

0.1 Inverse function

A mapping ¯¶ f from domain Ï2 D to range M R has three types:
~
1. maps one to many; 2. maps many to one; 3. maps one to one.
¯˙÷ ÷˙¯ ¯˙¯
B
b a x a x a
H x b y b y b
_ c z c z c

D R D R D R
A function Éb f is a mapping without the type of one to many, and is

1. one-to-one (injective, an injection) ¯˙¯ (¿¶)

if f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 . =) |D|  |R|. (AAı.∞o )

2. onto (surjective, a surjection) ¯A (≈¶)

if 8 y 2 R, 9 x 2 D, 3 f (x) = y. =) |D| |R|. (≠≠oAı )

3. one-to-one & onto (bijective, a bijection) ¯˙¯/¯A (¬¶)

=) |D| = |R|. (ıflı≈ )

⌥ : Ñp£cb, cb, Xb, ‹b¯ö÷ (|N| = |Z| = |2Z| = |Q|): v¬¶

y
Vertical line test: f (x) is a function () y = f (x)
intersects any vertical line x = k at most one point.
(uÉb () L⌫Ú(|÷>¯ı )
Horizontal line test: f (x) is one-to-one () y = f (x)
intersects any horizontal line y = c at most one point.
(¯˙¯ () LÆ◆(|÷>¯ı ) x

1
 Define: The inverse function •Éb of a one-to-one function

f : D ! R is f 1 : R ! D s.t. f 1
(y) = x () f (x) = y .
f 1. f 1 (f (x)) = x, 8 x 2 D.
2. f (f 1 (y)) = y, 8 y 2 R.
x y
3. f 1 is one-to-one.
f 1 1
1 1
Attention: f (x) 6= = [f (x)] .
f (x)
D R
How to solve f 1 (x): (A lây≤, B l≤yâ; |fl ϯ⌥)
A1. write y = f (x); A2. become x = g(y); A3. exchange x, y to obtain .

y
B1. write x = f (y); B2. become y = g(x); B3. f 1 (x) = g(x).

Skill: 5Ûâ? ã˙¡

˙Œ 4ü˙«; x˙y D˙R Nb˙˙b
Ÿ˙À «˙Í ◊–˙≈↵ ⌃I˙Ωc ⌘n˙y✏
µµ œ n-˙Ÿ2 ÍÚì~Î «≤wŒ —⌥Œ ˙€
Example 0.1 f (x) = x3 + 2, f 1
(x) =?
p
A. y = f (x) = x3 + 2 ( 2) x3 = y 2 (p
3 ) x =
3
p y 2, >≤ x D y
B. x = f (y) = y 3 + 2 ! y 3 = x 2 ! y= x3
2.
p
=) f 1 (x) = 3 x 2. ⌅
How to draw f 1 (x): (y, f 1 (y)) = (f (x), x),
y = f (x) D y = f 1 (x) Ì«$˙ k y = x (¨üı 45 Ú()
p
Example 0.2 Draw 1 x.
p
1 x : ( 1, 1] ! [0, 1), u 1 x2 Ì•Éb (•Ébu 1 x2 )
Draw y = 1 x2 for x 2 [0, 1) (∑<∏ ), y˙ y = x Â
p y y=x
y= 1 x, x 2 ( 1, 1]
0
• x
(™ÙI) 1 •
1
(b#|)
( 1, 0) . ∏ q

Y =

X
1
-
-

y= 1 x2 , x 2 [0, 1)
⌅
yz -

1 -

× ×ε ( -
∞ ,
-

13
2
x =
-

1 -

yr

Λσ [ )
J-
∞
1 = -
0
,

原先 Y 的值域
0.2 Logarithms
Define: The logarithmic function of base a (J a —⌫Ì˙bÉb),

loga x, a > 0, a 6= 1 : (0, 1) ! ( 1, 1)

is the inverse function of f (x) = ax . (“log(arithm) of x to the base a”)

loga y = x () ax = y ˙⌫ ˆ = N () ⌫N = ˆ

Note: ax b a > 0, loga x .…b a > 0, ¥b a 6= 1 n one-to-one.

loga (ax ) = x, 8 x 2 ( 1, 1) (C x 2 R); aloga y = y, 8 y 2 (0, 1) (C y > 0).

