1

Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Respiration .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Use of Energy in Human Body...................................................................................................................... 7
Respiration ................................................................................................................................................ 10
Excretion in Humans .................................................................................................................................. 22
Excretory System ..................................................................................................................................... 23
The Organs .............................................................................................................................................. 24
Co-ordination and response ...................................................................................................................... 33
Nervous Control in Human........................................................................................................................ 34
Sense Organ ............................................................................................................................................ 40
Hormones in Human ................................................................................................................................. 42
Reproduction............................................................................................................................................... 50
Asexual Reproduction .............................................................................................................................. 50
Sexual Reproduction ................................................................................................................................ 55
Inheritance .................................................................................................................................................. 68
Inheritance ............................................................................................................................................... 69
Chromosomes, Genes, and Proteins ......................................................................................................... 71
Mitosis ...................................................................................................................................................... 77
Meiosis ..................................................................................................................................................... 80
Monohybrid Cross .................................................................................................................................... 82
Variation and Selection .............................................................................................................................. 92
Variation .................................................................................................................................................. 93
Selection .................................................................................................................................................. 96
Organisms and Their Environment .......................................................................................................... 106
Energy Flow ........................................................................................................................................... 107
Food Chains and Food Webs ................................................................................................................ 108
Nutrient Cycle ........................................................................................................................................ 111
Population Size ...................................................................................................................................... 116
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering ................................................................................................. 125
Biotechnology ........................................................................................................................................ 126

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 Types of Biotechnology.......................................................................................................................... 128
Human Influence on Ecosystem............................................................................................................... 140
Food Supply .......................................................................................................................................... 142
Habitat destruction ................................................................................................................................ 145
Pollution ................................................................................................................................................. 148
Conservation .......................................................................................................................................... 152
Answer Key .............................................................................................................................................. 158
Reference .................................................................................................................................................. 159

3
Preface
Praise and thanks to our God, because of His bless and mercies, this book has been completely finished on
time. This book has been created with several goals for student in learning biology. Biology as the study of
living things requires the ideas using evidence gathered from natural world. This book will help students in
acquiring and reinforcing Biology concepts effectively. Each chapter starts with the learning outcomes of the
concepts and focused in the process of learning. Coherent pictures and another visual aids such as concept
maps and diagram are integrated to make the content easier to remember. The questions included to test
student understanding included at the end of the chapter. Brief explanation concluded in the summary section
to strengthen the learning output. The book is primarily written and essentially meant for junior high school
student but it can be useful for the general information about biology.

We are all thankful to all the teachers who help on the process of book making. We are grateful to our
colleagues and friend who support us and gives their expert advice. The authors will be highly indebted for
any type of suggestion so as to further improve the content of the book. Thank you.

The Authors.

4
5
Respiration

What to learn: Imagine a car moving on the street, what

makes it move? Will it be able to move or even
- The use of Energy in start the engine without fuels? Just like cars that
Human Body have a lot of complicated parts inside it, our body
- Respiration contains a lot of cells with different types and
- Types of Respiration functions. Those cells are working together to form
- Roles of Enzymes in a good functioning system inside our body that will
Respiration help us in doing things in our life, most of those
- Effect of Lactic Acid process that are taking place in the cells depend
upon energy to make them running. Like a car
Excess
without fuel, a body without energy will not be
able to do anything.
There are abundance use of energy inside our
6
body aside just than making our body move. Ever
wondered what are they? Let’s see on the next
section.
 Use of Energy in Human Body
By now you already imagined a car
moving, it obviously need some fuels or
energy to move. Let’s take the analogy to our
body, a human body. What will happen if our
body doesn’t have energy? We couldn’t even
move, even the organs and cells inside out
body will not be able to function if we are
running out of energy. That is why energy is
very important in our life.
There is an abundance use of energy
inside our body aside just than making our
body move. Ever wondered what are they?
Let’s see them as illustrated with the figures
below.
The contraction of muscle cells
Figure 1. Contraction of muscle cells
(Source: http://faculty.etsu.edu/forsman/
histologyofmuscleforweb.html)
As illustrated on the figure above, the
muscles in our body contracts when we move.
Not only muscles that are attached on our limb
or legs, muscles inside the canals of our body
moves too. For example, it results as peristalsis
movement, this causes food to be moved
along our alimentary canals. Another
example of it is contraction of the uterus wall
during childbirth. For a muscle to contract, it
needs energy.
Building up proteins
Proteins are made from amino acids,
the process of building it from scratch requires
energy too. The process of building up
proteins from amino acids is illustrated below.
Figure 2. Process of building proteins from
amino acids
(Source: https://www.chromacademy.com
/lms/sco879/01-amino-acids-peptides-
proteins.html)
Mitosis & Meiosis (Cell Division)
Cell division process’ functions are to
build more cells, repair and replace cells that
are damaged or worn out, either to generate
reproductive cells. Just like the other
processes, this process requires energy as
well. You can see the cell’s division process
through the illustrated figure on the next
page.
7

Figure 3. Phases of cell division
(Source: https://www.mrgscience.com/topic-
16-cell-division.html)
Transport in Human
There are numerous ways of
transporting molecules inside human body,
they are osmosis, diffusion and active
transport.
Figure 4. Difference between active and
passive transport
(Source: https://biologywise.com/passive-
transport-active-transport)
In the figure above, you can study
about the difference between active and
passive transport. Osmosis and diffusion are
passive transport which means they doesn’t
require energy to happen. Meanwhile active
transport requires energy. The process of
active transport involves molecules that are
moving across a cell membrane, the movement
is against a concentration gradient.
8
Cells Growth/Enlargement
Figure 5. Illustration of cell
enlargement/growth
(Source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/
desmid/brian/BIOL3530/DB_12/DBNGrow.
html)
As illustrated on the figure above, the
formation of new cells or permanent increase
of the size of the cells contributes to the cell
growth/enlargement. This process, of course
requires energy to happen.
Maintaining Body Temperature
Figure 6. A lioness and its cub, lion is one of
the example of homoeothermic animals
(Source:
https://www.shutterstock.com/image-
photo/love-lioness-cub-kruger-np-south-
1078246298)
Homoeothermic animals such as lions need to
maintain their body temperature constantly in
order to made sure that vital chemical reactions inside their body continues at apredictable rate. It
should not slow down either speeding up according to their environment temperatures that may
varies as they wander through forests, savannahs even deserts.
Electrical Impulse Conduction in Nerve Cells

Figure 7. Illustration of Electrical Impulse Conduction in Nerve Cell

(Source: https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/nerve-impulse-transmission-through-synapse/)

Nerve impulses are electrical in nature. They result from a difference in electrical charge
across the plasma membrane of a neuron. When a neuron is not actively transmitting a nerve
impulse, it is in a resting state, ready to transmit a nerve impulse. During the resting state, the
sodium-potassium pump maintains a difference in charge across the cell membrane (see Figure
above). It uses energy in ATP to pump positive sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and potassium ions
(K+) into the cell. As a result, the inside of the neuron is negatively charged compared to the
extracellular fluid surrounding the neuron. This is due to many more positively charged ions outside
the cell compared to inside the cell. This difference in electrical charge is called the resting potential.

9
 Respiration
A. What’s respiration?
Now you have known what’s the use
of energy in our body, then where
does the energy comes from? Do we
obtain it from the nature or there is a
process inside our body to generate
it? The answer is, energy comes from
the food that cells take in. The food
mainly used for energy in cells is
glucose. The process by which energy
is produced from food is called
respiration.
Respiration is a chemical process that takes
place in cells and involves the action of
enzymes. When you remember the
”respiration” terms, you should be careful to
not to confuse it with the process of breathing,
the process of breathing is sometimes called
“respiration” too. To make a clear difference
between the two, the chemical process in cells
is more often being called by the terms
“cellular respiration”
Roles of Enzymes in Respiration
By reaching this point, now you already know
about respiration and how energy is used in
our body. But how about enzymes? Have you
heard about it? Enzymes are proteins that
catalyse, or affect the rate, of chemical
reactions without themselves being altered in
the process. Specific enzymes catalyse each
cellular reaction.
Of course, everything inside our body
functions according to their own role, what’s
the main role of enzymes then? Enzymes are
needed during the respiration reaction; it
helps to assist in transferring electrons from
one molecule to another. These transfers are
called “redox” reactions, where the loss of
electrons from one molecule (oxidation) must
coincide with the addition of electrons to
another substance (reduction).
10
B. Types of Respiration
Aerobic Respiration

Figure 8. Illustration of aerobic respiration process

(Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/eA_PhX4QaT3aKA/respiration)

Aerobic respiration, is the process of complete breakdown of the glucose molecule in the
presence of oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water. The word “aerobic” here means that the
process needs oxygen to happen.

