Research Draft

Dahab Serroukh, Department of English Language and Literature.
UAE, Faculty of Letters and Humanities, Martil
Faculty of Letters and Humanities

Department of English Studies
Tetouan - Morocco
Feminism as an interplay between history and politics:

Fatima Mernissi’s Veil and The Male Elite
CONDUCTED BY
DAHAB SERROUKH
SUPERVISED BY
NABIL KECHIKECHE
OPTION
LITERATURE
REGISTRATION NUMBER
20030788
Monograph submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature at Abdelmalek

Essaadi University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a BA Degree in English
Language and Literature
ACADEMIC YEAR
2022-2023
Dahab Serroukh, Department of English Language and Literature. UAE, Faculty of Letters and Humanities, Martil
Dedication
To my inspirations, my mother and father,
To my brother Tarik whom i missed the most,
To my love and the one I was created to love, Jihadi
To my beloved city Larache,
To my fellow friend Mariam Ahdad,
I dedicate this humble work...
I
Acknowledgment
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. NABIL
Kchikeche, for his constant support, his understanding and empathy to all students and his
guidance throughout this humble work. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my
classmates, friends, and family for their unconditional support and love.
This journey shaped who i’m today, my vision and my critical thinking, and for that, I would
like to thank every professor for everything they did to help me learn as I pursued my B.A.
degree, promoting the improvement of my knowledge and academic progress.
Thanks to everyone who contributed in some way or another in making this academic journey
a great one.
II
ABSTRACT
This research aims to examine and explore the impact of feminism as an interplay between
history and politics, providing an examination of how political and historical contexts
intersect to influence women’s situation by offering a new religious perspective to go beyond
societal issues.
The paper highlights Islamic feminist theory and its role in driving cultural and sociological
changes that seek for equality and justice between sexes. The critical feminist theory as a
framework will be the theoretical underpinning of my thesis. Through Fatima Mernissi’s
work, we will shed the light on the historical and political contexts in which Islamic feminism
emerged, highlighting how historical contexts such as Islamic interpretations influence
feminist movements and ideologies within Muslim societies in favor of male elite dominance,
while feminism in turn, influences the interpretation and understanding of history promoting
gender equality.
KEY WORDS
Feminism, Islamic Feminism, Gender equality, Islam, Male Elite
III
CONTENTS
Dedication………………………………………………………...……………………………………i
Acknowledgment…………………………...………………...……………………………………….ii
Abstract……………………………………………………………...….…………..………...………iii
Introduction ………………………………………………………...….…………..………...…… 1
General Framework ………………………………………………...….…………..………...…… 4
1. Fatima Mernissi and her influence……………………………………………………… 5
2. Synopsis of “ The Veil and the Male Elite”……………………………………………… 6
PART I:………………………………………………………...….…………..………...…………8
1. Historical, political and economic contexts of the writer’s society and era……. 9
- Early influence: Dream of Trespass (Tales of a Harem Girlhood)
- Fatima Mernissi as a second-wave feminist
2. Conceptual framework…………………………………………………...……………. 13
- Literary review: Women, History, Politics in arabic literature
- Scheherazade Goes West: Different Cultures, Different Harems (women as a
subject within Arabic literature)
- Salwa Bakr on Women and Arabic literature when ‘Every day you would open
the window and find a female author writing a new book’
3. Major figures of Feminist Arabic literature………………………...……………… 18

- Miral Al-Tahawy: The Tent
- Nawal El Saadawi- Woman at point Zero
- Leila Abouzeid- The Year of The Elephant
PART II:……………………………………………………...….…………..………...………….22
1. Insights and Perspectives: Exploring Fatima Mernissi works……..………...…………23
- The Veil and the Male Elite’ as an alternative interpretation of Women in Islam
- From ‘secular’ to ‘Islamic feminism
2. The question of Feminism in Mernissi’s “The Veil and the Male Elite” 27
- Islamic Feminism in the Arab world
- The complexities of the Arab context
- Engaging Islamic feminist theory through the case of Mernissi
3. Discussion………………………………...……………………………………………… 33
- Islam In the West and the East: Interpretations and Perceptions
- Feminist Reinterpretation of Islam: From Aisha To Mernissi
Conclusion:…………………………………………………...…………………………………… 37
Bibliography:………………………………………………...……………………………………. 41
IV
INTRODUCTION
-“Being frozen into the passive position of an object whose

very existence depends on the eye of its beholder turns the
educated modern Western women into a harem slave.”
– Fatima Mernissi
Morocco's journey toward advancing women's rights can be traced back to the country's
early 30’s century, with the rise of the nationalist movement and the country's struggle for
independence from the French and the Spanish colonial rule. During this period, Moroccan
women began to actively participate in the nationalist movements and advocate for social and
political change.
One prominent figure in the early feminist movement in Morocco was Malika Al-Fassi1, who
played a significant role in advocating for women's education and rights. In the 1940s, she
was the only woman to sign the 1944 Proclamation of Independence 2 of Morocco as well as
her major contribution in providing the right to vote for women In 1955.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the feminist movement in Morocco gained further strength as
women's organizations and activists began to challenge discriminatory laws and patriarchal
norms. They called for legal reforms to address issues such as polygamy, child marriage, and
unequal inheritance rights.
Moving along, The 1980s marked a turning point for feminism in Morocco, as feminist
activism became more organized and vocal. Feminist organizations worked to raise
awareness, provide support services, and push for legal reforms.
Fatima Mernissi as a prominent Moroccan sociologist, feminist theorist, and writer made
significant contributions in developing the Moroccan women situation, employing an
1 Malika El Fassi (1919 – 2007) a Moroccan writer and nationalist.

2 Proclamation of January 11, 1944, is a document in which Moroccan nationalists called for the independence
of Morocco a democratic, constitutional government to guarantee the rights of all segments of society.
1
Islamic-based theory to challenge patriarchal interpretations of Islam advocating for gender

equality within Muslim societies.
Through several of her works, and particularly in the book under examination, ‘The Veil and
the Male Elite:A Feminist Interpretation of Women's Rights in Islam’ 3 The writer emphasizes
the importance of historical analysis in understanding the roots of gender inequality and the
mechanisms through which patriarchal norms and structures have been perpetuated. By
uncovering historical patterns of discrimination and oppression, she sheds light on the systemic
nature of gender-based injustices and highlights the need for transformative change.
As an Islamic feminist, Mernissi was largely concerned with Islam and women's roles,
analyzing the historical development of Islamic thought and its modern manifestations.
Through a detailed investigation of the nature of the succession to the Islamic Prophet
Muhammad, she cast doubt on the validity of some of the hadith4, and therefore the
subordination of women that she sees in Islam, but not necessarily in the Quran.
Furthermore, Under the critical Feminist theory, Mernissi examined the impact of gender
inequality and the dynamics of power within Muslim societies. She critiqued the notion of the
Harem5 as a symbol of female oppression and argued that women's spaces in Islam should be
seen as potentially empowering and supportive, rather than only restrictive. The sociologist
challenged the stereotype of Muslim women as passive victims, instead emphasizing their
agency and resistance within social and cultural constraints.
Fatima Mernissi is considered one of the pioneers of women's work and an activist in human
rights. Thus her active involvement in Moroccan civil society contributed to illuminating its
path of struggle, as her intellectual production was a roadmap for a social revolution of
transitioning without alienating from his Islamic identity. Hence the feminist movement in
Morocco gained significant traction in the early 2000s with the reform of the family code, or
Mudawana6, in 2004 as a result of years of activism and advocacy by Moroccan women's
organizations and feminist groups.
3Veil and the Male Elite - A Feminist Interpretation of Women's Rights in Islam - [By, Fatima Mernissi].pdf
4 Hadith: refers to what most Muslims and the mainstream schools of Islamic thought believe to be a record of
the words, actions, In other words, the ḥadīth are transmitted reports attributed to what Muhammad’s sayings
and traditions attributed to him
5 Harem: refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family
6 Moudawana: the personal status code, also known as the family code, in Moroccan law. It concerns issues
related to the family, including the regulation of marriage, polygamy, divorce, inheritance, and child custody.Its
most recent revision, passed by the Moroccan parliament in 2004, was praised by human rights activists for its
measures to address women's rights and gender equality within an Islamic legal framework.
2
The 2011 Constitution guarantees equal protection and enjoyment of its laws for both men
and women. The country’s progressive Family Law Moudawana secured important rights for
Moroccan women, including the right to self-guardianship, the right to divorce, and the right
to child custody. The legal marriage age changed from 15 to 18 years of age, and women are
no longer required to have a male guardian approve their marriage. The criminal code has
taken strides against acts of gender based violence, cracking down on non-partner sexual
assault and repealing the rape marriage law, which allowed a rapist to evade punishment by
marrying his victim. However, some legislative gaps persist with disparities between the laws
on the books and in practice.
My research is divided into two major parts, as an introductory information to start with,
I conducted a background framework primarily concerned with presenting an overview on
Fatima Mernissi’s early life and influence in Morocco and the Arab world as a second-wave
feminist. Then, I presented a conceptual framework to define Women as a subject in Arabic
literature exploring different perspectives on the political participation of Arab women
throughout history, moving to introducing three major feminist figures in Arab literature and
their feminist theory implementations through their literary works.
The second part provides different insights and perspectives on Mernissi’s works; ‘The Veil
and the Male Elite’ specifically, attempting to engage afterwards the question of Islamic
feminism in Mernissi’s work in order to highlight her impact on the Islamic feminist theory.
Finally, I concluded the paper with a discussion on the interpretations and perceptions
towards Islam in the West and the East examining their historical relationship in shaping the
societal and ideological reality concerning women’s situation
Briefly, this monograph is an attempt to analyze the impact of feminism as an interplay