Define: Natural logarithm AÕ˙b: (“natural log(arithm) of x”)

f (x) = ln x = loge x
J e —⌫Ì˙bÉb (AÕNbÉb ex Ì•Éb: ln y = x () ex = y.)

Note: ln ex = x , 8 x 2 R; eln y = y , 8 y > 0.

log x = log10 x common logarithm ✓‡˙b, in science and engineering.
lg x = log2 x binary logarithm ˘j˙b, in computer science.
y ex y

Attention:
ln / log Ì l lg x
1 ln x ln x
(B∑ü `) log x
x x
0 1 u¸ü L, 0 1 log 1 x
10
.uן I, log 1 x
6.ub 1 2

Law of logarithms ˙b : a > 0, a 6= 1, x, y > 0. (ab = x, ac = y)

1. : loga xy = loga x + loga y. ( () ab ⇥ ac = ab+c )
2. Œ: loga x/y = loga x loga y. ( () ab /ac = ab c )
3. 4ü: loga xr = r loga x for r 2 R. ( () (ab )r = arb )

3
 ⌥ History:
• 200 B.C. Archimedes(Ø! ,) Í€:
1, 10, 100, 1000, · · ·
0, 1 , 2 , 3 , . . .
™J‡✏˘Ìã¡[˝✏¯Ì Œ. . . . . . . . . . . . . (loga x + loga y = loga xy)
• 1544 Michael Stifel(g!˙, 1487–1567) ⌥Arithmetica Integra 2Ì
üU‡ exponent(Nb) •_Â, 1ü≠:
1 1 1
, , , 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
8 4 2
3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 , 5 , 6
¥™J‡✏˘Ì ŒH⌫✏¯Ì4üD«;. . . . . . . . . . . (loga xr = r loga x)
• 1614 John Napier (—Z , 1550–1617) Í[vÕ,✏¯"˙b[. FI7
20 j
N = 107 (1 10 7 )L for N = 5 ⇠ 107 ,
6ˇuj
N N
L = Naplog(N ) = log1 10 7 ( ) = 107 log(1 10 7 )107 ( )
107 107
w2Ì
7
(1 10 7 )10 = 0.999999910000000 ⇡ e 1 ,
FJ
N
Naplog(N ) ⇡ 107 ln( ).
107
loga y
(VF;É@vJ 10 —⌫, ™<∑.D≈. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (logx y = )
loga x
• 1620 Jost Bürgi (™ –, 1552–1632) Í[ ⌥Progreß Tabulen 
(1.0001)n for 0  n  23027.
• 1624 Henry Briggs (1555–1631), Napier Ì⇠§, .ww≥/Í[ 1–20,000
& 90,000–100,000 Ì 14 Pb˙b[ (of base 10); 1627 Ezechiel de Decker with
Adriaan Valcq ^, 20,000–90,000.
• 1727 Leonhard Euler (rÖ, 1707–1783) ∑± e = 2.718281828..., 1730
Í[‡îÃÏ2AÕNbDAÕ˙bÉb:
x 1
ex = lim (1 + )n & ln x = lim n(x n 1).
n!1 n n!1

4
 Change base formula ≤⌫t : a > 0, a 6= 1, b > 0, b 6= 1, x > 0.

logb x
loga x = .
logb a

Proof. Let y = loga x () ay = x, then

logb x = logb ay (inverse function)

= y logb a (logarithmic law)
= loga x logb a, (a 6= 1, logb a 6= 0)
=) loga x = logb x/logb a. ⌅

Note: ≤⌫ÌflT — .‡˙©⌥⌫d˙b[:

ln 2 7 ln 10 23
ln 2 ⇡ 0.7, ln 10 ⇡ 2.3. Then log 2 = ⇡ , lg 10 = ⇡ .
ln 10 23 ln 2 7
Example 0.3 f (x) = ex+1 + 2, solve and draw f 1
(x).

