Anatomy Assignment

Mohammad Hassan Nawaz – 202321192010

Homework - 1
Macula lutea: oval yellowish area near the center of the posterior part of
the retina. Contains small central pit termed the fovea centralis, where
visual acuity is highest.
Optic disc: light, whitish disk where the optic nerve pierces the retina,
lacks visual receptors therefore termed as the “blind spot”.
Eustachian tube: also known as auditory tube, connects the tympanic
cavity to the nasal part of the pharynx. It allows air to enter and leave the
cavity and balances pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
Ampullae: located throughout the semicircular canals of the inner
ear. Each ampulla contains an ampullary crest, the crista ampullaris, and
many hair cells. The crista ampullaris is the sensory organ of rotation.
Spiral organ: or the organ of Corti is the receptor organ for hearing. It
rests on the surface of the basilar membrane in the cochlea and contains
hair cells, which transduce vibrations caused by sound waves into
electrical impulses that can be interpreted by the brain.
Oval window: covered by a membrane and connects the middle ear to
the vestibule of the internal ear.

Describe the detection and processing of equilibrium sensations.

Equilibrium sensations, which helps maintain balance and sense our
position in space, are detected and processed by the vestibular system in
the inner ear. It consists of the semicircular canals and otolith organs. The
canals detect rotational movements, while the otolith organs detect linear
acceleration and the pull of gravity. Specialized hair cells in these
structures convert the movements into electrical signals, which are sent to
the brain through the vestibular nerve for interpretation.

Explain the collection and processing of sound.

Sound collection and processing involve the ear's different parts. The
outer ear collects sound waves and directs them into the ear canal, where
they reach the eardrum. The eardrum vibrates in response to the sound
waves and transfers the vibrations to the middle ear through three small
bones called ossicles. The ossicles amplify the vibrations and transmit
them to the cochlea in the inner ear. In the cochlea, tiny hair cells convert
the vibrations into electrical signals. These signals are then sent through
the auditory nerve to the brain, where they are processed and interpreted
as sound.

Describe the anatomy of the eye.

Conjunctiva: is the membrane covering the sclera (white portion of your
eye). The conjunctiva also covers the interior of your eyelids. By
generating mucus and tears, the conjunctiva helps lubricate the eyes. It
also aids in immunological monitoring and prevents microorganisms from
entering the eye.
Sclera: sometimes known as the "whites" of the eye. It covers more than
80% of the eyeball's surface. The sclera provides stability and protection
for the eye's inner workings but is also flexible. This allows the eye to
move as needed to see different objects.
iris: colored part of the eye and is unique to each person. This structure is
located in the front of the eye, between the cornea on the outside and the
lens on the inside. The iris primarily regulates how much light reaches the
retina by controlling the size of the eye's "window," or pupil.
Pupils: black dot in the center of the iris. Allows the eye to focus on the
things in front of it. They open and close to regulate the amount of light
that enters the eye.
Cornea: clear and protective outer layer of your eye. Together with the
sclera (the white of your eye), the cornea acts as a barrier against dirt,
infectious microorganisms, and other substances that can damage the
eye. In addition to protection, the cornea also plays a significant role in
vision. Considering the dome shaped surface of the cornea, this structure
refracts (bends) light as it passes through the eye. This enables it to focus
on objects effectively. The cornea can filter out the sun's harmful
ultraviolet (UV) light.
Uvea: eye's middle layer. It is located underneath the white part of the
eye (the sclera) and is composed of three parts; The iris, Ciliary body, and
Choroid. These structures control some eye functions, such as adapting to
varying levels of light or object distances.
Choroid: This vascular layer is located between the sclera and retina of
your eye. It delivers nourishment (through blood and oxygen supply) to
the retina's outer layers.
Retina: sensitive membrane that covers your eye's rear surface. Images
are transmitted to the retina when your eye picks up the images. The
retina converts these images into impulses, which are sent to your brain
through the optic nerve. This enables you to see and interpret what you
see.