between history and politics through the work of Fatima Mernissi’s ‘The Veil and the Male
Elite’ in order to emphasize how feminist movements and beliefs inside Muslim nations are
influenced by historical realities like Islamic interpretations in favor of male elite control,
while feminism itself changes the interpretation and understanding of history to promote
gender equality.
3
GENERAL FRAMEWORK
4
1. Background information
Fatima Mernissi is regarded as an influential feminist figure, as she was a renowned

sociologist, scholar, teacher, writer, and public speaker. Mernissi was born in Fez, Morocco, on
September 27, 1940, she was raised in a wealthy paternal grandmother's Harem with a variety
of female relatives and servants. She eventually completed her elementary education at a
nationalist movement-founded school and her secondary education at an all-girls school. She
then studied political science at the Sorbonne in Paris in 1957 and later completed her Doctoral
research at Brandeis University in the US in 1974. Between 1974 and 1981, she resumed her
employment at the Mohammed V University of Literature in Rabat and taught Methodology,
Family sociology, and Psychosociology while she also worked as a research scholar at the
Scientific Research Institute of the same university.
Mernissi is known for her socio-political approaches towards discussing gender and sexual
identities in Morocco and other muslim countries. In the same way, Mernissi was also
involved in politics, advocating for greater democracy and human rights in Morocco, being a
member of the Moroccan Advisory Council on Human Rights and was active in various
political and social organizations, participating in a variety of international sociological
research for UNESCO and ILO.
For instance, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Muslim Society (1975), her first book
that was originally written for her PhD thesis, which recognize the power of Muslim women in
relation to the Islamic religion, has become a classic, especially in the fields of Anthropology
and Sociology on women in the Arab World, the Mediterranean area and Muslim societies in
general. Moreover, In 1984, she contributed the text "The merchant's daughter and the son of
the sultan" to the anthology Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women's Movement
Anthology, edited by Robin Morgan7.
As a sociologist, Mernissi interviewed Moroccan women of different ages, social classes and
backgrounds, presented in her book Morocco Told by Its Women (1983) published and
translated in English as Doing Daily Battle8 both in Britain (1988) and in the USA (1989).
7 "The merchant's daughter and the son of the sultan" to the anthology Sisterhood Is Global: The International
Women's Movement Anthology, edited by Robin Morgan. short essays by women who represent more than 80
countries adopted widely as a course text in women's studies, international affairs, global economics, and
several other disciplines
8 Doing Daily Battle: Interview with Moroccan Women, trans. Mary Jo Lakeland (London: The Women’s
Press, 1988). The book was originally published in under French title ‘Le Maroc raconté par ses femmes’
5
She advocates for women's rights within Islamic societies, highlighting the discrepancies
between the principles of equality in Islam and the subjugation of women in many Muslim-
majority countries. Mernissi emphasizes the importance of education, economic
empowerment, and political participation for Muslim women.
On 30 November 2015, the Moroccan sociologist passed away in Rabat at the age of 75 of
cancer. Mernissi at this point, played a vital role in advocating for women’s empowerment
and gender equality.In the same way, her writings became known worldwide and she was
much sought after as a visiting scholar, participating in numerous international, or national
conferences on issues such as women and Islam, women’s situation in the Muslim world,
development, democracy, civil society building, globalization, North African immigration to
Europe, and literature world.
2. Synopsis of “The Veil and the Male Elite”
“The Veil and The Male Elite '' essay under examination was originally published in 1987 and
later included as a chapter in her book "The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist
Interpretation of Women's Rights in Islam". It is a historical study of the role of the wives of
the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. It was first published in French in 1987 and translated into
English in 1991. The book was subsequently banned in Morocco, Iran, and the Arab states of
the Persian Gulf due to Mernissi's concerns to challenge social and cultural norms portrayed in
the Moroccan and Arab women’s situations, as well as the religious sensitive topics where the
writer explored the intersection of Islam and feminism.
In the book under examination, Mernissi analyzes the concept of the veil and its significance in
Islamic societies, arguing that the veil has been used by the patriarchal system as a tool to
control women and maintain patriarchal power structures. She also explores the historical
context of Islamic societies, tracing the roots of patriarchal attitudes towards women back to
pre-Islamic Arab culture, by contextualizing and historicizing passages of the Quran and the
Hadith, she argued that much of the alleged misogyny of Islamic religious texts was actually
imposed by the men who early on monopolized their interpretation arguing that the Quran
actually supports gender equality and that the oppression of women is not Islamic-based values
but rather a result of cultural interpretations and practices. Furthermore, Mernissi promotes
6
feminist interpretation of Islam that questions and challenges traditional gender roles and gives
women empowerment agency to their own lives and decisions.
She also wrote two more books focused on showing the compatibility of Islam with women’s
rights and their political participation, ‘The Forgotten Queens of Islam and Islam and
Democracy: Fear of the Modern World’. The field of Islamic feminism has continued to grow,
and encompasses the work of writers such as Amina Wadud, Leila Ahmad, Ziba Mir-Hosseini,
Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid, Kecia Ali, Sa’diyya Shaikh and Asmaa Lamrabet.
In short, feminist discourse has been influenced by ‘The Veil and the Male Elite’ in the Arab
and Muslim countries. It is regarded as a ground-breaking piece of work that contradicts the
dominant narrative on women's rights in Islam, and offers a framework for comprehending the
complexity of gender relations in Islamic societies.
7
Part I:
8
1. Historical, political and economic contexts of the writer’s society and era
Fatima Mernissi’s work was deeply influenced by the political and economic contexts as a
Moroccan woman during her lifetime . As Mernissi pointed out herself, she belonged to the
generation of women in Morocco who benefited from the educational policies of the Moroccan
nationalist government against French colonial rule. The house in which she was born was in
the ancient city of Fez, opposite the University of Al-Qarawiyyin, which is considered the
oldest university in the world, and was built by a woman named Fatima Al-Fihri. This social
environment contributed to the early intellectual tendency of Fatima Mernissi, as this university
-as she narrated in one of her dialogues- had 17 gates, which allowed all social groups to enter
the university and attend scientific sessions.
Mernissi grew up in a period of transition, yet women’s rights were a central issue in this
transformation, she grew up in a society that was undergoing significant social and political
changes, as the country moved towards independence in the 50s and 60s when the country was
striving for democracy and modernity, while still holding onto traditional values and beliefs in
which women had limited access to education and job opportunities, and expected to prioritize
their roles as housewives and mothers above. Traditional gender roles were deeply entrenched
in Moroccan society, and women faced significant barrier to full participation in public life
Moreover, the economic situation of Morocco was marked by poverty and inequity. Growing
up, she observed the direct impact of economic hardship and limited resources for women. The
70s witnessed some progress towards gender equality theorization, especially with the
introduction of new laws that granted women advanced legal rights.
However these changes were slow to be fully implemented and women continued to face
inequality within Moroccan society.
1.1 Early influence: Dream of Trespass (Tales of a Harem Girlhood)
9
Dreams of Trespass9 encompasses Fatima's life as a Moroccan young girl. The memoir is told
as a series of musings and recollections rather than a linear narrative. Throughout her
childhood, Fatima was trying to understand mysterious concepts, such as the true meaning of
the word Harem.
The Harem is headed by her father and uncle that she can’t leave without permission. Fatima
then learns that as long as these restrictions continue, she, like her female mentors, will be
unable to pursue her dreams and live a life of happiness and fulfillment. In the second half of
the memoir, the societal changes Fatima’s mother and grandmother have hoped for begin to
occur, as Fatima is allowed to attend a modern school and thrives in her studies, while Fatima’s
older relatives cannot share in her new freedom.
Mernissi has witnessed a time of great political upheaval when French colonists have set up
a camp not far from the Harem gates, where Moroccan nationalists are fighting for
independence and promising equal rights for women. Hence, throughout the events, Fatima is
told by her mother and grandmother that she will grow up to experience many opportunities
they don't have—they hope she will have the ability to travel, receive an education, and work to
break down barriers against women where Fatima herself dreams of a world where men and
women aren’t separated, and “the difference needed no veil”.
The book ends with a reminder that restrictive borders still exist, and Fatima will have to
contend with them as she continues to mature toward adulthood.
Each book of Mernissi contributes to her overall vision of gender equality in Islam, ‘Dreams
of Trespass’ paints a portrait of what is to Western eyes a stereotypical, repressive childhood
within a Muslim context and which allows for some understanding of Mernissi's own
background.
To sum up, Mernissi’s publications and legacy can be seen as a response to the political and
economic context of her era; her view on feminism was rooted in a desire to challenge and
change traditional power structures including the male elite. She argued that these structures
perpetuated patriarchal norms, aiming to create a more just and equitable society for all
Moroccans, especially for women.
1.2 Fatima Mernissi as a Second-wave Feminist
9 Dreams of Trespass: The UK title has been The Harem Within: Tales of a Moroccan Girlhood. It describes
Fatima Mernissi’s fictionalized youth in a Moroccan harem during the 1940s and explores the themes of Islamic
feminism, Arab nationalism, French colonialism and the clash between the traditional and the modern
10
Fatima Mernissi’s work is associated with the second wave feminism which emerged in the
western world in early 60s until late 70s of the 20th century. Identity second-wave feminism
was marked by growing criticism towards traditional gender roles and stereotypical
conceptions of women of the time. This wave is characterized by social reform resulting in
change of laws and social practices aiming to increase democratic economic and social equality
for women and contested the Western Capitalist transformation.
In fact, Mernissi's work, particularly her book ‘Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in a
Muslim Society’, addresses issues related to gender roles and the struggle for women's rights in
Islamic societies. She argues that the oppression of women is not inherent in Islamic teachings
but rather a result of cultural interpretations and practices. Mernissi's feminist approach was
also personally influenced by her experiences as a Moroccan woman living in a society that
was undergoing significant social and political change. She was part of a generation of women
who were advocating for greater rights and freedoms for themselves and for all women where
she brings to light the contributions of women to the economy and acknowledges the roles that
affect how females are viewed within Islamic cultures, influencing the contemporary Muslim
understanding of femininity and politics.
Mernissi had her say on Western feminism and its historical background, thus its present
priorities and neglect of Islamic women liberation history and input. The West had its own
version of the harem, at the core of which is the ontological inferiority of women. This long
passage explains her point, which may appear simplistic for Western feminist scholars in
particular:
“In western culture, sexual inequality is based on belief in women’s biological inferiority. This
explains some aspects of Western women’s liberation movements, such as that they are almost
always led by women, that their effect is often very superficial, and that they have not
succeeded in significantly changing the male-female dynamics in that culture. In Islam there is
no such belief in female inferiority. On the contrary, the whole system is based on the
assumption that the woman is a powerful and dangerous being. All sexual institutions
(polygamy, repudiation, sexual segregation, etc.) can be perceived as a strategy for containing
her power…While the women’s liberation in the West focuses on the woman and her claim for
equality with men, in Muslim countries it would tend to focus on the mode of relatedness
between the sexes and thus would probably be led by men and women alike”.
11
After decades of debate among feminist scholars, there is still a pervasive resistance to serious
engagements between Western and non-Western perspectives on feminism and gender. This is
even more symptomatic when it comes to islamic feminist scholars. In this context, the
examination of the work of Moroccan sociologist Fatima Mernissi results that her “double
critique” to representations of Muslim women in both Orientalist and Moroccan local
authorities’ discourses performs an intersectional approach to gender that is attentive to how it
interplays with class and race, but is also conditioned by cultural encounters. Mernissi’s
attention to East/Orient and West cultural encounters as constitutive of contemporary gender
relations in Arab countries offers a more historically and culturally informed view on the
gender question in Muslim majority societies, and helps to facilitate conversations between
Western and islamic feminists.
While studying in France and the United States, Mernissi was exposed to the second-wave of
feminists, and their thoughts really influenced her, however, she argues that in the Women's
Rebellion, such "Western feminism" should not be exported abroad. Her argument is that the
upper-class, Western, white feminist who led the second wave of feminism in the United