In this process, the foods are oxidised thus the reaction also can be called by oxidation. Since all
food molecules contain oxygen, carbon and hydrogen atoms, the process of oxidation converts the
carbon to carbon dioxide (CO2) and the hydrogen to water (H2O) and, at the same time, sets free
energy, which the cell can use to drive other reactions.

In terms of energy, Aerobic respiration is way more efficient than the process of anaerobic (without
oxygen) respiration, the process also produces ATP way more quick than anaerobic respiration. This
is caused by oxygen since it is a good electron acceptor for the chemical reaction. The balanced
chemical equation for aerobic respiration in organisms such as yeast is as shown on the next page:

11
 Figure 9. Chemical Equations for Aerobic Respiration Process
(Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/eA_PhX4QaT3aKA/respiration)

The amount of energy you would get by completely oxidising 180 grams (g) of glucose to carbon
dioxide and water is 2830 kilojoules (kJ). In the cells, the energy is not released all at once. The
oxidation takes place in a series of small steps and not in one jump as the equation suggests.

Figure 10. Illustration of Aerobic Respiration Process

(Source: IGCSE,2014)

Each small step needs its own enzyme and at each stage a little energy is released. Although the
energy is used for the processes mentioned above, some of it always appears as heat. In ‘warm-
blooded’ animals (birds and mammals) some of this heat is retained to maintain their body
temperature. You can see the examples of warm blooded animals by paying attention to the figure
on the next page.

12
 Figure 11. Illustration of Warm Blooded Animals
(Source: https://animalsake.com/cold-blooded-and-warm-blooded-animals-comparison)

Anaerobic Respiration

Figure 12. Illustration of anaerobic respiration process

(Source: https://byjus.com/biology/aerobic-anaerobic-respiration)

13
 The word anaerobic means ‘in the
absence of oxygen. Hence, anaerobic
respiration become the term for the chemical
reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules to release energy without using
oxygen. In this process, energy is still released
from food by breaking it down chemically but
the reactions do not use oxygen though they
do often produce carbon dioxide.
Figure 12. Yeast
(Source: https://www.npr.org/section/
2018/02/28/588969884/the-rise-of-yeast-
how-civilization-was-shaped-by-sugar-fungi)
A common example is the action of yeast on
sugar solution to produce alcohol. The sugar is
not completely oxidised to carbon dioxide
and water but converted to carbon dioxide
and alcohol. This process is called
fermentation.
Figure 13. Bread
(Source:
https://www.tumblr.com/tagged/bread-
aesthetic)
Figure 13. Beer
(Source:
https://id.pinterest.com/pin/51833623835130
8950/)
The processes of brewing and bread-making
rely on anaerobic respiration by yeast. As
with aerobic respiration, the reaction takes
place in small steps and needs several
different enzymes. The yeast uses the energy
for its growth and living activities.
Anaerobic respiration also occurs in muscles
during vigorous exercise, because oxygen
cannot be delivered fast enough to satisfy the
needs of the respiring muscle cells. The
balanced chemical equation for anaerobic
respiration in organisms such as yeast is shown
below:
Figure 14. Chemical Equation of Anaerobic
Respiration
(Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/cartlidge/12-
syllabus-statements)
14
PRACTICAL WORK!
Let’s See the Oxygen Uptake in Respiring Organism!
a. Objective
1. Investigating uptake of oxygen in respiring organisms
b. Material and Equipment
The material and equipment needed to do this experiment are:
- A larger invertebrate such as a locust, or a group of woodlice or blowfly maggots
- Boiling tube or plastic syringe
- Capillary tube with rubber tubing
- Soda-lime
- Cotton wool or wire gauze

c. Procedure
Follow the procedure below systematically!
- Put the soda lime on the end of the boiling tube or syringe.
- Add wire gauze or cotton wool covering the soda-lime to protect the organism since
soda-lime is caustic.
- The invertebrate is then placed in the boiling tube or syringe, linked to the capillary
tube with a short section of rubber or silicone tubing).
- A drop of water or coloured dye is introduced to the capillary tube by touching it
against the liquid.
- The capillary tube is rested against a ruler and the position of the water drop is noted.
- After 1 minute (or longer if the drop moves very slowly) the new position of the
water drop is recorded.

Note: You can follow this diagram to make it easier for you!

Figure 15. Diagram for Investigating Oxygen uptake experiment

(Source: IGCSE,2014)

d. Result 15
Please fill the table below based on your analyses
Aspects Milk Yogurt
Colour
 e. Result
Please fill the table below based on your analyses
Time (s) Distance of coloured water movement (cm)

The reduction of volume in the tube increases pressure, causing the coloured liquid to move
The distance moved by the liquid in a given time is measured, which will provide the volume
of oxygen taken in by the insect per minute.

C. Effect of Lactic Acid Excess process and result of anaerobic respiration on

the previous section). The lactic acid that is
being build up inside the muscle later will be
this removed and sent to the bloodstream. In
order to maintain and complete this removal
process, the heart rate must be rapid. That
means the blood needs to move even more
faster than during and after exercise. Upon
reaching the liver, some of the lactic acid is
oxidised to carbon dioxide and water, using
Figure 16. A person running up oxygen in the process. After exercise has
(Source: stopped, a high level of oxygen consumption
https://www.shape.com/fitness/cardio/11-
may persist until the excess of lactic acid has
science-backed-reasons-running-really-good-
been oxidised.
you)
This is characterised by deeper
Exercising is one of the example
breathing (an athlete pants for breath). The
where we use energy inside our body. During
build-up of lactic acid that is oxidised later is
a very though exercise, something may build
said to create an oxygen debt. Accumulation
up in our muscle through anaerobic
of lactic acid in the muscles results in muscular
respiration, that is lactic acid (you can see the
fatigue, leading to cramp.

16
In line with that, Athletes and climbers who are
used to working at low altitude (normal air
pressure) have problems if they then perform
at high altitude (low air pressure). High-
altitude air has a lower percentage of
oxygen, so an oxygen debt can be
experienced much more easily than at low
altitude. The problem can be resolved if the
person spends time at high altitude before
performing to allow the body to acclimatise
(making more red blood cells and increasing
blood volume).
17
SUMMARY
 Energy is utilized in our body for various uses, for example: muscle contractions, the built
up of proteins, cell divisions, cell growth, transport of molecules, Electrical Impulse
conduction in nerve cells, even maintaining body temperatures.
 We get the energy for those uses through a process called respiration.
 Certain enzymes are involved in the respiration process. it helps to assist in transferring
electrons from one molecule to another.
 Cellular respiration is divided into two types, which are aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
 Aerobic respiration, is the process of complete breakdown of the glucose molecule in the
presence of oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water. The word “aerobic” means that
the process needs oxygen to happen.
 The chemical equation for aerobic respiration is

 In the cells, the energy is not released all at once. The oxidation takes place in a series of
small steps and not in one jump as the equation suggests.
 Anaerobic respiration is the process of the chemical reactions in cells that break down
nutrient molecules to release energy. The added syllables “an” before the word aerobic
remarks that this process happens without using oxygen.
 The chemical equation for aerobic respiration is

 The anaerobic respiration is commonly used in biotechnology such as bread-making,

alcoholic beverages-making, etc.
 Aerobic respiration is way more efficient than the process of anaerobic (without oxygen)
respiration, the process also produces ATP way more quick than anaerobic respiration.
This is caused by oxygen since it is a good electron acceptor for the chemical reaction.
 Energy is utilized in our body for various uses, for example: muscle contractions, the built
up of proteins, cell divisions, cell growth, transport of molecules, Electrical Impulse
conduction in nerve cells, even maintaining body temperatures. Anaerobic respiration also
occurs in muscles during vigorous exercise, because oxygen cannot be delivered fast
enough to satisfy the needs of the respiring muscle cells.
 During a very though exercise, lactic acid something may build up in our muscle through
anaerobic respiration. The build-up of lactic acid that is oxidised later is said to create an
oxygen debt, lactic acid in the muscles also results in muscular fatigue, leading to cramp.