Eye Muscles: The eye has six muscles. These muscles arise from the eye
socket (orbit) and work to move the eye up and down, side to side, or in a
circular motion. The six eye muscles are as follows: The superior rectus,
inferior rectus, medial rectus, lateral rectus, superior oblique and inferior
oblique

Macula Lutea: Light rays are focused on the macula lutea when an eye
looks directly at an object. The macula lutea is a yellow oval area in the
retina's center (back of the eye). The center of the macula is known as the
fovea. The section of the retina is in charge of sharp, detailed central
vision (also called visual acuity). The macula lutea has a high
concentration of cones. These are the light-sensitive retinal cells that
provide high visual acuity.

Eye Lens: lentil-shaped structure inside your eye. This is the natural lens.
It is located behind the iris and to the front of the vitreous humor
(vitreous body). The vitreous humor is a clear, colorless, gelatinous mass
that fills the gap between the lens and the retina in the eye. The lens is
held in place by a fibrous membrane known as zonule of Zinn or the lens
suspensory ligaments. The lens changes its thickness and curvature,
allowing the eye to focus on objects from varying distances.

Aqueous Humor: fluid substance that fills the eye. It's divided into two
chambers. The anterior chamber is in front of the iris, whereas the
posterior chamber is right behind it. These layers enable the eye to keep
its shape. This liquid is evacuated via the Schlemm canal to eliminate any
accumulation in the eye.

Ciliary Body: ring-shaped tissue found behind the iris. It attaches to the
lens through the zonular fibers (fibers of Zinn). The ciliary body holds and
regulates the eye lens's movement, keeping the lens shape intact. This
structure is also involved in the production of aqueous humor.

Optic Nerve: bundle of about 1.2 million nerve fibers that transmit visual
information to the central nervous system (brain). There is one nerve per
eye connecting each eye to the brain. Vision loss may occur if any of the
nerves are damaged.

Optic Disc: where the axons of retinal ganglion cells join together and
mark the beginning of the optic nerve (second cranial nerve). The optic
disc also serves as the entrance site for major blood vessels that nourish
the retina.

Fovea Centralis: tiny depression in the retina that houses cones that help
with proper vision. It is located within the macula.
Identify the vision receptors and trace their innervation pathways.
The retina contains two types of vision receptors: rods and cones. Rods
are responsible for low-light vision and are abundant towards the outer
edges of the retina, while cones which are responsible for color vision and
detecting fine details are concentrated in the central area called the
macula lutea. The neural pathway consists of three orders of neurons.
The first order neurons, bipolar cells in the middle layer of the retina
synapse with the rod and cone cell. The axons of second order neurons,
ganglionic cells, lay in the innermost layer of the retina forms the optic
nerve. The third neurons are located in the lateral geniculate body and
gives rise to the optic radiation.
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Homework - 2
Glial cells: most abundant cell types in the central nervous system. These
do not conduct electrical impulses instead they surround the neurons and
provide support and insulation. Types of glial cells include
oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, Schwann cells, microglia,
and satellite cells.
Nissl bodies: granular structures in the cytoplasm of neurons that are
composed of RNA and polyribosomes when stained with basic dyes. They
occur in the cell body and dendrites but not the axon of neurons.
Neuron classification and functions.
Neurons can be classified into three main types based on their structure
and function:
Sensory neurons: responsible for transmitting sensory information from
the body's sensory receptors (like the skin, eyes, and ears) to the brain
and spinal cord. They allow to sense and perceive the world around us.
Motor neurons: carries signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles
and glands. They help to move muscles and control various bodily
functions, such as breathing and digestion.
Interneurons: found within the brain and spinal cord and act as
messengers between sensory and motor neurons. They process and relay
information, allowing for communication and coordination between
different parts of the nervous system.

Organization of the nervous system.

The nervous system is divided into two main parts:
Central Nervous System: consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is the
command center of the body, responsible for processing information,
making decisions, and coordinating the body's activities.
Peripheral Nervous System: includes all the nerves outside the CNS. It
connects the CNS to the rest of the body. The PNS can be further divided
into two components; Somatic nervous system and Autonomic nervous
system.
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Homework - 3
Limbic system: comprises of amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus,
thalamus, and cingulate gyrus, this complex system is concerned with
cognitive processes involved in memory, controlling the visceral and
endocrine activity, emotional expression and genesis, together with
visceral response to emotions.