Let x = ey+1 + 2 () x 2 = ey+1 () ln(x 2) = y + 1

() f 1 (x) = y = ln(x 2) 1. (∑<éU: ln x 2 6= ln (x 2).)
f (x) : R ! (2, 1), f 1 (x) : (2, 1) ! R. ⌅
y y y x=2 y=x
y = ex y = ex+1 ( 1, 3)

( 1, 1) y=2
y = ex+1 + 2
1
y = ln(x 2) 1 x
x x
0 0 0
(3, 1)
A:
y y x=2 y x=2

y = ln x
y = ln(x 2)
x x y = ln(x 2) 1 x
0 1 0 3 0
(3, 1)
B:

5
0.3 Inverse trigonometric function
˙i S S˙i ˙i˙i S S
&2 Èi
✓ ˙i ˙i πi
sin ✓ = cos ✓ =
πi Èi Èi
y ˙i sin ✓ πi cos ✓
tan ✓ = = cot ✓ = =
πi cos ✓ ˙i sin ✓
(cos ✓, sin ✓)
2 Èi 1 Èi 1
1 sec ✓ = = csc ✓ = =
✓ ✓ πi cos ✓ ˙i sin ✓
0 1 x
˙i (trigonometric) Éb (f (x) 2 {sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x})
uUÇ (periodic) Éb (f (x + 2⇡) = f (x), x 2 R), .u¯˙¯(one-to-one),
FJb (\MM ) ÃÑÏ2 , U f (x) âA¯˙¯, n?5?•Éb

Define: The inverse function of restricted sine function is called the

inverse sine function, sin 1x , or the arcsine function,

arcsin x . (ßÃÑÌ£˝ÉbÌ•Éb=•£˝Éb)
function restricted
h ⇡ domain hrangei inverse
⇡i 1
sin x , 1, 1 sin x = arcsin x
2 2
h i h i
1
cos x 0, ⇡ 1, 1 cos x = arccos x
⇣ ⇡ ⇡⌘ ⇣ ⌘
1
tan x , 1, 1 tan x = arctan x
2 2
⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘
1
cot x 0, ⇡ 1, 1 cot x
h ⇡ ⌘ h 3⇡ ⌘ ⇣ i h ⌘
1
sec x 0, [ ⇡, 1, 1 [ 1, 1 sec x
2 2
⇣ ⇡ i ⇣ 3⇡ i ⇣ i h ⌘
1
csc x 0, [ ⇡, 1, 1 [ 1, 1 csc x
2 2

1 1
Attention: sinn x = (sin x)n for n 2 N, sin x 6= = (sin x) 1
.
sin x

6
1. Sine £˝ sin x : R ! [ 1, 1].
y y
⇡
2 •
⇡ 1 • 1 1
2 0
⇡
x x
• 0
12 ⇡
• 2
⇡ ⇡ 1 ⇡ ⇡
sin x : [ , ]
2 2
! [ 1, 1] sin x : [ 1, 1] ! [ , ]
2 2

sin 1 (sin x) = x, 8 x 2 [ ⇡ ⇡
, ]
2 2
and sin(sin 1
y) = y, 8 y 2 [ 1, 1].

2. Cosine Ï˝ cos x : R ! [ 1, 1].

y y
1 • ⇡
•
⇡
x
0 1 •
• x
1 01
cos x : [0, ⇡] ! [ 1, 1] cos 1 x : [ 1, 1] ! [0, ⇡]

3. Tangent £~ tan x : {x 6= n⇡ + ⇡2 , n 2 Z} ! R.
x = ⇡2 y x = ⇡2 y y= ⇡
2

0
x x
0 y= ⇡
2

tan x : ( ⇡ ⇡
, )
2 2
!R tan 1
x:R!( ⇡ ⇡
, )
2 2

4. Cotangent Ï~ cot x : {x 6= n⇡, n 2 Z} ! R.

x= ⇡ y x=⇡ y y=⇡
⇡
0 2 ⇡
x 2

x
0
cot x : (0, ⇡) ! R cot 1 x : R ! (0, ⇡)