18
 Exercise
Choose one out of four options that you think is correct to answer the questions!
1. The main difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration is…
A. The use of oxygen
B. The use of nitrogen
C. The place where it happens
D. The organism involved

2. What will pyruvate molecules undergo if oxygen is not present?

A. Degradation
B. Fermentation
C. Biosynthesis
D. Respiration

3. There are three products of fermentation in plant cells and yeast, what are they?
A. Carbon dioxide, lactate, ATP
B. Carbon dioxide, ethanol and ATP
C. Oxygen, ethanol and ATP
D. Carbon dioxide, oxygen and ATP

4. What is the name of the high-energy molecules used widely within cells?
A. Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
B. Mitochondria
C. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
D. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

5. In the process of bread-making, the dough rises up because there is bubbles of ____ as the result
of _____ respiration.
A. Carbondioxide, Aerobic
B. Carbonmonoxide, Anaerobic
C. Oxygen, Aerobic
D. Carbondioxide, Anaerobic

6. ____ respiration inside the muscles is caused by oxygen debt and resulting in excess of ____.
A. Anaerobic, Oxygen
B. Aerobic, Lactic Acid
C. Aerobic, Oxygen
D. Anaerobic, Lactic Acid

19
 7. Most of the reactions in aerobic respiration happen inside _____ of the cells.
A. Nucleus
B. Mitochondria
C. Enzymes
D. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

8. What is the role of enzymes in the respiration process?

A. It helps to assist in transferring electrons from one molecule to another
B. It helps to quicken the whole respiration process
C. It helps in providing oxygen and carbondioxide in the respiration process
D. It helps as the place where respiration process happens

9. Aerobic respiration is more effective compared to Anaerobic respiration since Aerobic respiration
is resulting ____ ATP while Anaerobic Respiration only result in _____ ATP.
A. 32 and 4
B. 34 and 4
C. 36 and 2
D. 38 and 2

10. What happens to oxygen during the process of electron transport in respiration process?
A. Oxygen will be released as gas
B. Oxygen will be used as electron carrier
C. Oxygen will be reduced to water
D. Oxygen will be mixed with carbon to form Carbonmonoxide

20
21
Excretion in Humans

What to learn:
- Excretory System Have you ever tried to observe your body
- The Organs condition after doing an exercise? Usually, our body
- The Urinary System: will produce a lot of sweat. But when our body gets
The Kidneys cold, we will have an urgency to go pee more often.
- Diseases How could that happen? Is there anything more can
- Excretory System be left out by our bodies? To know further about it,
Disease Prevention let us get started to the chapter!

22
 Excretory System
Our body consists of systems to
support the function of organs and make life
possible. There are ten major systems that
make up our body, for instance skeletal
system, muscular system, cardiovascular
system, nervous system, endocrine system,
lymphatic system, respiratory system,
digestive system, reproductive system, and
excretory system. In this chapter, we will be
learning more about excretory system.
Figure 1. People doing activity with the help
of systems in the body
(Source: unsplash.com/photos/HgoKvtKpyHA)
Excretion
Excretory system has a main function
named excretion which removes the waste of
our metabolic activities such as the excess of
daily dietary and toxic materials. Usually, the
removal is in the form of urine, carbon
dioxide, or sweat. Talking in depth, there are
several important substances which include in
the removal which are:
The waste products of its chemical
reactions
Many chemical reactions take place inside our
body and some products resulted are
poisonous that it needs to be removed. For
example, the breakdown of glucose during
respiration that produces certain amount of
carbon dioxide (CO2). Furthermore, our
body can also produce urea and similar waste
products like uric acid, from the breakdown
of proteins that contain the element of
nitrogen. For this reason, they are called
nitrogenous waste products.
The excess water and salts taken in
with the diet
During feeding, we might not realize that
there are more water and salts taken in with
the food than are needed by the body. So,
these excess substances need to be removed
as fast as they stack up.
Spent hormones
The hormones are usually produced by
endocrine glands in our body. This process will
actually affect the rate of body work.
Adrenaline, for example, speeds up the
heartbeat and when this hormone has done its
job, it will be modified in the liver and
excreted by the kidneys.
23
 The Organs
The excretory system consists of necessary
organs that will ease the excess substance
removal from our body. The organs are liver,
lungs, skin and kidneys. Specifically, kidneys
will be later explained deeper in urinary
system section. Moreover, the organs of
excretory system have its own distinctive
functions and products. Without further ado,
let us directly learn about them more!
Liver
The liver is a large organ in our body
which has multiple functions. That is why liver
is usually called as a multi-tasking organ.
Liver is not only part of excretory systems, but
also a part of circulatory system and digestive
system. In order to make you easier to picture
the position of liver in the body, look at Figure
2 below. The figure shows you its location and
specific parts of liver organ.
Figure 2. Liver Organ
(Source: Hoffman, M., 2019)
Liver as an excretory organ acts to
breakdown some proteins and other
nitrogenous compounds by a process called
deamination. As a result of the process, urea
is formed. Besides, liver also helps in excreting
toxic substances, drugs, and their derivatives
such as cholesterol and bile pigments.
Lungs
We are occupied with two lungs within our
chest, they are big enough to take up the
space. However, the size of our lungs is
actually different to each other with the left
side is smaller compare to the right side. You
can look at Figure 3 below!
Figure 3. Lung Organ
(Source: Tim McGraw Hill, 2019)
Skin
The skin excretes sweat outside the body
through numerous pores in the surface of this
organ. Sweat consists of water, with sodium
chloride, and traces of urea dissolved in it. As
we sweat, our body accomplishes two things:
1) sweating rises down the temperature of our
body, and 2) excreting the metabolic wastes.
You can see the anatomy of skin deeply and
locate where the gland is in Figure 4.
24

Figure 4. The Skin
(Source: Tim McGraw Hill, 2019)
From Figure 4, it can be seen that the sweat
gland is a tube structure entangled by blood
capillaries. This close association of tubes
allows waste such as water, salts, and urea to
pass through the sweat gland from the blood.
The sweat is released from the gland when
temperature increases, then passes through
the duct, and enters the surface of the skin
through openings called pores.
Urinary System: The
Kidneys
Excretory system is not only limited to its
organ and the excess products being
removed, it will also specifically relate to
urinary system. Urinary system is mainly
producing, storing and eliminating urine which
excreted by the kidneys. The urinary system
consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one
urinary bladder and one urethra (look closer
in Figure 5).
The urine is produced in the kidneys by
filtering wastes and excessive amount of
water from blood which then travels through
the ureters to the bladder, and leaves the
body through the urethra. Moreover, the
kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary
system that remove wastes in the form of urine
through urinary tract.
Figure 5. Kidney
(Source: Hoffman, M., 2019)
Kidneys are dark, red, solid, bean-shaped
and lie in the upper part of abdominal cavity.
They are covered in a fat and connective
tissue protective layer. The right kidney is
slightly on a lower level than the left. The
renal artery branches off the aorta and
supplies them with oxygenated blood. The
renal vein takes deoxygenated blood to the
vena cava from the kidneys. A tube, called
the ureter, runs through the lower part of the
abdomen from each kidney to the bladder.
Kidney works on so many jobs and of the most
prominent one is filtering the waste out of the
blood. The waste could get in to the blood
since it delivers nutrients to our body. The
nutrients will then be broken down by
chemical reactions that would also result some
waste that needs to be removed.
After being filtered, some substances like
glucose is usually reabsorbed as well as salts
to keep the blood concentration in check. The
25
process of the reabsorption is called selective Diseases Cause
reabsorption. Furthermore, the excess salts and produce more
with urea and uric acid are to pass the kidney bacteria in the urine.
tubule to be removed. The fluids now called Type 1 diabetes is
urine will pass down the ureter to the bladder. caused by genes and
environmental
However, you can check Table 1 to get a clear factors, such as
summary about each excretory organ and its viruses, that might
products as well as the incidental losses Diabetes trigger the disease.
below. Type 2 diabetes is
caused by several
factors, including
Table 1. lifestyle factors and
Excretory products and incidental losses genes.