States and France still possesses, despite her "claimed desire to change the system and make
it more egalitarian for women". Still in possession of "the racist and imperialist Western male
distorting drives," so that "when faced with an Arab woman who has similar diplomas,
knowledge, and experience, she unconsciously thinks less of them. For that matter,Mernissi
distinguished Muslim women from the homogenized group of ‘third-world women’ that
Western feminism had created. Mernissi also fought to overcome Western assumptions that
Muslim women were helpless victims of both their religion and the men of their religion.
Western stereotypes ostracized Muslim men who did not fit the white, masculine, hegemonic
mold dominating the first world society, developing racist ideas towards a religion that was
believed to oppress women.
Briefly, Mernissi's work can be seen as part of the larger feminist movement of the 20th
century, taking into account that it also had a distinct focus on the experiences of women in the
Arab and Muslim world.
2. Conceptual framework
12
2.1 Literary review: Women, History and Politics in Arabic Literature
The representation of women in politics has long been a major issue in Arabic literature. Arabic
literature includes a wide variety of literary genres, such as poetry, fiction, and non-fiction
works. Many of these works have tackled concerns of women's political engagement.
One of the earliest examples of Arabic literature that highlights the role of women in politics is
the story of Al-Khansa, a 7th-century poet and warrior who fought alongside her brothers in
battles. Her poetry praised the bravery of her brothers and expressed grief for their loss in war,
highlighting the role of women in the political and military sphere.
Likewise, In Modern Arabic literature, particularly in the context of the Arab Spring uprising
of 201110 numerous female writers addressed and discussed women’s political participation
such as, the Egyptian author Nawal El Saadawi’s in her novel ‘Woman at Point Zero’ that
explores the intersection of gender and politics in Egypt, where she reflecs on the social and
political forces that have contributed to her situation, by telling the story of a woman who is
sentenced to death for killing her abusive sex-work boss, reflecting on the social and political
forces that have contributed to her situation.
2.2 Scheherazade Goes West: Different Cultures, Different Harems
From a critical post-colonial perspective, Edward Said 11 argued that Orientalism12 dates from
the period of European Enlightenment expanding to the political colonization of the Arab
World. Thus examples of early Orientalism can be seen in European paintings and photographs
from the late 19th and the early 20th centuries. To demonstrate, under the framework of the
critical theory of Postmodernism, the Moroccan critic Khalid Amine 13 points out in his lectures
that the so-called ‘Orientalist’ 14 painters conjured exquisite images of rich, bountiful
10 The Arab spring uprising of 2011 was a series of anti-government protests, uprising and armed rebellions
that spread across the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began in Tunisia in response to corruption and economic
stagnation
11 Edward Said (1935-2003) Palestinian professor at Columbia University (New York), one of the foremost
writers in the postcolonial literature and theory, his landmark work ‘Orientalism’ is concerned with the political
and cultural relationship of the West to the East - The Sage Dictionary of Cultural Studies, p.180
12 Orientalism: The study of Western-Eastern relationship, where the founder, Edward said introduced
orientalism as a concept to describe the West's portrayal of The Easts as an apparatus of representation through
which Europe saw the East.
13 Khalid AmineProfessor at Abdelmalek Essaadi University in Tetouan,the founding director of the
International Festival Performing Tangier; and a former director of Tangier's Professional Theatre Festival.
https://www.une.edu/people/khalid-amine
14 Orientalist: The term is used to describe a scholar, artist, writer.. e.i, the western individual who has engaged
in the academic discipline of orientalist studies on the ‘orient’ (the East)
13
landscapes, sensory and erotic delights, and vivid emotions depicting the Arab World as an
exotic and mysterious place of sand, harems and belly dancers, reflecting a long history
of Orientalist fantasies which have continued to permeate our contemporary popular culture.
Whereas in fact, most Europeans had never been to the region we now know as the Middle
East, and male painters were not allowed to enter harems, and so harem paintings were mostly
the result of the artists’ imagination. Hence, It is for this reason that many harem paintings
have almost voyeuristic qualities.
Examining Fatima Mernissi’s book ‘Scheherazade Goes West:Different Cultures, Different
Harems’, we can observe that it frames the history of women as a subject within Arabic
literature, by using a female fictional and historical figure from One Thousand and One
Nights15 , The writer argues against representations in western literature and culture that portray
the history of islamic women as obedient and sexual desire as separate from intelligence,
exploring the cultural differences and misunderstandings between ideas about the Harem in
Eastern and Western traditions; the primary argument of the book is that Westerners have
traditionally misunderstood the nature of the Harem as a seat of female power and knowledge,
and instead have portrayed Harems as places of male sexual fantasies and male domination.
Mernissi examines elements of Arabic and Western culture, art, and history to explore the role
of the harem, making an argument that the harem has always been a place where women resist
domination through intelligence, narrative, and the power of words.
In Western literature, cinema, and art, Harems are portrayed as places where women are
dominated, and where men are able to achieve their wildest sexual fantasies. In contrast,
Mernissi argues that Scheherazade is an entrancing figure in Eastern and Arabic Literature
precisely because she was intelligent and resisted the domination of the Sultan16, rather than
being a submissive woman, whereas the Arabic interpretation of the harem gives men and
women equal power and puts discussion of story and philosophical ideas as an equal subject
with sex and seduction. Moreover, throughout the storyline, Scheherazade is lauded as a
powerful woman who uses her intelligence to have control over politically and economically
more powerful men.
15 One Thousand and One Nights: a collection of Middle Eastern folk tales compiled in Arabic during the
Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as the Arabian Nights, from the first English-language edition
16 Sultan: The title carries religious significance, contrasting the more secular king, which is used in both
Muslim and non-Muslim countries. In the frame-story, is the fictional Persian king who is told stories by his
wife, Scheherazade
14
Overall, Mernissi also highlights the way Western feminists view Muslim women from a
limited and stereotypical perspective; she argues that Western feminists should listen to the
voices of Muslim women and work together with them to promote universal gender equality
and social justice.
2.3 Salwa Bakr on Women and Arabic Literature when “Every day you
would open the window and find a female author writing a new book”
On the one hand, traditional gender roles, societal expectations and conservative attitudes can
influence perceptions of women’s position in public life, including the literary domain. On the
other hand, Salwa Bakr17 criticizes governmental policies and authorities' lack of contribution
on supporting women participation in both literary and political domains. Thus Bakr highlights
the role of social and political activism in advocating for women’s rights and social change, her
works encourage women’s participation in activism in order to challenge existing binaries and
power structures and promote a more inclusive and just society.
Baker is known for her portrayal of women’s oppressed lives and Egypt’s poor social classes
committed to the power of literature to address and change social inequalities. She began by
highlighting the discrepancy between women’s political and social gains over the past century
and the limited roles still reserved for them in literature. She celebrated the broad participation
of women in the 2011 revolution, emphasizing that whether recognized or not, women have
participated in every stage of Egypt’s history.
Bakr overall sees that even though today women are active in politics and work in more
professions than ever, it is socially unacceptable to portray them in any role other than
childbirth or outside of the household, stating that the responsibility for this contradiction lies
across the political spectrum.
The critic suggests that the lack of political support explains the surge of women seeking to
express these contradictions through literature, especially in recent decades. For Bakr, writing
is ultimately an act of social justice. In addition, the deterioration of the women’s situation in
the Arab world according to the Egyptian critic cannot be only attributed to Salafis18, the
Islamic political current, or the Muslim Brotherhood19. She believes that secular and liberal
parties are equally responsible for the lack of progress in improving women's situation in
17 Salwa Bakr (born 1949) Egyptian critic, novelist and author -”When I first started to write, people would
ask me : Who wrote this for you?”-
18 Salafis: a branch of Sunni Islam that developed in the 19th century;
19 Muslim Brotherhood is a transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded in Egypt
15
society. Bakr suggests that these parties have been unable to offer innovative or radical steps to
advance women's rights.
“It’s not just the Salafis, or the Islamic political current, or the Muslim Brotherhood responsible for the
deterioration of the situation of women in the Arab world. Secular, liberal parties are equally unable to
offer new, more advanced or radical steps for improving women’s situation in society.”
This statement highlights Bakr's belief that a comprehensive and transformative approach is
needed, transcending political affiliations, to address the challenges faced by women in the
Arab world.
In Mernissi’s analysis in ‘The Veil and the Male Elite’, she states that much of the present
internal strife over female participation in political discourse originated from a Muslim
society's identity crisis as it strives to come to terms with modernity. She claims that while
the West looks to the present and future, Muslims are fixated on the past, relying on tradition
and, in particular, the perceived certainty of sacred books, for strength in a changing world.
The Hadith emerged as a "formidable political weapon" in times of crisis in Medina during
the early days of Islam. Despite the "science" of Hadith interpretation, she believes the elite
have continued to exploit false Hadith to further their political and economic interests.
This included women's marginalization and the incorporation of pre-Islamic tribal sexism
into Islamic tradition.
In a similar vein, Salwa Bakr views women's writings as a powerful means to articulate the
dilemmas faced by women, particularly in the context of women's political movement. She
emphasizes that women's writings provide a platform to convey the concerns and challenges
experienced by women, particularly those living in poverty in countries like Egypt. Bakr
recognizes the significance of women's voices in shedding light on the specific issues and
struggles faced by marginalized women, offering a unique perspective on their lived
experiences. Through literature and storytelling, the writer believes that women can effectively
communicate their realities and contribute to raising awareness about social and economic
inequalities that affect women in impoverished regions.
Nevertherless, Bakr criticized the representation of women in literature, criticizing both men
and women authors for failing to write good female characters. The writer draws attention to
the common issue of women’s narration and writing style based from a male perspective,
influenced by the literary works created by men throughout history. She argues that female
authors often adopt a male-centric attitude when describing female characters, employing
16
objectifying metaphors comparing her to an apple or a flower for example. Bakr emphasizes
that she on the other hand as a writer perceives women differently, focusing on their intellect
and heroism rather than reducing them to physical attributes or objectifying them. She believes
that this problem extends beyond Arab literature, stating that it is a pervasive issue throughout
the history of world literature. Bakr's statement points out the need for diverse and authentic
representations of women's experiences in literature, challenging the dominant male gaze20 and
providing alternative perspectives that reflect women's own lived realities.
To conclude, it is undeniable that women’s political participation has been throughout history
and still poor up to the present time, however Arabic literature has provided a free space for
women to explore their experiences and perspectives on politics, challenging traditional
patriarchal norms and advocating for better gender equality and social justice. All through
works that continue to inspire and inform discussions about women's political participation and
representation in the Arab world.
3. Major figures of Feminist literature
Arab feminists used literature to fight for gender equality and women's rights by opposing
patriarchal structures and practices that have historically restricted women's roles and
opportunities. Through literature, Arab feminists have long been advocating the importance of
education in empowering women and enabling them to challenge patriarchal structures.
20 Male gaze: In feminist theory, the male gaze is the act of depicting women and the world in the visual arts]
and in literature from a masculine, perspective that presents and represents women as sexual objects for the
pleasure of the male viewer
17
In addition to a variety of literary critics challenging gender stereotypes and cultural norms that
reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations. They have called for a more inclusive and
diverse understanding of gender and sexuality that recognizes the complexity and diversity of
human experiences, shedding light through their literal works into domestic violence, sexual
harassment, and sexual assault.
3.1 The Tent by Miral El-Tahawy
‘The Tent’ is a novel written by Miral Al-Tahawy21 It was first published in Arabic in 1996 and
later translated into English by Anthony Calderbank. The novel explores the lives of a
Bedouin22 family living in the Egyptian desert and is set against a backdrop of political and
social change in Egypt.
The novel presents the situation of female characters whose lives are subject to the will of a
single, often absent, patriarch's foul-mouthed mother and his brutality. The story is told from