7
 5. Secant £í sec x : {x 6= n⇡ + ⇡2 , n 2 Z} ! ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1).
y x = ⇡2 x = 3⇡ 2
y y= 3⇡
2

1• • ⇡
⇡ y= ⇡
x 2
0 1 •
• x
10 1
sec 1 x : |x| 1
sec x : [0, ⇡2 ) [ [⇡, 3⇡ ) ! ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1)
2 ! [0, ⇡2 ) [ [⇡, 3⇡
2
)

6. Cosecant Ïí csc x : {x 6= n⇡, n 2 Z} ! ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1).

y x = ⇡ x = 2⇡ y
• 3⇡ 2
y=⇡
1 • 3⇡
2
x ⇡
0 12 ⇡
2 •
•
x
10 1
csc 1 x : |x| 1
csc x : (0, ⇡2 ] [ (⇡, 3⇡ ] ! ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1)
2 ! (0, ⇡2 ] [ (⇡, 3⇡
2
]

Question: ¯ÏbÃÑ •<ñ»˝? f

x0
Answer: .¯Ï, …b? one-to-one ˇfl. x y
Question: —BÛbÃÑ •<ñ»?
1
Answer: see §3.5, §7.3. f
D R
(Fill by yourself:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
sin (sin n) 1
cos 1 (cos n) 1
tan 1 (tan n) 1
cot 1 (cot n) 1
sec 1 (sec n) 1
csc 1 (csc n) 1
hint: sin(⇡ ✓) = sin ✓, cos( ✓) = cos ✓, tan(⇡ + ✓) = tan ✓.)

8
 1 1 1
Example 0.4 (a) sin =? (b) tan(arcsin ) =?
2 3
1 1
(a) Let x = sin 1 =) sin x = ,
2 2
1 5 ⇡ h ⇡ ⇡i
x = (2k + )⇡ or (2k + )⇡, only 2 , . 3
6 6 6 2 2 1
1 h ⇡ ⇡i 1 p
✓
(b) Let ✓ = arcsin 2 , () sin ✓ = ,
2 2
1
3
1
2 p2
2
3 三⾓ 恆等式
tan ✓ = p = p = . ⌅ ⼈ sinōtos
32 12 2 2 4 2021

nlttant-sec203.lt
Example 0.5 Simplify cos(tan 1 x).
⇣ ⇡ ⇡⌘ V0 cscz
co ⼆

Let ✓ = tan 1 x 2 , () tan ✓ = x.

2 2p p
sec2 ✓ = 1 + tan⇣2 ✓, sec ✓⌘= 1 + tan2 ✓ = 1 + x2 . p
⇡ ⇡ 1 + x2
(ä.Ø, * ✓ 2 , , sec ✓ 1 > 0.) x
2 2 ✓
1 1 1
) cos ✓ = =p .
sec ✓ 1+x 2
[Another method]: See diagram. ⌅
n sine / tangent / secant o
Skill: Diagram: Inverse function
cosine/cotangent/cosecant
1 1
✓ = sin x ! sin ✓ = x ✓ = cos x ! cos ✓ = x
1 1 p
x 1 x2
✓ ✓
p x
1 x2
1 1
✓ = tan x ! tan ✓ = x ✓ = cot x ! cot ✓ = x
p p
1 + x2 1 + x2
x 1
✓ ✓
1 x

1 1
✓ = sec x ! sec ✓ = x ✓ = csc x ! csc ✓ = x
x p x
x2 1 1
✓ ✓
p
1 x2 1

9
 p
⌥ Additional: Special angles: ✓ = ⇡ for q = 2, 3, 4, 6.
q
y
⇡
2
2⇡ ⇡
3 3
3⇡ ⇡
4 4
5⇡ ⇡
6 6