Excretory Excretory Incidental Excretory System Diseases Prevention

organ products losses
Liver Bile pigments There are plenty things we can do to help
Lungs Carbon Water keeping our excretory organs healthy and
dioxide prevent the diseases.
Skin Water, salt,
urea a. Drink properly
Kidneys Nitrogenous Water Health authorities commonly
waste, water, recommend about 2 liters or half a
salts, toxins, gallon every day. This is called the
hormones, 8x8 rule and is very easy to
drugs remember. However, some health
gurus believe that we need to sip on
water constantly throughout the day,
Diseases even when we’re not thirsty. As with
most things, this depends on the
If we cannot keep the excretory organs well, individual. Many factors (both internal
we will get diseases that might affect the and external) ultimately affect our
health. Here are the common diseases related need for water.
to excretory organs with the causes: b. Quit smoking
Table 2. Before quit smoking, one thing we must
Diseases and its cause to do is don’t start. But in case we have
started it, quitting is one thing that
Diseases Cause must be reminded due to its
Too much calcium importance to improve our health as it
Kidney stones – salt Too little water intake can lengthen life expectancy, and
crystals in the renal Abnormally high decrease risk of diseases.
calculi alkaline or acidic c. Exercise regularly, do not have a
urine sedentary lifestyle
Urinary tract Bacteria get into the
infection bladder or kidney

26
PRACTICAL WORK!
Kidney Filtering
e. Objective
2. Creating a model filtering function of a kidney on a larger scale
3. Exemplifying filters designed by engineers, such as dialysis machines

f. Material and Equipment

1) Materials
a) ½ cup of sand
b) ½ cup of small pebbles in various size from 1/8’’ to > 1’’
c) ½ cup of water
2) Equipment
a) 6-inch square pieces of each following: plastic window screening, hardware cloth (½”
mesh, ¼” mesh and 1/8” mesh), and poultry netting (1” holes)
b) 1-2sheets of newspaper (to cover desk)
c) 2 measuring cups or bowls (about 4 cups each)
d) Large funnel (large enough to have large pebble flow through the neck)
e) Duct tape (to bind screens for safety)

g. Safety Issues
Be careful when handling the sharp edges of the mesh screening

h. Procedure
1) Cut screening, poultry netting, and hardware cloth to the proper size
2) Bind the poultry netting and hardware cloth with duct tape to cover sharp edges
3) Assemble all necessary materials
4) Mix the sand, pebbles, and water in the first measuring cup or bowl
5) Take turns filtering the water mixture through the funnel, poultry netting, different-sized
hardware cloth, window screening, from large-filter holes to small-filter holes
6) Pour the mixture from the full measuring cup/bowl onto the screen over the empty container
and then back again, using a different screen each time

i. Result and Discussion

1) What is the function of screening, netting and hardware cloth in this experiment?
2) Why do we have to use the filters in order of largest to smallest mesh size and not the other
way around?
3) What qualities are important to consider when designing a dialysis machine?

27
SUMMARY

a. Excretion is done by excretion system to remove excess substances and poison from
our body in form of urine.
b. The organs of excretory system are liver, lung, skin and kidney.
c. Each organ has their own excretory products, for instance liver produces bile
pigments, lung produces carbon dioxide, skin produces water and salt, and kidney
produces urine.
d. Kidney is the major excretory organ since it plays important role in urinary system
and process. However, human still can live with one kidney.
e. There might be diseases related to the excretory organs such as kidney stones,
urinary tract infection, and diabetes. On the other hand, those diseases can be
prevented by drinking proper amount of water, exercising regularly, and quit
smoking.

28
EXERCISES
After learning all the materials, let us check our understanding by filling up the questions below by
choosing one of the choices given.

1. What are the organs of excretory systems?

A. Kidneys, bladder, intestine, bile
B. Kidneys, skin, lungs, liver
C. Skin, endocrine gland, bile, liver
D. Skin, lungs, bladder, bile

2. Which of the following options is the use of kidneys?

A. To keep the secondary urine
B. To connect the urine from urinary bladder outside of the body
C. To remove the excess substances from bloodstream
D. To connect the urine from kidney to urinary bladder

3. Below is the process of urine formation:

1) The dissolved salts, glucose, urea and uric acid are filtered out of the blood by the
glomerulus.
2) The substances are being reabsorbed.
3) The excess products continue down the renal tube into the pelvis of the kidney which
then called urine and passes down the ureter to the bladder.
4) The filtrate from the glomerulus collects in the renal capsule and trickles down the
renal tubule.

From the statement above, which is the true order of urine formation?
A. 1-4-2-3
B. 1-4-3-2
C. 4-3-1-2
D. 3-1-2-4

4. The normal water intake that human should have every day is 2 liters/day. Rina is a girl
who like to eat unhealthy food and soda. She drinks soda for one bottle and 4 glass of
water every day. One day when she goes to urinate, she noticed that the color of her urine
is brownish. Based on Rina’s case, how much water that she should drink in order to fulfill
her water needs every day? (Note: 1 glass = 200 mL, 1 bottle = 1000 mL)
A. 4 glass
B. 5 glass
C. 6 glass
D. 7 glass

29
 5. Please look at the urine color chart below!

Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon our level of hydration. Normal
urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber but is usually a pale yellow.
Strange colors could be harmless or could indicate serious issues. In case, Carol and Marie
have got their urine test and found out that Carol’s is number 3 while Marie’s is number 8.
What can we predict?
A. Carol is hydrated since the urine color is pale yellow, she might drink enough water a
day. Meanwhile Marie is also hydrated but she drinks too much beverages with
additives color, that is why her urine color is reddish.
B. Carol is hydrated since the urine color is pale yellow, she might be assumed to drink
enough water a day. Meanwhile Marie can be assumed as dehydrated due to her urine
color, that is why she needs to drink more fluid.
C. Carol is a bit dehydrated since her urine color is pale yellow, she needs to drink more
fluid. Meanwhile Marie is well hydrated, she just needs to drink more faded colored
beverages.
D. Carol is a bit dehydrated and the color indicates serious issues, that is why she needs to
drink more fluid. Meanwhile Marie can be assumed as dehydrated due to her urine
color, that is why she needs to drink more fluid.
6. Each excretory organ has their own function which lead to its product. Which of the following
is the right pair of organs and its product?
A. Lungs – water, salt and urea
B. Liver – bile pigments
C. Skin – nitrogenous waste, hormones, drug
D. Kidney – hormones, carbon dioxide

7. Sigrid has kidneys disfunction that one of her kidneys can no longer filter well and found
out that there is potassium imbalance in her blood. This situation requires her to lost one of
her kidneys. What kind of methods she should take to cope with that case?
A. Drink proper enough of water and exercise more
B. Quit smoking and exercise more
C. Try kidney transplant or dialysis
D. Reduce the overrated physical activities

8. Liver as an excretory organ acts to breakdown some proteins and other nitrogenous
compounds. What kind of process that has to be done by liver in this case?
A. Neutralization

30
 B. Dehydration synthesis
C. Cellular respiration
D. Deamination

9. The teacher of ecology class asks the students to make their hypothesis on this following
statement: “Fresh water fish and salt water fish have different way in their excretion system to
balance the amount of water and salt in their body, as in how much they drink and urinate.”

Stefan, one of the students make this hypothesis: “Fresh water fish drink a small amount of
water and urinate a lot of water. While Salt water fish drink a lot of water and urinate a small
amount of water”

Based on the statement above, do you think that Stefan’s hypothesis is valid?
A. No. Because fresh water fish drinks a lot of water since it is good for their body,
therefore they urinate less. While salt water fish drinks small amount of salty water since
it is not good for their body, therefore they urinate a lot.
B. Yes. Because fresh water fish takes up a lot of water through their gills, so they don’t
need to drink a lot but need to urinate a lot to remove the excess water. While salt
water fish drinks a lot of salty water and urinate a small amount of water to remove the
excess salt in their body.
C. No. Because fresh water fish drink and urinate a lot of water, since they need to keep
adequate amount of water in their body. Therefore, they urinate a lot. While salt water
fish drink and urinate a small amount of water because they need to keep adequate
amount of salt in their body.
D. Yes. Because fresh water fish drinks a small amount of water and urinate a lot since they
have to regulate the amount of salt in their body. While salt water fish tends to drink a
lot and urinate less because they need to regulate the amount of water in their body.

10. James is a healthy, 30-year-old man who works as a chef, his work requires him to eat a
lot of food containing high amount of sugar and carbohydrate. One day, he felt excessive
fatigue and his vision becomes blurry. So, he went to the doctor to check up on his health.
Then, the doctor reveled that his blood sugar reached 126 mg/dL while the normal blood
sugar level for a person his age sits between 70 and 99 mg/dL. According to the passage,
which disease related to the excretion system that James have?
A. Uremia, because the case indicated that James felt excessive fatigue and his vision
become blurry which are the symptoms of uremia
B. Kidney Stone, because the case indicated that James often consume a lot of food
containing high amount of sugar and carbohydrate
C. Diabetes Mellitus type I, because the case indicated that James has an abnormal blood
sugar level
D. Diabetes Mellitus type II, because the case indicated that James has an abnormal blood
sugar level

31
32
Co-ordination and
Response

What to learn: When you move your hand, do you think that the movement is
- Nervous caused by the willingness of your hand itself to move? The answer is
Control in not, right? Rather, the movement is caused by a system that is having
Human the responsibility to do it. The thing or system whose does it is called
- Sense Organs coordination. The coordination also has the partner to do its job. This
- Hormones in partner is a response. Thus, Coordination and response is the
Human unseparated part in doing some kinds of movements such as moving
- Tropic
your hand to take something or even your eyes to blink.
Responses

33
 Nervous Control in Human
Co-ordination is the approach of all
body organs and systems work together
efficiently. The co-ordinations are brought by
two important things. The co-ordination of
system is closely related to the nervous system.
Meanwhile, co-ordination by chemicals is
closely related to the endocrine system.
The co-ordination is brought by two
systems. One of those two is the nervous
system. The movement of human activities such
as walking (moving your legs), taking
something (moving your hands) is due to the
nervous control in human. So for
comprehending the materials very well, better
for you to read the next part of this chapter.
Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex group
of nerves and specific cells called as neurons
that transfer signals between different parts
of the body. The nervous system is divided into
two main parts. These systems are called
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS). The CNS is formed by
brain and spinal cord that functioned as
coordination, whereas the PNS is made up
from nerves that attach the body to the CNS.
The PNS contains motor and sensory neuron,
which carries impulses to and from the CNS
as can be seen in the figure 1 and 2.
Figure 1. The CNS and PNS
(Source: StudyBlue.com)
34
 are coming from the CNS to all parts of the
body, making muscles contract or making
glands produce enzymes or hormones.