the perspective of the protagonist, Hind through her eyes, she describes her childhood in the
tent, her relationships with her family members, and her experiences with the outside world as
she grows older, that includes the lives of the Bedouin and peasant women unfold, revealing
the tragedy of the mother and the intolerable heaviness of existence.
Set against trackless deserts and star-filled night skies, the story tells of the young girl’s
relationship with her distant father and a foreign woman who is well-meaning but ultimately
motivated by self-interest. It provides an intimate glimpse inside the women’s quarters, and
chronicles their pastimes and preoccupations, their stories and their songs. Certainly, the novel
also explores the themes of gender roles, identity, and the tension between tradition and
modernity. Furthermore, one of the central conflicts in the novel is the tension between Hind's
desire for education and her family's expectations for her to conform to traditional gender roles.
Another important aspect of the novel is the depiction of the changing political landscape in
Egypt, particularly the impact of the government's land reform policies on the Bedouin way of
living.
21 Miral Al-Tahawy has been described by the Washington Post as “the first novelist to present Egyptian
Bedouin life beyond stereotypes and to illustrate the crises of Bedouin women and their urge to break free.” She
is the author of The Tent (AUC Press, 2000) and Blue Aubergine (AUC Press, 2002). Anthony Calderbank has
translated several works of modern Arabic fiction, most recently Yousef al-Mohaimeed’s Wolves of the
Crescent Moon (AUC Press, 2007). The Tent - AUCPress
22 Bedouin: Nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula,
North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert and Arabian Desert
but spread across the rest of the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa after the spread of Islam
18
The writer thus has presented to the readers many of the characteristics of that Bedouin society
in its virginity, nobility, and Bedouins as a “man’s” society, in which the woman is submessive
and the man is followed, the first and the last word and the owner of the step, just as she did not
forget to employ a very poetic language, which added a lot to the novel.
‘The Tent’, portrays Bedouin folk songs that were scattered here and there, as well as those
spesific details that depicted an embodied image of the Bedouin personality within the
framework of its Bedouin beliefs and morals, in addition to the rituals that took place during
the marriage ceremony of the sister or father, as a distinguished scholar with his rituals and
customs, the things that shape Bedouin’s women’s unequal and discriminative situations.
Finally, ‘The Tent’ is a thought-provoking and engaging novel that offers a unique perspective
on life in the Egyptian desert and the complexities of cultural and social change.
3.2 Nawal El Saadawi - Woman at Point Zero
‘Woman at Point Zero’ is a novel by Nawal El Saadawi23 written in 1975 and published in
Arabic in 1977. At the end of 1972 Saadawi was removed from her position as the Director of
Health Education and the Editor-in-Chief of Health magazine after the publication of Women
and Sex.
Saadawi visited many women in the cell block and in the mental clinic and was able to conduct
twenty-one in-depth case studies for her 1976 publication, ‘Women and Neurosis in Egypt’24
This research El Saadawi conducted during this period helped to shape and inform her writing
for Woman at Point Zero, allowing her today to construct a rich and believable narrative.
The novel opens when a psychiatrist meets with a female prisoner in Qanatir Prison and is the
first-person account of Firdaus, a murderer who has agreed to tell her life story before her
execution. The novel explores the themes of women and their place within a patriarchal
society.
23 Nawal El Saadawi: Egyptian feminist writer, activist and physician. She wrote numerous books on the
subject of women in Islam, focusing on the practice of female genital mutilation in her society. She was
described as "the Simone de Beauvoir of the Arab World",and as "Egypt's most radical woman"
24 ‘Women and Neurosis in Egypt’ research In association with Ain Shams university’s faculty of medicine,
the research included 20 case studies of various women who lived in prison or prison hospitals Nawal El
Saadawi’s Prison Experiences | Woman At Point Zero
19
As the daughter of a peasant family, Firdaus spent her early years in abject poverty and cruelty.
She is a victim of many different types of violence and oppression, such as child marriage,
genital mutilation, and domestic servitude. As she gets older, she starts working as a sex
worker and is much more taken advantage of and abused by powerful men. Nevertheless,
Firdaus is portrayed as a strong woman who ultimately takes charge of her own life in spite of
the obstacles she faces. Even in the face of her impending execution, she refuses to be a victim
and instead makes the decision to reclaim her agency and autonomy.
To sum up, the book offers a strong critique of capitalism, patriarchy, and how they interact in
the context of Egypt and the larger Middle East. Through Firdaus's story, El Saadawi explores
the complicated ways in which gender, class, and power intersect to shape women's lives while
exposing the oppressive mechanisms that determine society.
3.3 Leila Abouzeid - The Year of The Elephant
‘The Year of the Elephant’ is a novella by the Moroccan author Leila Abouzeid 25, first
published in 1989. The story is set in the early 1950s, during the period of political unrest and
anti-colonial resistance in Morocco.
The novella tells the story of a young Moroccan woman named Zahra, who lives in a small
rural village. Zahra's husband is working in France, and she is left to care for their children and
manage their household on her own. When her husband unexpectedly returns home, Zahra's life
is turned upside down. She must navigate the complex power dynamics between men and
women in Moroccan society, and reconcile her own desires and needs with those of her family
and community.
Through Zahra's story, Abouzeid explores the themes of gender roles, tradition, and modernity
in Moroccan society. She depicts the struggles faced by women who are expected to conform
to strict societal norms, but who also long for independence and self-determination. The
novella also examines the impact of colonialism on Moroccan society, and the tensions that
arise as the country struggles to assert its own identity in the face of external pressures.
25 Leila Abouzeid born in 1950, in El Ksiba, a Moroccan author. She writes in Arabic language and is the first
Moroccan woman writer of literature to have her works published in English-language translation.
20
Finally, ‘The Year of the Elephant’ is a work of literature that offers a complex portrayal of
Moroccan society and its struggles for political and social change.
In conclusion, Arab feminists have opposed patriarchal institutions and practices that have
historically limited women's roles and possibilities in the fight for gender equality and women's
rights. Arab feminists have long argued through literature the value of education in
empowering women and giving them the tools to oppose patriarchal structures. Various literary
critics have also questioned cultural conventions that uphold traditional gender roles and
expectations as well as gender stereotypes. They have demanded that gender and sexuality be
understood in a way that acknowledges the complexity and diversity of human experiences and
is more inclusive and diverse.Through their actual works, the artists have shed light on sexual
assault, harassment, and domestic violence.
21
Part II:
22
1. Insights and Perspectives: Exploring Fatima Mernissi’s works
While Fatima Mernissi’s work has been widely celebrated and influential, it has also faced
some criticisms based on general observations and discussions surrounding her work that
reflect different perspectives and critiques and help foster understanding of her contributions to
Islamic feminism and gender studies as well as the ongoing debates within feminist discourse.
1.1 ‘The Veil and the Male Elite’ as an alternative interpretation of Women in
Islam
In Lev Daniel. S26 review27 of ‘The Veil and the Male Elite’, he asserts that Fatima Mernissi’s
book is an “impressive exercise in reform exegesis28”, claiming that Mernissi provides an
interesting alternative interpretation of Islamic laws.
Lev describes Mernissi’s ‘The Veil and the Male Elite’ as not only a sociology, but an
impressive exercise in reform exegesis, a deceptively readable study, short and hard to put
down, yet sophisticated and complex. In it Mernissi lays down a serious challenge to religious
leaders and teachers who for thirteen centuries, she contends have violated the spirit of
Muhammad’s revelation29 to preserve the miseries of a pre-Islamic age that he tried to
extinguish. Thus Mernissi in this context has asserted her own right to construe the intentions
of the Prophet. In Islam, not only were women given the right to inherit, implying
independence, but Muhammad’s revelation he received fairly consistently favored their
freedom to engage politically no less than men. However, during the crucial early years of his
exile in the Medina30 ,other acts and revelations apparently slid back. Among them is the source
of the veil, which Mernissi makes the central metaphor of her essay as the curtain- Hijab means
both veil and curtain- behind which women were confined to a private existence shorn of
public responsibility.
26 Lev Daniel. S (October 23, 1933 – July 29, 2006) was an American political scientist and scholar on
Indonesia
27 Lev, Daniel S. Review of The Veil and the Male Elite, by Fatima Mernissi. Women and Politics 12, no. 1
Fatima Mernissi Criticism - Essay - eNotes.com
28 Exegesis: Critical explanation or interpretation of scripture (the sacred writings of holy religious books)
29 Revelation: In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or
knowledge through communication with a supernatural entity, in the islamic context it is the first encounter and
awareness with islamic religion and the prophet’s message and mission to deliver god’s message
30 By 622, Muhammad had emigrated to Medina, then known as Yathrib
23
Only by explaining these contradictions as deviations from the Prophet’s intent can one make
an argument for emancipation without rejecting the faith.
According to Lev, Mernissi’s illumination of the issues is bright enough to assure her book at
least as Daniel Lev terms it; a mild storm of debate. The analysis gathers legitimacy from her
method, which is the standard one of Islamic interpretation, focusing not only upon the Quran
but also the exemplary behavior and words of Muhammad known as Sunnah31 related by those
close to him. The rules for establishing the validity of these reports, hadith, require careful
assessment of their credibility, which Mernissi undertakes to compelling effect. Questioning
the sources of Hadith that have been used to oppress women, therefore in order to create a
vision of women as fully realized participants in public life, Mernissi simultaneously reveals
the spirit behind the mainstream tradition and fashions an alternative account of Muhammad's
ideas, which is supported by well-known hadith about his behavior and that of his wives,
particularly 'A'isha and Salama, and of later figures.
For the writer, what makes this book more than a persuasive polemic is the scope of Mernissi's
ambition, not simply to establish the right of Islamic women to human completeness, but as
well to encourage all Muslims to deal with a morally exhausting burden of historical crust.
Finally, Menissi’s book, part of a growing reform literature in Islam, will not convince those
who are committed to the received tradition, for reasons she herself makes clear. But many who
are troubled by the outcome of Mohammad's mission will be grateful for Mernissi's
formulation of a persuasive alternative.
1.2 From ‘secular’ to ‘Islamic feminism
‘Secular and Islamic Feminist Critiques in the Work of Fatima Mernissi’ 32 by Raja Rhouni
presents a detailed critical analysis of the work of Fatima Mernissi. This work discusses
Mernissi’s intellectual trajectory from ‘secular33’ to ‘Islamic feminism’ in order to trace the
evolution of so-called Islamic feminist theory. The book also engages critically with the work
of other Muslim feminists, using frameworks and approaches developed in the works of
31 Sunnah: A habitual practice and one of the major sources of Sharīʿah, or Islamic law. The body of
traditional social and legal custom and practice of the Islamic community
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunnah
32 Series: Women and Gender: The Middle East and the Islamic World, Volume: 9 Author: Raja Rhouni edited
by Margot Badran, Valentine Moghadam https://brill.com/display/title/15825
33 Secular: The state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion
24
Muslim reformist thinkers, namely Mohammad Arkoun and Nasr Abu Zaid, with the aim of
engaging the theorization of this emerging feminism.
Additionally, through Rhouni's experience, she expresses her deep connection with the writings
of Fatima Mernissi, a prominent feminist scholar exploring the intersections of Islam and
gender. As a young educated woman navigating a society in transition, Rhouni found herself
drawn to Mernissi's book ‘Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim
Society’. In this powerful work, Mernissi fearlessly critiques the pervasive gender.
discrimination within Islam, which resonated with Rhouni's own experiences of encountering
gender-biased and discriminatory laws during her Islamic education classes.
The realization of her secondary status as a woman in an islamic society in matters of
inheritance and witness-giving sharia34 based laws left a profound impact on her as a religious
teenager.
Continuing her academic journey as a postgraduate student, the writer looked deeper into
Mernissi's writings, particularly the book under examination ‘The Political Harem: The
Prophet and Women’ published in English in 1991 as ‘The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist
Interpretation of Women’s Rights in Islam’, which presented a new perspective on Islam as a
religion advocating gender equality. However, this notion was faced by deep-rooted cultural
misogyny and male political interests. Rhouni confesses that these ideas somehow ‘shook her
secularist convictions’, leading her to reevaluate her position.
In short, through Rhouni's narrative, we witness her personal and intellectual evolution as she
encounters the complex interplay between religion, feminism, and societal norms. Mernissi's
writings serve as an inspiration for Rhouni's critical thinking, arousing a transformative process
that prompts her to question and reassess her beliefs in pursuit of a more inclusive and just
future.
As with Mats Svensson, he wrote in 1993/94 a concluding essay in ‘Islamology on ‘feminist’
reinterpretations of Islam’, where he noticed a difference between Mernissi’s writings on
Islam and women in ‘Beyond the Veil’ and the latter ‘The Veil and the Make Elite’. The change