Describe the characteristics of the cranial meninges and the cranial

dural septa.
The cranial meninges are protective layers around the brain. They consist
of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater is
tough and outermost, while the arachnoid mater is delicate and lies
beneath it. The pia mater is the innermost layer that closely covers the
brain.
The cranial dural septa are extensions of the dura mater that divide and
stabilize different parts of the brain. They include the falx cerebri,
tentorium cerebelli, falx cerebelli, and diaphragma sellae, which provide
support and separate specific brain regions.
Identify the anatomic structures and describe the functional areas of
the cerebrum.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and consists of two
hemispheres. It includes the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic
system. The cerebrum is divided into 4 lobes; frontal, parietal, temporal,
and occipital, each with different functions.
Summarizes the characteristics of the three white matter tracts of the
cerebrum.
The cerebrum has three main types of white matter tracts:
Association tracts: connecting areas within the same hemisphere
Commissural tracts: connecting corresponding regions between
hemispheres
Projection tracts: connecting the cerebrum to other brain and spinal
cord regions
Identify the divisions of the diencephalon, and describe their
functions.
The diencephalon consists of:
Thalamus: relay station for sensory information)
Hypothalamus: regulating physiological processes
Epithalamus: housing the pineal gland for sleep-wake cycles
Subthalamus: involved in motor control

Identify the components of the brainstem, and describe their

functions.
The brainstem consists of:
Midbrain: relay and control center for sensory and motor information
Pons: bridge connecting different brain regions
Medulla oblongata: controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and
reflexes

Identify the structure and function of the cerebellum.

The cerebellum, located at the back of the brain, helps coordinate
voluntary movements, balance, and posture. It receives and fine-tunes
information from sensory systems, spinal cord, and other brain parts,
ensuring smooth movements. It also contributes to attention, language,
and memory functions.
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Homework - 4
List the names and locations of the 12 cranial nerves.
The 12 cranial nerves are:
Olfactory nerve (I): Located in the nasal cavity.
Optic nerve (II): Located in the back of the eye.
Oculomotor nerve (III): Originates from the midbrain.
Trochlear nerve (IV): Originates from the midbrain.
Trigeminal nerve (V): Originates from the pons.
Abducent nerve (VI): Originates from the pons.
Facial nerve (VII): Originates from the pons.
Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII): Located in the inner ear.
Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX): Originates from the medulla oblongata.
Vagus nerve (X): Originates from the medulla oblongata.
Accessory nerve (XI): Originates from the spinal cord.
Hypoglossal nerve (XII): Originates from the medulla oblongata.

Describe the principal functions of each cranial nerve pair.