⇡ 0 x
0

7⇡ 11⇡
6 6
5⇡ 7⇡
4 4
4⇡ 5⇡
3 3
3⇡
2

⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 2⇡ 3⇡ 5⇡
✓ 0 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
7⇡ 5⇡ 4⇡ 3⇡ 5⇡ 7⇡ 11⇡
⇡ 6 4 p3 2 p3 4 6
1 p1 3 3 p1 1
sin ✓ 0 2 2 2p
1 2p 2 2
1 p1 3 3 p1 1
0 1
p2 2 2 2 2 p2
3 p1 1 1 p1 3
cos ✓ 1 2p 2
0 2
2 2 p2
3 p1 1 1 p1 3
1 2
0
2 p2 2
p 2 2
tan ✓ 0 p1 1 3 3 1 p1
3 p p 3
0 p1 1 3 3 1 p1
p3 p3
cot ✓ 3 1 p1 0 p1 1 3
p 3 3 p
3 1 p1 0 p1 1 3
p 3 3 p
sec ✓ 1 p2 2 2 2 2 p2
3 p p 3
1 p2 2 2 2 2 p2
3 p p 3
csc ✓ 2 2 p2 1 p2 2 2
p 3 3 p
2 2 p2 1 p2 2 2
3 3

10
⌥ Additional: Answer
A n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B ⇡ n 2.14 1.14 0.14 0.86 1.86 2.86 3.86 4.86
C n ⇡ 2.14 1.14 0.14 0.86 1.86 2.86 3.86 4.86
D 2⇡ n 5.28 4.28 3.28 2.28 1.28 0.28 0.72 1.72
E n 2⇡ 5.28 4.28 3.28 2.28 1.28 0.28 0.72 1.72
F 3⇡ n 8.42 7.42 6.42 5.42 4.42 3.42 2.42 1.42
G n 3⇡ 8.42 7.42 6.42 5.42 4.42 3.42 2.42 1.42
H 4⇡ n 11.56 10.56 9.56 8.56 7.56 6.56 5.56 4.56
Domain Range
sin 1
(sin n) AB EF ⌅⌅
cos 1
(cos n) A DE H ⌅⌅
tan 1
(tan n) A C E G ⌅⌅
cot 1
(cot n) A C E G ⌅⌅ x
⇡ 0 ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
sec 1
(sec n) A DE H ⌅ ⌅
2 2 2
csc 1
(csc n) AB EF ⌅ ⌅

How to read tables:

1. Find cos 1 (cos 5): Look the column of n = 5 in the 1st table.
2. In the 2nd table cos 1 (cos n) domain ADEH
(* cos 5 = cos(2⇡ 5) = cos(5 2⇡) = cos(4⇡ 5)):
Look numbers in rows ADEH {5, 1.28, 1.28, 7.56}.
3. cos 1 (cos n) range blue(0 ⇠ ⇡/2) and green(⇡/2 ⇠ ⇡):
Find the number of color blue or green 1.28 in the row D (2⇡ n).
4. cos 1 (cos 5) = 2⇡ 5.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
sin (sin n) 1 ⇡ 2 ⇡ 3 ⇡ 4 5 2⇡ 6 2⇡ 7 2⇡ 3⇡ 8
cos 1 (cos n) 1 2 3 2⇡ 4 2⇡ 5 2⇡ 6 7 2⇡ 8 2⇡
1
tan (tan n) 1 2 ⇡ 3 ⇡ 4 ⇡ 5 2⇡ 6 2⇡ 7 2⇡ 8 3⇡
cot 1 (cot n) 1 2 3 4 ⇡ 5 ⇡ 6 ⇡ 7 2⇡ 8 2⇡
1
sec (sec n) 1 2⇡ 2 2⇡ 3 4 2⇡ 5 2⇡ 6 7 2⇡ 4⇡ 8
csc 1 (csc n) 1 ⇡ 2 ⇡ 3 4 3⇡ 5 3⇡ 6 7 2⇡ 3⇡ 8
(Find by yourself:
sin(sin 1 1), cos(cos 1 1), tan(tan 1
1), cot(cot 1
1), sec(sec 1
1), csc(csc 1
1)=?)

11