was evident, for example in her presentation of al-jhilıya35 . While changes brought about by
34 Sharia: is a body of Sunni religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the
religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia
35 al-jahilıya: It usually refers to the so-called Age of Ignorance, the period of time and state of affairs in
Arabia before the advent of Islam in 610 CE Jahiliyyah - Wikipedia
25
Islam were evaluated negatively in relation to the women's situation in al-jahilıya in “Beyond
the Veil”, the reverse was the case in the last book. He connected this change to what others
had noted as a wider trend among feminist activists in the Muslim world during the 1980s. In
order to partly legitimize their activity, and to partly mobilize wider social support, feminists
who earlier had taken an indifferent or even polemic position in relation to the religious
tradition, had increasingly begun to actively make positive use of Islamic normative material.
To clarify, Svensson's observation sheds light on the evolution of feminist discourse within the
Muslim world where they partially legitimize their activities and mobilize broader social
support, the tactical shifts undertaken by feminist activists as a response to the sociopolitical
contexts of the time.
This approach allowed them to navigate and challenge patriarchal norms from within the
framework of Islam, thereby making their arguments more accessible and acceptable to a wider
audience. It reflects the complex and nuanced approach taken by many scholars and advocates
who seek to reconcile gender equality with religious traditions, working towards a more
inclusive and equitable future within the framework of Islam.
26
2. The question of Feminism in Mernissi’s “The Veil and the Male Elite”
2.1 Islamic Feminism in the Arab world
Islamic feminism is a form of feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam. It aims for
the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life. Although
rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular, Western, or otherwise non-
Muslim feminist discourses, and have recognized the role of Islamic feminism as part of an
integrated global feminist movement. Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the
teachings of equality in the religion, and encourage a questioning of patriarchal interpretations
of Islam by reinterpreting the Quran and hadith, as a matter of fact, Islamic feminists advocate
women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework, arguing
that Islam, as a religion, promotes justice, equality, and the dignity of all individuals, including
women. They believe that many traditional interpretations of Islamic texts and teachings have
been influenced by cultural biases and patriarchal systems, iIslamic feminists also advocate for
reforms within family laws to address issues like polygamy, divorce, child custody, and
domestic violence. They emphasize the importance of women's agency, autonomy, and the
right to make choices within the framework of Islamic principles.these sources in a way that
upholds women's rights and gender equality.
Islam and feminism have an association dating back to the 1890s. At that time, Egypt was an
important pioneering site of feminism in the Muslim world, where what would later be
recognized as a "feminist consciousness" arose in the context of encounters with modernity.
Muslim women and men used Islamic reformist arguments to break the linkage of Islam with
repressive practices imposed in the name of religion. This paved the way for changes in
women's lives and in the relations between sexes. Soon feminism became enmeshed in the
rising discourse of secular nationalism which called for equal rights of all Egyptians, be they
Muslim or Christian, in a free and independent nation.
Although research and general observation indicate that the term "Islamic feminism" is coming
into increasing use, its circulation is still limited and both the term and the idea remain
controversial. It is also important to make a distinction therefore between Islamic feminism as a
27
discourse, a mode of gender analysis, or an ideology, and Islamic feminist as an identity. Most
of those who participate in the shaping of what can be viewed as "Islamic feminism" do not
claim an Islamic feminist identity. There are indications, however, that there is some movement
towards explicit acknowledgement of Islamic feminism. The shapers of Islamic feminism
include the following three groups: those who are more fully oriented towards Islam
(sometimes called "committed Muslims"), secular feminists, and former leftists.
Islamic feminism is manifested both as a global or universalist core set of ideas and as specific
local forms of activism with their own particular needs and priorities. However, Secular
feminism and Islamic feminism are two distinct approaches to advocating for women's rights
and gender equality.
Secular feminism emphasizes the separation of religion from the political, legal, and social
spheres in the pursuit of gender equality. It is rooted in the belief that women's rights should
not be restricted or defined by religious doctrines or interpretations. It calls for equal rights in
the public sphere but complimentary rights in the private sphere. Concerning the public sphere,
Islamic feminists argue that women may be heads of state and Imams36, a claim that secular
feminists never advanced. In the private sphere, Islamic feminists are challenging the
conventional notion of male authority over females in marriage and the family. Islamic
feminists also call upon all Muslims, including men, to live by the egalitarianism of Islam,
something secular feminism side-stepped.
It is important to note that some feminists may identify with both secular and Islamic feminism,
drawing on elements from each approach in their advocacy work, the key difference lies in the
framework and approach they prioritize in addressing gender equality and women's rights.
2.2 The complexities of the Arab Context
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Feminism emerged within Arab societies through
different eras and contexts, where it primary witnessed women’s participation in intellectual
movements particularly in Lebanon and Egypt, along with the emergence of different social
and feminist intellectual movement, and the post- independence era during mid 20th century
where nationalist movements brought attention to issues of gender equality and women’s
rights. Therefore, Arab societies received feminism as an ideology with different attitudes and
36 Imams: is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a
worship leader of a mosque
28
complex vision due to several factors that shape societal perceptions and ideologies. Based on
generational divide in attitudes toward feminism, younger generations of that time tended to be
more receptive to feminist ideas, However, older generations functioned as ‘conservative
resistance’ who may hold more traditional views that perceived feminism as a challenge to
establish gender roles and societal norms. Moreover, colonial impact on MENA region 37
portrayed here as Arab societies, is plays a significant role introducing western ideas about
women’s right and feminism as a whole, which some viewed it as a form of cultural
imperialism, this lead to a complex relationship between feminism and right-wing national
movements whose views emphasized the importance of maintaining traditional family
structures, that strongly opposed feminist ideas and viewed feminism as a threat to those
values, being incompatible with religious or cultural values.
Furthermore, the word feminism might be seen, and is still viewed, as an ‘import’ of the West.
Many Arab societies have dismissed the concept as a Western tool to influence, or more
cynically control the region. Therefore it has been perceived as a scheme to destabilize the
social fabric and norms.
The way in which feminists in the Arab world have campaigned for their cause may have
contributed to this negative perception. To clarify, Feminists have often painted a ‘reversed
scenario’ to show how men would not accept such injustices that women suffer; yet men in the
regions have inadvertently perceived this narrative in a literal sense, leading to the false belief
that feminists aim to literally reverse the social order. Other extreme feminist views may have
increased the negative perception of the movement.
For other feminists and activists, such views are internalizing the same Orientalist narrative the
right-wing movements criticize, failing to recognise that feminism in the Arab world emerged
hand in hand with anti-colonial and national movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. To
reduce feminism in the Arab world to a Western export is inaccurate at best, and cynical at
worst.
To summarize, It is important to note that the development of feminism in the Arab world was
and is still not a linear progression, its progress is characterized with the interplay of cultural,
religious, and political factors that continues to shape the feminist discourse and activism in the
region.
37 MENA region: The Middle East and North Africa, the region covers the area extending from the atlantic
coast of Africa to the borders of Pakistan and Afghanistan in Central Asia and from the Mediterranean littoral to
the southern boundaries of the Sahara Desert
Achieving Growth and Stability in the Middle East and North Africa
29
2.3 Engaging Islamic feminist theory through Mernissi’s works
As an Islamic feminist, Mernissi was largely concerned with Islam and women's roles,
analyzing the historical development of Islamic thought and its modern manifestations.
Mernissi’s work explores the relationship between sexual ideology, gender identity,
sociopolitical organization, and the status of women in Islam; her special focus, however, is
Moroccan society and culture.
As a feminist, her work represents an attempt to undermine the ideological and political
systems that silence and oppress Muslim women. She does this in two ways, first, by
challenging the dominant Muslim male discourse concerning women and their sexuality, and
second, by providing the “silent” woman with a “voice” to tell her own story. Her book Doing
Daily Battle (1989) is a collection of annotated interviews with Moroccan women who present
a lucid account of the painful reality of their lives as they struggle against poverty, illiteracy,
and sexual oppression. Mernissi also analyzes Islamic sexual ideology as predicated on a belief
in women’s inherent sexual power which, if left uncontrolled, would wreak damage on the
male-defined social order; hence the necessity to control women’s sexuality and to safeguard
Muslim society through veiling, segregation, and the legal subordination of women. Mernissi’s
work explores the impact of this historically constituted ideological system on the construction
of gender and the organization of domestic and political life in Muslim society today. Her
book, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World (1992), is an impassioned plea for
Muslims to reclaim the best of their tradition and to cast off their fear of the West. This can
only be accomplished, she maintains, through a radical overhaul of the political, ideological,
and social structures that have for generations conspired to deny the majority of Muslims, men
and women alike, the modern benefits of equality, democracy, literacy, and economic security.
In 2001, Mernissi published her book Scheherazade Goes West, to link popular culture with
ideas of gender equality. Looking at the story of Scheherazade, who used her intellect to live
in the palace of a murderous king, Mernissi says that a lesson can be learned from her plight
and her response to it. Rather than sitting idly back, she urges women to use their strengths
and intelligence to take action. Because "the basis of misogyny in Islam is actually quite
weak, resting only on the distribution of space, " Mernissi asks women to use their
intelligence, just as Scheherazade did to stay alive, to take agency back for themselves in the
public sphere. Thus, here she not only incorporates elements of Islamic feminism into her
30
argument but also incorporates elements of popular Arab culture, where she more clearly
situated the context of her feminism. Just as working in Islam makes her arguments for
gender equality more familiar to Muslims, she also argues that working in a popular Arab
context might be more accessible to Arabic audiences. Therefore, Mernissi's developing
determination to situate her work in a context that could be understood in her homeland of
Morocco in particular, but in Muslim countries in general, can be seen through her
developing methodology.
From the writing of her first book, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim
Society (1975) Mernissi has sought to reclaim the ideological discourse on women and
sexuality from the stranglehold of patriarchy. She critically examines the classical corpus of
religious-juristic texts, including the hadith, and reinterprets them from a feminist perspective.
In her view, the Muslim ideal of the “silent, passive, obedient woman” has nothing to do with
the authentic message of Islam. Rather, it is a construction of the Ulama38‘, the male jurists-
theologians who manipulated and distorted the religious texts in order to preserve the
patriarchal system.
Mernissi’s work continues to challenge the traditional Muslim discourse on gender and the
status of women. The Veil and the Male Elite can be seen as a study case in which she
employed the Islamic feminist theory, the writer critically examines the historical context of
Muslim law and tradition and argues that the original message of the Prophet Muhammad,
which called for equality between the sexes, has been misrepresented by later political leaders
and religious scholars. Turning her attention to the Arab world today, Mernissi situates the
“woman question” within a more inclusive framework that links it to problems of political
legitimacy, social stagnation, and the absence of democracy.
In point of fact, Mernissi’s feminist reading of Islamic texts is demonstrated through a detailed
investigation of the nature of the succession to Muhammad, she cast doubt on the validity of
some of the hadith, and therefore the subordination of women that she sees in Islam, but not
necessarily in the Quran. Mernissi examines the hadith and the Quran utilizing traditional
Islamic science as well as current sociological methodologies, based on her functional
background, to arrive at some interesting and significant findings. Her usage of the former, in
particular, is likely an attempt to appeal to a wide range of people, including observant
Muslims who may otherwise reject her ideas. Her interpretations and analyses of these sources
are frequently clear and enlightening. Her sources, on the other hand, may have been broader.
38 Ulama: Muslim scholars who are recognized as having specialist knowledge of Islamic sacred law and
theology.
31
In the ongoing arguments against female equality, Merissi cites two hadith in particular as
crucial weapons in the masculine armory. "Those who commit their affairs to women will