Olfactory nerve: Sense of smell.
Optic nerve: Ability to see.
Oculomotor nerve: Ability to move and blink your eyes.
Trochlear nerve: Ability to move your eyes up and down or back and
forth.
Trigeminal nerve: Sensations in your face and cheeks, taste and jaw
movements.
Abducens nerve: Ability to move your eyes.
Facial nerve: Facial expressions and sense of taste.
Auditory/vestibular nerve: Sense of hearing and balance.
Glossopharyngeal nerve: Ability to taste and swallow.
Vagus nerve: Digestion and heart rate.
Accessory nerve (or spinal accessory nerve): Shoulder and neck muscle
movement.
Hypoglossal nerve: Ability to move your tongue.
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Homework - 5
Define the concept of a dermatome, and explain the clinical
importance of a dermatome.
A dermatome refers to an area of skin that is primarily supplied by a
single spinal nerve. Each dermatome corresponds to a specific segment of
the spinal cord. Dermatomes are important clinically as they can help
diagnose and locate potential nerve damage or spinal cord injuries.
Compare and contrast the structure, distribution, and innervation
patterns of the spinal nerve plexuses.
Spinal nerve plexuses are complex networks formed by the intermingling
of spinal nerves. There are four major spinal nerve plexuses:
Cervical Plexus: The cervical plexus originates from the spinal nerves in
the neck region (C1-C4). It supplies sensory and motor innervation to the
neck, shoulder, and parts of the head. It gives rise to important nerves like
the phrenic nerve, which controls the diaphragm.
Brachial Plexus: The brachial plexus arises from spinal nerves in the neck
and upper thoracic region (C5-T1). It supplies sensory and motor
innervation to the upper limbs. The brachial plexus gives rise to nerves
such as the median nerve, ulnar nerve, and radial nerve, which control
various muscles and sensations of the arm and hand.
Lumbar Plexus: The lumbar plexus originates from spinal nerves in the
lower back (L1-L4). It provides sensory and motor innervation to the
abdominal wall, anterior thigh, and parts of the leg. Notable nerves from
the lumbar plexus include the femoral nerve and obturator nerve.
Sacral Plexus: The sacral plexus arises from spinal nerves in the lower
back and sacral region (L4-S4). It supplies sensory and motor innervation
to the buttocks, posterior thigh, and lower leg. The sciatic nerve, the
largest nerve in the body, is derived from the sacral plexus and branches
into the tibial nerve and common fibular nerve.
While all the plexuses share the function of distributing sensory and
motor innervation, they differ in terms of the specific areas they supply
and the nerves they give rise to. These plexuses play a vital role in
enabling movement, sensation, and coordination of various muscles and
body regions.
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Homework - 6
Identify and describe the characteristics of sensory and motor
pathways in the spinal cord.
Sensory Pathways: carry sensory information from the body to the brain.
Involves three types of neurons: primary, secondary, and tertiary neurons.
The primary neuron detects the sensory input in the peripheral nervous
system and sends the signal to the spinal cord. The secondary neuron
then carries the signal from the spinal cord to the brain. Finally, the
tertiary neuron takes the signal from the brain to the sensory cortex,
where we perceive and interpret the sensation.
Motor Pathways: These pathways transmit signals from the brain to the
muscles and glands, allowing for voluntary movement. Also involves three
types of neurons: upper motor neurons, lower motor neurons, and
interneurons. The upper motor neurons start in the motor cortex of the
brain and send signals down the spinal cord. They either connect directly
with lower motor neurons in the spinal cord or communicate with
interneurons, which then relay the signal to lower motor neurons. The
lower motor neurons are located in the spinal cord or brainstem and
directly control the muscles, causing them to contract or relax in response
to motor commands.
Identify the locations and describe the relationships of primary,
secondary, and tertiary neurons.
Primary Neurons: located outside the central nervous system (CNS) and
are the first to receive sensory input from the body. For example, primary
neurons responsible for touch, pain, or temperature are found in clusters
called dorsal root ganglia near the spinal cord. In the case of taste,
primary neurons are situated in ganglia within the head region, such as
the geniculate ganglion for taste sensations from the tongue.
Secondary Neurons: Found within the CNS, secondary neurons receive
signals from the primary neurons and relay them to higher brain regions
for processing. In sensory pathways, secondary neurons are typically
located in the spinal cord or brainstem. For example, in touch and pain
pathways, secondary sensory neurons connect with primary sensory
neurons in the spinal cord before transmitting the information to higher
brain areas. In taste pathways, secondary neurons are present in the
brainstem.
Tertiary Neurons: located within the CNS and receive input from
secondary neurons. In sensory pathways, tertiary neurons are found in the
thalamus, acting as a relay station. They receive sensory signals from
secondary neurons and transmit them to the sensory cortex in the brain
for perception and interpretation.
These neurons work together and form a chain of communication that
allows sensory information to be processed and motor commands to be
carried out effectively.
Identify the cerebral centers involved in written and spoken
language.
The cerebral center responsible for written language is called the angular
gyrus, located in the dominant hemisphere (usually the left hemisphere)
of the brain. It plays a crucial role in processing written words and
understanding their meaning.
Several regions in the dominant hemisphere are involved in spoken
language. The primary region is called Broca’s area, located in the frontal
lobe. Broca’s area is responsible for the production of speech and
coordinating the movements of the mouth, tongue, and vocal cords.
Another important region is Wernicke’s area, located in the temporal lobe.
Wernicke’s area is involved in language comprehension and
understanding spoken words.
These language centers work together and communicate through neural
pathways to facilitate both written and spoken language processing.