Strycture and Types of Nerve

Cells (Neuron)
Imagine that your brain consists of
something like many lines crossing each other.
These lines are attaching another lines tightly.
These lines are called neuron. Neuron is the
Figure 2. The CNS and PNS fundamental units of brain and nervous system
(Source: StudyBlue.com) that has funtion to send and receive signals
from your brain.
The nervous system worked by Structure of Neuron
sending electrical impulses (electrical signals)
Below is how these lines look like, it is
along the nerves. These electrical impulses
called neuron as depicted on the figure 3.

Figure 3. The Structure of Neuron

(Source: BioNinja)

Every neuron has a cell body (soma)

containing a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.
Branching fibers, called dendrites, from the
cell body make contact with other neuron. A
long body part of neuron called axon
surrounded by schwann cells that form myelin
sheath which has the periodic gap called node
of ranvier. Neuron has motor end plate or

35
terminal button/axon terminal at the end of
neuron body part. The cell bodies of neuron
are generally located in the brain or in the
spinal cord. The characteristics of nerve are
easily visible, white in color, rough and
stringy, contains hundreds of microscopic
nerve fibers bundled together. Most nerves
will contain a mixture of sensory and motor
fibers. So a nerve can bring many diverse
impulses. These impulses will travel in one
direction in sensory fibers and in the contrary
direction in motor fibers. These are the details
of each parts of neuron function:
Nucleus - contains the genetic material in the
form of chromosomes.
Nucleus - contains the genetic material in the
form of chromosomes.
Soma (cell body) – brings the information to
the neurons.
Dendrite – receive or pick up messages
(electrical impulses) from other cells.
Axon – passes messages away from the cell
body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Myelin sheath – covers the axon of some
neurons and help speed neural impulses.
Schwann Cells – help to electrically insulate
the neuron.
Node of Ranvier – helps to facilitate the
rapid conduction of nerve impulses.
Motor End Plate (Terminal Buttons/Axon
Terminal) – forming junction with other cells.
36
Types of Neuron
Neuron is divided into three types. There are
sensory, relay and motor neuron as we can
see in the figure 4 below.
Figure 4. Types of Neuron
(Source: Tutor2u)
 Sensory - carries impulses from a
receptor to the spinal cord and brain.
This neuron is found on the receptors
such as eyes, ears, tongue, and skin.
When the nerve impulse reaches the
brain, they are translated into sensation.
These sensations can be in the form of
hearing, vision, touch, and also taste.
However, there are some neurons which
stop until the spinal cord instead of
reaching the brain, causing the quick
reflex action
 Relay (connector) - carries impulses
between different parts of the CNS.
It is located between sensory input and
motor output or response and found in
both the brain and also spinal cord. This
 neuron allows the sensory and motor
neurons communicate each other.
 Motor (effector) - carries nervous
impulses from the CNS to the effector,
e.g. a muscle.
The neuron is found on the CNS and
control muscle movement. When the
neuron is transmitted, it releases the
neurotransmitter (a chemical messenger
which transmits signals across synapse
from neuron to another neuron) that bind
to the receptors on muscle to produce
the response which causes the
movement.
All of parts in the neuron types as
depicted in the figure 3 above are the same.
However, its structure, function and also
location of each type are different as in line
in the previous explanation.
Nerve Impulse
A nerve impulse is an electrical signal
that travels along an axon. The nerve fibers
do not bring sensations like pain or cold. These
sensations are felt only when a nerve impulse
reaches the brain. All nerve impulses are
similar. There is no difference between nerve
impulses from the eyes, ears or hands. We are
capable to state where the sensory impulses
have come from and what caused them only
because the impulses are directed to different
parts of the brain. The nerves from the eye go
to the part of the brain concerned with sight.
So when impulses are received in this area,
the brain recognizes that they have come from
the eyes and we ‘see’ something.
Figure 5. Basic Pathway of Nerve Impulse
(Source: BioNinja)
In figure 5, the basic pathway of
nerve impulse is firstly coming from the
stimulus that your body received. These stimuli
can be from light, touch, and smell to your
body. Then, the receptor helped by sensory
neuron such as eyes, hands and nose receive
such kind of stimulus. Afterwards, the nerve
impulses will reach the CNS part with the help
of relay neuron as the connector between
different parts of CNS that will be directed to
motor neuron that acted as an effector.
Finally, the effector will change the nerve
impulses into such responses that allow us to
move or do anything needed.
Reflex Arc
Reflex arc is a neurological and
sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, a
quick response to a particular stimulus. Simply
say, a reflex action is an automatic response
to a stimulus. A stimulus can change in the
internal or even external environment of an
organism. The primary of the components of
37
the reflex arc are the sensory neurons
(receptors) that receive stimulation and in turn
connect to other nerve cells that activate
muscle cells (effectors) which conduct the
reflex action. These are the examples of
reflex arc:
- When a dust particle touches the
cornea of the eye, you eyes will blink.
You can not prevent yourself from
blinking.
- When the bright light comes in the
eye, the pupil will contract.
- The contraction of a muscle while
stretching.
- Salivation at the sight of foods. Figure 6. The Sequence of Event
- A particle of foods touching the layer (Source: IGCSE Book, 2014)
of the windpipe will set off a coughing
reflex that can’t be repressed. Simply say, the sequence of event is
Reflex arc means of rapidly the steps of movement happened. Steps of
integrating and coordinating a stimulus with walking your legs, steps of seeing something,
the response of an effector (a muscle or a and others things that make you move.
gland) without the need of a decision. We
Voluntary and Involuntary
can’t stop this reflex and you are not even
Action
aware that it is happening. The sequence of
Some movements can be voluntary or
events in a simple reflex arc is shown in figure
even involuntary. However, both voluntary
6. below:
and involuntary are controlled by the same
parts of the brain. Below is the detail of two
types of actions, voluntary and involuntary
actions.
Voluntary Action
A voluntary action is an action that is
thought of and consciously performed by the

38
person. The person who experiences this can conclude that these reflexes have a
action has full control over it. A voluntary protective function.
action starts in the brain. It may be the result
of external events, such as seeing a book on
the floor, and any resulting action of it, such
as picking up the book. Unlike a reflex action
it does not happen automatically, you can
decide whether or not you carry out the
action. The brain sends motor impulses to the
Figure 7. Pain Withdrawal Reflex
spinal cord in the nerve fibers. These make
(Source: IGCSE Book, 2014)
synapses with motor fibers, which arrives
spinal nerves and make connections to the sets
Figure 7. shows that when our hand
of muscles required to produce effective
touches the fire in candle, our hand as a
action.
sensory receptor will transmit the nerve
Many sets of muscles in the arms, legs
impulses to the spinal cord through sensory
and trunk will be brought into play in order to
neuron. The nerve impulses from spinal cord
stoop and pick up the book, and impulses
will go to the motor neuron through
passing between the eyes, brain and arm will
interneuron. Below is the chart representing
direct the hand to the right place and ‘tell’ the
the summary of voluntary and involuntary
fingers when to close on the book. One of the
action as you can see in figure 8.
main functions of the brain is to coordinate
these actions so that they happen in the right
sequence and at the right time and place.
Involuntary Action
An involuntary action is one which
happens without the conscious choice of
organism. The examples of these actions are
the reflex closure of the iris protects the retina
from bright light, the withdrawal reflex
removes the hand from a dangerously hot
object, the coughing reflex dislodges a
foreign particle from the windpipe. Hence, we Figure 8. Voluntary and Involuntary Actions
(Source: Quora)