never know success," says the first, which was originally conveyed by a Companion named
Abu Bakr. The second, started by Abu Hurayra, puts women in the same polluting category
as animals and keeps them out of sacred areas. It was necessary to refer to such hadiths for
scientific questions because they are part of the Islamic tradition and religious heritage.
Indeed, this behavior will not be welcomed by most intellectuals, as previously mentioned.
But Mernissi, who adopted a new systematic system, dismantled the traditions to rebuild a
new conception of religion.
Mernissi then goes on to look at the creation of the misogynist tradition, which certified such
hadith and enabled them to remain in circulation. She asserted that such a tradition was not
the Prophet Muhammad's initial desire, but rather the product of internal and foreign
influences operating on Islam in the early days of the community in Medina. She claims that
Muhammad never meant for the veil to be worn and felt upon women both literally and
metaphorically, to separate them from both the divine and from public life. Indeed, while
studying Muhammad's biography and his relationship with his women, Mernissi observes
that the Prophet originally included his wives in both public speech and public space,
Furthermore, with discoveries about women's rights to inheritance, Mohammad tried to break
with a sexist tribal past in which women were nothing more than belongings, pointing out
that several verses in the Quran affirms the equality of all believers, male and female, before
God, so affirming their individual sovereignty.
To conclude, Fatima Mernissi's impact on Islamic feminism lies in her efforts to reconcile
Islam with women's rights, challenging patriarchal interpretations, and promoting gender
equality within the Muslim context. Her writings and activism continue to inspire and shape the
discourse surrounding feminism, Islam, and gender justice in contemporary Muslim societies.
32
3. Discussion
Throughout our research, we revealed several important findings that contribute to our
understanding of Feminism as an Interplay between History and Politics, It has explored and
analyzed the notion of Feminism with the aim of analyzing Islam’s historical contexts in
shaping the societal and political situation of women in muslim majority countries. Through an
extensive review and careful consideration of various perspectives, this thesis has provided
valuable insights and contributed to the existing body of knowledge in the field.
3.1 Islam In the West and the East: Interpretations and Perceptions
Firstly, our findings demonstrated a significant standpoint where Mernissi begins by making a
comparative assessment of women in the western and the Arab world, and comes to the
conclusion that at both places, the position of women is clearly inferior and subordinate to men.
At the same time, she points out the social, cultural and intellectual basis of gender inequalities
is different in both civilizations. In the west, she argues, gender inequality, which she terms,
“sexual inequality‟, is based on the assumption of women‟s biological weakness. A woman, in
the western world, is perceived to be inferior to men, both physically and mentally. In the
Islamic world, gender inequalities do not emerge from a belief in their weakness, but, quite the
contrary, in their power, and dangerous potential. Sexual segregation should, she suggests, be
seen as a strategy for containing the power and potential of women. Throughout, Mernissi is
addressing several audiences simultaneously, alternately blaming and praising Arab readers,
then Muslims and then western readers.
Through our examination, the research indicated that one of the most courageous efforts of
Fatima Mernissi has been to challenge the Sunni interpretations of Islam. In reinterpreting
Islam, she begins by offering a very radical, and indeed, unconventional, view of Islam, she
says, is “a set of psychological devices about self-empowerment and making oneself at home
everywhere around the globe, in unfamiliar as well as familiar surroundings.” Mernissi argues
that when the Arab countries were defeated by the west, the colonizers used all the available
means to persuade the vanquished Arabs of their inferior, even primitive status, and related
their alleged inferiority to their religious beliefs. In the orientalist discourse, Muslims were seen
33
as promiscuous, and their women, victims of male oppression. The western colonizers took up
the issue of women’s degraded condition in Arab society as a rhetorical tool for legitimating
imperial domination. In doing so, they not only challenged the Arab culture, but also their faith,
locating in Islam the reasons for the “intolerable” condition of women in the Islamic world.
Mernissi clearly locates the prevalent stereotypical perceptions of Islam in the orientalist
writings, and seeks to deconstruct that discourse, to recover Islam within a sensitive, human
context, sensitive to the concerns of women, and seeking to create a society based on gender
equality.
Comparably, The Battle of the Camel 39, a battle fought between the Caliph40 Ali41 on one side
and the rebel army led by Aisha 42. The misogyny here is that Muslim male scholars’
conclusions of the battle were very problematic as they decided that women are not supposed to
be leading nations because Aisha lost the battle, thus women were incompetent and incapable.
Neglecting men’s destruction in fights, they generalized destruction and incapability to all
women.
Overall, the results demonstrate a clear relationship between the Male Elite dominance and the
colonial dominance through history. These findings support the hypothesis that dominance
effects on societies and politics and suggests that the condition of both women’s oppressed
situation in muslim societies and Eastern world’s oppressed history under the western
colonization are historically based and still because of interpretation in favor of the stronger.
3.2 Feminist Reinterpretation of Islam: From Aisha To Mernissi
Going back to Aisha’s time, she rebutted to men who were spreading false Hadiths about the
Prophet Muhammad, namely Abu Hurayrah43 who used to attribute misogynistic hadiths to
the Prophet; she corrected his hadiths so much that a 14th century male scholar named Al-
Zarkashi44 wrote a book "The Corrective: ʿĀ’isha’s Rectification of the Companions'
39 The Battle of the Camel, also known as the Battle of Jamel or the Battle of Basra, took place outside of
Basra, Iraq, in 36 AH (656 CE).
40 Caliph: an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph
41 Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad
42 Aisha: Prophet Muhammad's third and youngest wife, his widow in this context
43 Abu Hurayrah: one of the companions of Islamic prophet Muhammad and, according to Sunni Islam, the
most prolific narrator of hadith.
44 Al-Zarkashi specialized in the fields of law, hadith, history and Shafi'i legal jurisprudence (fiqh).
34
concerning the objections to Hadiths that were being attributed to the Prophet and she calls
these men out for spreading those lies.
Mernissi advocates for dialogue and reform within Islamic societies to address gender
inequalities. She believes that change could be achieved through open discussions, education,
and collective action. Mernissi also calls for the inclusion of women's voices in decision-
making processes, both within religious institutions and broader social and political spaces.
And most importantly, she emphasizes the need to critically engage with Islamic texts,
including the Quran and Hadith, in order to challenge the prevailing patriarchal
interpretations. With this in mind, the Moroccan writer argues that many traditional
interpretations were influenced by cultural biases rather than the true message of Islam. For
Mernissi, Islam provided a foundation for gender justice and called for a reevaluation of
social, legal, and cultural practices that discriminated against women. Hence she encouraged
Muslim women to reclaim their rights and agency within an Islamic framework by
reinterpreting religious texts in a manner that promoted gender equality.
Furthermore, female leadership is a very important theme in this book. She begins the whole
book with a reference to the Hadith, which supposedly says that any nation that allows a
woman to lead it is doomed and will never succeed. Fatima Mernissi in her book, seeks to
highlight the contribution of wars and crisis which faced the religious societies in changing
interpretations of religious texts, the muslim readers adopted religious symbols and employed
them in a template that serves personal interests, giving example of The Battle of the Camel,
Abu Bakra45, the guy who narrated the hadith suddenly and conveniently remembered this
hadith during the battle of the camel, in a moment when the community was tearing apart
because people had to make a decision about whether to support Aisha or Ali so this was
literally a crisis, a civil war, a fitna46, Muslim history calls it. It’s a very politically opportune
moment for him to invoke this Hadith
Tabari47, one of the sources of Mernissi’s, and several other male scholars historically, have
rejected this hadith completely, due to its unpopularity in the Prophet’s time.
45 Abu Bakra was the half brother of Nafi ibn al-Harith.He is known for his dispute with another Islamic
general al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba during a military expedition.
46 is an Arabic word with extensive connotations of trial, affliction, or distress. Although it is a word with
important historical implications, it is also widely used in modern Arabic without the underlying historical
connotations.
47 Tabari was a Muslim historian and scholar from Amol, Tabaristan. Among the most prominent figures of the
Islamic Golden Age, al-Tabari is known for his historical works and his expertise in Qur'anic exegesis (tafsir),
35
36
Conclusion
What makes ‘The Veil and The Male Elite’ a special book out of her rich collection of
works, is that it takes a completely different approach to gender equality. The book is about
the evolution of the Muslim woman, from Muhammad’s time to what we witness today with
the kind of sexism and patriarchy and misogyny that is institutionalized. And she suggests
that we, Muslim women, continue to put pressure on the patriarchy and fight for equality and
justice. Focusing on the sacred texts of Islam, especially the Hadith and the history of early
Islam, is what makes the author unique, However, this rhetorical shift does not mean that
Mernissi is abandoning her belief in the power of feminism and male fear of social change.
Instead, Mernissi argues, citing the beliefs of some fundamentalists about the perfection of
early Islam in the time of the Prophet.
She states that the statements made by fundamentalists about the social structure of the time
as well as the Prophet's intentions are falsely based.
This choice of paying close attention to the Prophet can be linked to Mernissi's background.
Having been educated at the Qur'anic school48 and experiencing negative, traditional, and
patriarchal interpretations of Islam in her early life, Mernissi seems to have felt the need to
find a way of Islam that she could agree with. The Prophet drew that attention not only
because of his important position as the founder of the religion but also because of the
existence of textual documents on his belief in gender equality. Although some Hadith he
48 Qur’anic school: (Arab. kuttāb) is a neighborhood institution in a town or village, often connected with a
mosque, in which Muslim boys and girls between the ages of four and 14 acquire familiarity with the Qurʾān
37
seems to show little faith in women's rights concerning women’s position in that specific
period and era, the need for a definite center for Mernissi's argument, and the direct impact of
her early negative experiences of Islam on her style in The Veil and the Male Elite she
published Islam and Democracy, a book focusing once again on fear as a factor that shapes
Muslim society. However, unlike in this book, Beyond the Veil, Mernissi argues that these
fears and the resulting actions directly conflict with Islam. The three main tears she mentions
are the fear of the foreign West, the fear of the Imam, and the fear of democracy. These fears
have combined to allow patriarchal practices to continue and have hampered the ability of
contemporary Muslims to look at the Quran and Hadith with fresh eyes for a more equal and
unbiased interpretation .
From a practical standpoint, the research findings indeed have implications concerning the
social and political tools to empower Arab women and specially Moroccan ones as they share
the same living conditions being a subject in a islamic-based ideologies and laws for most
cases. Undoubtly, while social realities must be considered by legislators, the law has an
educational function and sets norms for what society thinks is right and what’s wrong.
Patriarchal gender relations are ripe to be addressed through this function of legal reform and
must be addressed collectively by the government, the judiciary, local leaders, the media,
civil society, and educators. Failure to do so hinders the law from affecting meaningful
change. Without addressing the social and cultural barriers that keep women from seeking
judicial remedies, even transformative legal reforms will not be sufficient to empower
women. Implementing a program on legal literacy could have substantial benefits regarding
women’s legal and social empowerment.
With all being said, Mernissi, as a longtime feminist theorist, believed that the paths to
female empowerment lay in their fight against humiliating gender norms within religious and
38
cultural axioms, and their resistance to all forms of oppression. The sociologist chose to fight
from within the Islamic cultural system, burrowed into the islamic heritage’s memory to
reestablish respect for Arab women, believing that the islam grants women their rights.
Mernissi read the Islamic heritage without any ideological subjectification towards islam:
rather, the Moroccan author returned to religious references with the assistance off
enlightened moroccan juries in order to study and interpret works as they are described by
Fatima Mernissi ‘difficult for a moderate Muslim’
In closing, by understanding this interplay, we gain valuable insights into the progress
made in the struggle for gender equality and recognize the ongoing work that remains.
Ultimately, a nuanced understanding of the relationship between feminism and history helps
us foster social change, inspire future generations, and create a more inclusive and equitable
society.
39
40
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Mernissi]
https://www.academia.edu/30969452/
Veil_and_the_Male_Elite_A_Feminist_Interpretation_of_Womens_Rights_in_Islam_By_Fat
ima_Mernissi_pdf
About Mernissi, Fields of Activity: Fieldwork and Writings, Fatema Mernissi: Sociologist,
Writer, Feminist Magazine
https://fatemamernissi.com/
Philosophy and Religion: Fatema Mernissi: The Pride of Islamic Feminism in Modern Times,
Mohammed Hashas 30 November 2015
Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood, Study Guide