39
 Sense Organ
Sense organs are groups of sensory
cells responding to specific stimuli, such as
light, sound, touch, temperature and
chemicals. Our senses make us aware of
changes in our surroundings and in our own
bodies. We have sense cells that respond to
stimuli (singular = stimulus). A stimulus is a
change in light, temperature, or pressure
which produces a reaction in a living
organism. The examples of sense organs are
the eyes, ears, skin, nose and mouth.
Figure 9. The Components of Eyes
The Human Eye (Source: Free Exam Academy)
It is important to understand how the
eyes work. these are the steps of seeing: There are several parts of eyes you have to
know as can be seen in figure 9. These are the
- Light rays hit the cornea
components of eyes and its functions:
- The cornea refracts (bends) light
- Cornea – Refracts light
- Light passes through the pupils
- Lens – Focuses light onto the retina
- The lens refracts light further to focus it
- Iris – Controls pupil size
onto the fovea
- Pupil – Controls the amount of light
- The fovea contains light receptors that
entering the eye
transmit electrical impulses to the brain
- Optic nerves – Carry impulses to the
- The brain interprets these impulses and
brain
gives us what we call ‘vision’.
- Retina – Contains light receptors called
rods (responsible for night vision) and
To gain more understanding about the
cones (responsible for colour vision)
human eye, here is the visualization of
human eyes with function of each part of - Fovea – An area of the retina where

eyes. most of the light is focused on, and has

a very high density of cones.

40
Pupil Reflex The pupil reflex is designed to
appropriately control the level of light that
Light enters the light through the
entering the eyes. They become smaller in
pupils. While too much light can damage the
bright conditions and larger in dim
retina, too little light makes it very difficult to
conditions. Below is figure 11. representing
see. In figure 10. is about pupil reflex
the pupil response in the bright light and dim
pathway when the light source comes to the
light.
eyes.

Figure 11. Pupil Response

(Source: BioNinja)
Figure 10. Pupil Reflex Pathway
(Source: BioNinja)

41
 Hormones in Human
Except the nervous system, the co- Endocrine System
ordination is also carried by the endocrine
The endocrine system is the collection
system which closely relates to the hormones
of glands that produce hormones that control
in human. This system depends on chemicals,
metabolism, growth and development, tissue
called hormones, which are released from
function, sexual function, reproduction, etc.
special glands, called endocrine glands, into
The endocrine system produces and secretes
the bloodstream.
hormones. The endocrine system depends on
Definition of Hormone the release of chemicals, called hormones,
A hormone is a chemical substance, from endocrine glands. Endocrine gland is a
produced by a gland and brought by the network of hormone-secreting glands make-
blood, which changes the activity of one or up the endocrine system. This system helps to
more specific target organs. They are control growth, metabolism and homeostasis,
produced in glands such as the pituitary and among other functions.
adrenal glands, before being excreted into
the blood, where they travel to target organs
and cause a change in the cells. For example,
insulin is brought from the pancreas to the liver
by the circulatory system. Hormones speed up,
slow down or even change the activity of
those organs. Responses of the body to
hormones are much slower than responses to
nerve impulses. They are determined by the
speed of the circulatory system and then on
the time it takes for the cells to change their
chemical activities.

Figure 12. Nervous System

(Source: Byju’s)

42
 Two systems that bring co-ordination
and response in our body are the nervous
system and endocrine system as you can see
in figure 12 and 13 above for better analysis
of the differences between those systems.
Fundamental difference of those systems is in
term of signaling process. Nervous system uses
electrical signaling, while endocrine system
uses chemical signaling (hormone).

Figure 13. Endocrine System

(Source: Byju’s)

43
 Tropic Responses
Sensitivity is the ability of living
organisms to respond to stimuli. Although
plants do not respond by moving their entire
bodies, but parts of them do respond to
stimuli. These responses are defined as tropic
responses or tropisms. Tropisms are the
growth movements related to the directional
stimuli, e.g. a shoot will grow towards a source
of light but away from the direction of
gravity. Responses to light are known as Figure 14. Negative Gravitropism
phototropism. Meanwhile, the responses to (Source: IGCSE Book, 2014)
gravity are gravitropism or geotropism. If the
plant organ responds by growing towards the
Phototropism
stimulus, the response is called to be ‘positive’.
Phototropism is a response to light.
If the response is growth away from the
Plant shoots are positively phototropic, as
stimulus it is called to be ‘negative’. Below are
they move toward light in order to allow the
the types of tropisms happening in plants.
plant to absorb more light to photosynthesis
Gravitropism as you can see in figure 15. Plant roots are
Gravitropism (also known as negatively phototropic as they move away
geotropism) is the plants movement toward or from light.
away Earth gravitational pull. In simply way,
plants response to gravity. There are positive
and negative gravitropism depending on the
direction of the plants respond. The shoot is
negatively gravitropic as can be seen in
figure 14. The roots, however, will change
their direction of growth to grow vertically
downwards towards the gravitional pull.
Roots, therefore, are positively gravitropic.
Figure 15. Positive Phototropism

44
PRACTICAL WORK!
(Source: IGCSE Book, 2014)
Let’s Identify the Phototropism Phenomenon!
j. Objective
Identifying the phototropism phenomenon

k. Material and Equipment

The material and equipment needed to identify the phototropism phenomenon:
- 2 cardboard boxes 30 cm tall with cover - Box cutter knife
- 1 7,5 x 7,5 cm piece of clear and red cellophane - Water
- Piece of cardboard - Spray bottle
- 2 full spectrum light bulbs - Camera
- Ruler - 8 bean seeds
- 2 small lamps - 4 small pots

l. Procedure
Follow the procedure below systematically!
 Prepare all of materials and equipment.
 Put two bean seeds in two different pots.
 Water those two bean seeds and wait them to appear going up to the ground.
 Prepare two boxes and make a hole 5 cm in diameter (at the side) about 7,5 cm from the
bottom of each boxes.
 Stick the clear cellophane over the hole.
 Stick the red cellophane over the hole in another box.
 Place one plant 5 cm away from the cellophane window in the first box the other plant in the
second box with the same distance.
 Capture the result of plants in looking downward from the top of the box.
 Place the boxes on different sides of the same room.
 Put the lamps next to the boxes on the side with the cellophane window.
 Make sure that the lamps are in the same distance on the sides of each box.
 Put the cover on each box.
 Every morning, turn on each lamp. Every night, turn off the lamps before you go to bed.
 Leave the plants to grow for a week.
 After a week has passed, remove the cover and take a photo looking downward.
 Then remove the plants and take a photo from the front.

m. Result
Please fill the table below based on your analyses
Clear Cellophane Coloured Cellophane
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
45
SUMMARY

 The co-ordination is carried by two systems: The nervous system and endocrine system.
 The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that
transfer signals between different parts of the body.
 The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the Central nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral
nervous System (PNS).
 Each neuron has nucleus, soma (body cell), axon, dendrite, myelin sheath, node of ranvier, schwann cell,
and motor end plate/terminal button/axon terminal.
 Neuron has three types: sensory, relay and motor neuron.
 Basically, nerve impulse appears from the existence of stimulus, receptors (sensory neurons),
coordinator (brain or spinal cord), effectors (motor neuron) and response.
 Reflex arc is a neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, a direct response to a
particular stimulus.
 The examples of reflex arc are the contraction of pupil when a bright light shines in the eyes and the
contraction of a muscle in response to stretching.
 There are two kinds of movements/actions: voluntary and involuntary actions. A voluntary action is an
action that is thought of and consciously performed by the person. While involuntary action is one which
occurs without the conscious choice of organism.
 Sense organs are groups of sensory cells responding to specific stimuli, such as light, sound, touch,
temperature and chemicals. The examples of sense organs are the eyes, ears, skin, nose and mouth.
 Endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth
and development, tissue, sexual function, reproduction, etc.
 A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs.
 Tropisms are the growth movements related to the directional stimuli. Two kinds of tropisms are
gravitropism and phototropism.
 Gravitropism (also known as geotropism) is the plants movement toward or away Earth gravitational
pull. Meanwhile, phototropism is a response to light.

46
EXERCISE
1. The periodic gap among myelin sheath along the axon is known as…
a. Synapse
b. Ranvier Node
c. Myelin sheath
d. Axon terminal

2. Which of the following is the correct sequence of event?

a. Effector – sensory neuron – motor neuron – receptor
b. Receptor – motor neuron – sensory neuron – effector
c. Receptor – effector – sensory neuron – motor neuron
d. Receptor – sensory neuron – motor neuron – effector

3. What is the stimulus for sense organ (eye)?

a. Light
b. Chemical
c. Sound
d. Smell
4. What are the three types of neuron?
a. Motor neuron, sensory neuron, and relay neuron
b. Sensory neuron, motor neuron, and effector neuron
c. Relay neuron, receptor neuron, and motor neuron
d. Receptor neuron, effector neuron, and relay neuron

5. The stem of plants will bend towards where the sunlight comes. The event is called…
a. Positive Gravitropism
b. Positive Phototropism
c. Negative Gravitropism
d. Negative Phototropism

6. The CNS (Central Nervous System) is made up of…

a. Spinal cord and dendrites

47
 b. Brain and Axon
c. Spinal cord and brain
d. Brain and cytoplasm

7. How the nervous system works?

a. The nervous system works by allowing oxygen in the air to be taken into the body
b. The nervous system works by moving foods through the tract
c. The nervous system works by regulating the body’s growth
d. The nervous system works by sending electrical impulses along nerves

8. Below are the examples of voluntary actions. Except…

a. Raising the hand when asking the questions
b. Picking up the book when falling
c. Coughing to get rid of foreign particles
d. Running when avoiding the dangerous thing

9. Controlling the amount of lights entering the eyes is the function of…
a. Pupil
b. Cornea
c. Retina
d. Iris

10. Molecules travel in the blood and are used for signaling in the body is the definition of…
a. Neurons
b. Hormones
c. Dendrites
d. Endocrines

48
49
Reproduction

Have you ever wondered why we have a sister

What to learn: or brother? Why the plants in front of our house
- Asexual growth, and why the cat can have a lot of kittens? Yes,
Reproduction that’s because of reproduction process. No single
- Sexual Reproduction organism can stay live forever, but part of it lives on
- Sex hormones in
in its offspring. Offspring are produced by the
humans
- Methods of birth process of reproduction. This process may be sexual
control in humans or asexual, but in either case it results in the
- Sexual Reproduction continuation of the species.
Disease

50
 Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a mechanism blue-green color and a powdery look. Spores
which takes place in the development of one are spread by air currents and, once they
parent's genetically identical offspring. enter an appropriate layer, become a fresh
Asexual implies without sex, which does not mycelium.
involve gametes (sexual cells). That cell
becomes a separate organism and in reality
in a single-celled Protista or in bacteria the
cell divides into two cells. A part of the body
may evolve and become a different entity in
more complex organisms. For instance an in
the soil planting small piece of stem develops
roots and becomes a whole plant. This
reproductive method is called asexual Figure 2. Penicillium sp

reproduction without the development of (Source: https://www.cambridge.org)

gametes (sex cells).

Asexual Reproduction of
Asexual Reproduction of
Bacteria
Fungi
Bacteria propagate by separation or
Fungi have male and asexual
fission of cells. Let's look at Figure 2. In some
reproductive strategies. They produce single-
cases, this cell division can take place every
celled, haploid spores in the asexual method.
20 minutes so that a large bacterial colony
They are spread, often by air currents, and
can be produced in a very short time.
when they enter an acceptable condition,
fresh hyphae grow into mycelium.
Penicillium and Mucore are sources of mold
fungi developing on rotting fruit or vegetable
matter. Figure 1 indicates that mycelium
expands over the meal, digests it and
consumes nutrients. We lend the colony a

51
 Figure 3. Daffodil bulb; vegetative
Figure 2. Binary Fission of Bacteria
propagation
(Source: Pearson Education)
(Source: https://www.cambridge.org)

Every bacterial cell can be divided

When vegetative propagation occurs
into two, and each daughter cell becomes a
naturally, it results from the growth of a
separate bacterium, which is one explanation
lateral bud on a stem that is commonly close
why a limited number of bacteria will severely
to or below the soil. Instead of just having a
contaminate our food products.
branch, the bud creates a full plant with roots,
Flowering Plants Asexual stems and leaves. When the old stem dies, the
new plant becomes separate of the parent
Reproduction that created the seed.
Although all flowering plants
propagate sexually (which is why they have
flowers), many of them have asexual methods Animals Asexual Reproduction
as well. Several of these asexual approaches
Many species of invertebrate animals
(also referred to as ' vegetative propagation
can reproduce asexually. Hydra is a small
') are defined in Figure 3.
animal, 5–10 mm long, living in ponds

52
 attached to pondweed. It traps small animals with its tentacles, swallows them and digests
them. Hydra reproduces sexually by releasing its male and female gametes into the atmosphere,
but it also has an asexual process as shown in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4. Hydra Asexual Reproduction

(Source: BJYU’s learning app)

Hydra reproduces asexually from mature hydra developing its bud and formed new bud
until it is growth becoming new hydra. To make you more understanding about this topic, let’s do
the experiment. Please check in the next page.

53
PRACTICAL WORK!
Can you see the growth of pollen tubes?

n. Objective
Observing the growth of pollen tubes
o. Material and Equipment
The material and equipment needed are:
- Milk 500mL
- Sodium borate
- Sucrose
- Water
- Needle
- Microscope
- Flower plants

p. Procedure
Follow the procedure below systematically!
 Process 15 g saccharide and 0,1 g sodium borate in 100 cm3 of water.
 On a cavity slide, place a drop of this solution and sprinkle on the fell, a few grains of pollen. This
can be done by scraping the anther with a positioned needle (which must have opened already to
expose the pollen) or just tap on the anther at liquid drop.
 Cover the decrease with the cover and test the microscope for about 15 minutes. Pollen tubes from
seeds can in some cases be seen.
 Rose, narcissus, tulip, bluebell, lupine, wall flowers, sweet pea or dead nettle are ideal for
appropriate plants but a 15% sucrose solution may not all be suitable. Solutions varying between
5 and 20 percent might be useful.
 Record and draw the observation on the table below

q. Result
Please fill the table below based on your analyses
Name of Flower Plants Observation

54
 Sexual Reproduction
Fusion of zygote and the development Figure 5 below, which is called gametes for
of two genetically different gametes (sex the sex cells of all live organisms.
cells) is called sexual reproduction. In the
nucleus of a gamete, fertilization is a
description. Plants and animals are similarly
protected by the following statements. The
formation of sex cells involves sexual
reproduction. These sex cells are known as
gametes, formed in reproductive organs. The
process of gametes-producing cell division is
termed meiosis. Male gamete is microscopic
and flexible in plants and animals (i.e. it can
be transported from one position to another). Figure 5. Plants Sexual Reproduction
(Source: Bioscience Farming.org)
Plants Sexual Reproduction
The male gamete is in pollen grain in
Sexual reproduction in plants
flowering plants; the female Gamete is in the
influenced by some factors, to learn deeper,
ovule called an egg cell. To order to produce
please pay attention to the explanation
fertilization, the male cell nucleus of pollen
below.
grain will enter and attach the female nucleus
Fertilization Process of the egg cell of the ovule.
Pollination
When a pollinated anther has landed
on a stigma, pollination shall be complete. If Pollination is the transfer of pollen
the flora is to produce grains, a process called grains to stigma from the anther. Pollination is
fertilization must follow pollination. The called the transfer of pollen from anther to
fertilization arises in all living organisms when stigma. The anthers divided up, revealing the
a male sex cell and a female sex cell interact pollen grains microscopically. The pollen
and unite. The cell created by this merger is grains are then carried away or simply blown
called a zygote and becomes an animal or by the wind on the insects ' bodies and can
plant embryo. Bear in mind the image of land on another flora's stigma.