https://www.supersummary.com/dreams-of-trespass/summary/
Future Center: For advanced research & studies: Arab Feminism: Controversy in the Face of
Social Reform
By Rabha Saif Allam 28 November 2022
AL- Fanar Media: The Legacy of Fatema Mernissi, Moroccan Feminist and Scholar
By Ursula Lindsey January 21, 2016
Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women’s Movement Anthology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisterhood_Is_Global
ARABLIT & ARABLIT QUARTERLY: A magazine of Arabic literature in translation

Salwa Bakr on ‘Women and Arabic Literature’
By Elisabeth Jaquette
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Booth, Marilyn. “Back to Basics?” Women's Review of Books 9, no. 3 (December 1991): 21-
2.
Lev, Daniel S. Review of The Veil and the Male Elite, by Fatima Mernissi. Women and
Politics 12, no. 1 (1992): 79-81.
https://www.enotes.com/topics/fatima-mernissi/critical-essays/criticism
BRILL: Women and Gender: The Middle East and the Islamic
WorldSecular and Islamic Feminist Critiques in the Work of Fatima Mernissi
Series: Women and Gender: The Middle East and the Islamic World, Volume: 9
By Raja Rhouni, 2010
Arab Center Washington DC: The Colonial Legacy in the Arab World: Health, Education,
and Politics
Yara M.Asi Nov 9,2022
Wilson Center Event: Exploring Islamic Feminism
with Margot Badran, Visiting Research Professor, Center for Muslim-Christian

Understanding, Georgetown University Wednesday
Nov. 29, 2000 10:00pm – 10:00pm ET
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/exploring-islamic-feminism
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By Leila Hanafi and Dannielle Hites October 12,2017
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battle-basra-battle-camel
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43

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Dahab Serroukh, Department of English Language and Literature.

UAE, Faculty of Letters and Humanities, Martil

Faculty of Letters and Humanities

Feminism as an interplay between history and politics:

Monograph submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature at Abdelmalek

To my inspirations, my mother and father,

To my brother Tarik whom i missed the most,

To my love and the one I was created to love, Jihadi

To my beloved city Larache,

To my fellow friend Mariam Ahdad,

I dedicate this humble work...

3. Major figures of Feminist Arabic literature………………………...……………… 18

-“Being frozen into the passive position of an object whose

1 Malika El Fassi (1919 – 2007) a Moroccan writer and nationalist.

Islamic-based theory to challenge patriarchal interpretations of Islam advocating for gender

Briefly, this monograph is an attempt to analyze the impact of feminism as an interplay

Fatima Mernissi is regarded as an influential feminist figure, as she was a renowned

2. Synopsis of “The Veil and the Male Elite”

1.1 Early influence: Dream of Trespass (Tales of a Harem Girlhood)

1.2 Fatima Mernissi as a Second-wave Feminist

2.1 Literary review: Women, History and Politics in Arabic Literature

2.2 Scheherazade Goes West: Different Cultures, Different Harems

3. Major figures of Feminist literature

3.1 The Tent by Miral El-Tahawy

3.2 Nawal El Saadawi - Woman at Point Zero

3.3 Leila Abouzeid - The Year of The Elephant

1. Insights and Perspectives: Exploring Fatima Mernissi’s works

1.2 From ‘secular’ to ‘Islamic feminism

2.1 Islamic Feminism in the Arab world

2.2 The complexities of the Arab Context

2.3 Engaging Islamic feminist theory through Mernissi’s works

3.2 Feminist Reinterpretation of Islam: From Aisha To Mernissi

early Islam in the time of the Prophet.

as well as the Prophet's intentions are falsely based.

women’s legal and social empowerment.

Fatima Mernissi ‘difficult for a moderate Muslim’

Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood, Study Guide

By Ursula Lindsey January 21, 2016

Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women’s Movement Anthology

ARABLIT & ARABLIT QUARTERLY: A magazine of Arabic literature in translation

WorldSecular and Islamic Feminist Critiques in the Work of Fatima Mernissi

By Raja Rhouni, 2010

Wilson Center Event: Exploring Islamic Feminism

with Margot Badran, Visiting Research Professor, Center for Muslim-Christian

Nov. 29, 2000 10:00pm – 10:00pm ET

By Leila Hanafi and Dannielle Hites October 12,2017

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