55
 Self-pollination involves moving
pollen grains to the stigma of the same flora
from the anther of the flower or another flora
on the same flower. Cross-pollination is the
transfer to a stigma of the flora of pollen
grains on another plant of the same species
from the Anther of the Flower. The pollen
reaching the stigma comes from the same
flora or another flora on the same plant in
self-pollinated plants.
In cross pollination, pollen in another
plant of the same kind is transported from the
anthers of one flower into the stigma of the
stigma. The self-pollination would occur if the
bee carried pollen from one of the younger
flowers close to the middle of the lupine to an
older flower near the bottom.
However, the bee would become
cross-pollinated if it visited a separate lupine
and pollinated its flowers. The term ‘cross-
pollination’, applied only if there are genetic
differences between the two plants that
involved.
Insect pollination
Lupine seeds don't have nectar. The
bees who visit them gather pollen and carry it
back to the hive for honey. Nectar is provided
by other members of the lupine family (e.g.,
Leguminosae). The body weights these two
petals and the petals of the kel when it sits on
the floral wings. The pollen from the anti-keel
has been collected and the stigma and long
stamina push the pollen out from the keel on
56
the underside of the bee, as the petals are
pressed down. The bee flies to another
flower, with pollen grains sticking to its body.
It will have lost its pollen if this flower is older
than the former.
Only the stigma comes down when the
weight of the bee drives the keel back. This
reaches the body of the bug and collects
pollen on its sticky surface. Examples of bee
pollinated flowers include lupine and
wallflower.
Wind pollination
Grasses, cereals and many plants, not
organisms but wind currents, pollinate
themselves. Often the flowers are very small,
not petals but rather strange, dark, leaf-like
bracts. No nectar is produced. The anthers
and stigma are not bract-closed, nor air-
exposed. The light and smooth pollen grains
can be carried over long distances by moving
air and some are trapped in other flowers '
stigmas.
The feathery stigmas arise from the
field in the grasses first and pollen grains are
captured by the flower. Later the anthers will
hang outside the flora, the pollen bags will be
divided and the wind will blow away the
pollen. This pattern is distinct from one animal
to another. If the birch or hazel tree branches
with ripe male catkins or the ornamental
pampa grass flowers shake up, a pollen
shower is easily visible.
Germination
There are some factors that influence the
germination process, which are water,
oxygen, and temperature.
Water importance in the seedling
Most seeds contain very little water
when first spread. Its metabolism is slow in this
dehydrated state and its food reserves are
not consumable. The dry seeds can also
survive extreme temperatures and drying.
Seeds must absorb water before the
necessary metabolic changes for germination
take place. Water is first consumed in certain
animals via the micro Pyle, accompanied by a
whole examination. The water from the soil
will absorb, especially through the root hair,
once the radicle has developed.
The importance of Oxygen
In certain seeds the check is not very
oxygen-durable and potentially anaerobic at
the early stages of germination. The oxygen
test is allowed to enter when swallowed or
split. Oxygen is used for aerobic ventilation,
and provides energy to activate the food
reserves and to create the fresh cytoplasm
and cello walls of increasing planting for the
many chemical changes involved.
Temperature importance in germination
The increase in temperature
accelerates certain chemical reactions,
including in living organisms. Germination thus
occurs more quickly, up to approximately 40
° C at high temperatures. The cells are
denatured by enzymes and seedlings are
killed at over 45 ° C. Germination may not
begin at all in some seeds below certain
temperatures (e.g. 0-4 ° C). However, the
temperature range at which seeds of
different species germinate is considerably
variable.
Animals Sexual Reproduction
In most cases, different types in
individuals bear either the reproductive
organs of the male or female. Some organisms
such as earthworm are hermaphrodite, since
both sexes are present in the same body.
Figure 6. Sexual reproduction of frog
(Source: Pearson Education)
Fertilization is generally done within a
female, and this kind of fertilization is known
as internal fertilization, which are not egg-
laying animals. The female sets the eggs from
which a new organism develops in lower
organisms, such as an amphibian, rodents, etc.
In figure 6 above, we can see the sexual
reproduction of amphibian as frog.
57
Human Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction is a process of creating
new individuals. The two sexes, men and
women, produce special types of
reproductive cells, called gametes in human
reproduction. The semen (or embryo) is male
gametes and the ovum (singular= ovum) or
ovum is female gametes. A sperm must enter
an ovum and touch it (fuse with it). In order to
produce a new individual, the sperm nucleus
then enters the ovum and the two nuclei also
fuse together. This is about fertilization. Figure
7 shows how sexual reproduction in humans is
fertilized and developed.
Figure 7. Fertilization and development of
human sexual reproduction
(Source: Khan Academy)
A zygote is called the cell formed
after sperm fertilization of the ovum. A zygote
will be producing first an embryo and then a
fully formed animal through a cell division.
Males produce millions of sperm in humans
while women produce smaller eggs (usually
one a month for 40 years). Just one egg is
normally fertilized at a time; two eggs are
58
simultaneously fertilized producing (non-
identical) twins.
Production of Gametes
Sperm production
The tubules in the testis are composed
of the lining of the sperm-producing tubules.
The cells grow long tails named flagella
(singular: flagellum) after a series of cell
divisions and become sperm, which passes into
the epididymis. The epididymis and sperm
ducts contract after copulation, and drive
sperm through the urethra. Prostate gland and
seminal vesicle add sperm fluid. This fluid plus
the sperm it includes is called semen, and
sperm ejection through the foreskin is known
as ejaculation.
Ovulation
From the time of birth, egg cells (ova)
have been present in an ovary. The egg cells
are no longer formed throughout the female's
life, but some of them start to ripen and are
released from alternative ovaries, about
every four weeks. As each ovum matures, the
cells around it quickly split and produce a sack
full of fluid. This bag is called a follicle and it
projected like a small blister when it was
mature from the surface of the ovary. Finally,
the follicle explodes and releases the ovum
into the oviduct funnel with its cell layer. It is
known as ovulation.
Fertilization
 Through their arms, the sperm swims
through the cervix and into the uterus. We
leave the uterus and reach the oviduct, but it
is not known for sure how they do this. If the
oviduct contains an ovum, one of the sperm
will crash into its surface and adhere to it. An
enzyme which digests the part of the egg
membrane is secreted from the sperm's
acrosome. The sperm then fuses with the ovum
cytoplasm and with the female nucleus, the
male nucleus of the sperm. This is when
fertilization is taking place. Although a single
ejaculation may contain over three hundred
million sperm, only a few hundred will reach
the oviduct and only one will fertilize the
ovum.
Human Sexual Hormones
Sex hormones affect growth,
development, sexual behavior and
reproduction cycles. The main sources of
gonads (testis on men and ovaries of women).
Three primary forms of steroid gonad
hormones are formed and secreted by
gonads: androgens, estrogens and progestin.
Each of these three types is found in different
proportions in males and females. The studies
are mainly androgens, with testosterone as
the primary precursor.
In humans, testosterone acts first
before birth, facilitating the production of
male reproductive structures. Androgens
again play a major role in puberty when they
are responsible for the development of male
secondary sex characteristics. High
concentrations of androgen lead to low voice
and male hair growth patterns, as well as
increased muscle and bone mass.
Estrogens, which are most essential
with estradiol, sustain the reproductive system
of the female and improve the secondary
sexual properties of the female. Progesterone
is mainly a part of the preparation and
maintenance of uterine tissues needed to
support the development and development of
the embryo in mammals.
Methods of Birth Control in
Human
Natural methods
1. Abstinence
This is the most obvious way of
preventing a pregnancy. This involves a
couple avoiding sexual intercourse. In this
way, sperm cannot come into contact with an
egg and fertilization cannot happen.
2. Monitoring body temperature
If it were possible to know exactly
when ovulation occurred, intercourse could be
avoided for 3–4 days before and 1 day
after ovulation. At the moment, however, there
is no simple, reliable way to recognize
ovulation, though it is usually 12–16 days
before the onset of the next menstrual period.
By keeping careful records of the intervals
59
between menstrual periods, it is possible to
calculate a potentially fertile period of about
10 days in mid-cycle, when sexual intercourse
should be avoided if children are not wanted.
Chemicals methods
1. Spermicides
Spermicides are chemicals which,
though harmless to the tissues, can kill or
immobilize sperm. The spermicide, in the form
of a cream, gel or foam, is placed in the
vagina. On their own, spermicides are not
very reliable but, in conjunction with condoms
or diaphragms, they are effective.
2. Intra-uterine device (IUD)
A small T-shaped plastic and copper
device, also known as a coil, can be inserted
by a doctor or nurse into the wall of the uterus,
where it probably prevents implantation of a
fertilized ovum. It is about 98% effective but
there is a small risk of developing uterine
infections, and it does not protect against STIs.
3. Intra-uterine system (IUS)
This is similar to an IUD; is T-shaped and
releases the hormone progesterone slowly
over a long period of time (up to 5 years). The
hormone prevents ovulation. An IUS does not
protect against STIs.
4. Contraceptive pill
The pill contains chemicals, which have
the same effect on the body as the hormones
estrogen and progesterone. When mixed in
suitable proportions these hormones suppress
ovulation and so prevent conception. The pills
60
need to be taken each day for the 21 days
between menstrual periods.
Surgical methods
1. Male sterilization – vasectomy
This is a simple and safe surgical
operation in which the man’s sperm ducts are
cut and the ends sealed. This means that his
semen contains the secretions of the prostate
gland and seminal vesicle but no sperm, so
cannot fertilize an ovum. Sexual desire,
erection, copulation and ejaculation are quite
unaffected. The testis continues to produce
sperm and testosterone. The sperm are
removed by white cells as fast as they form.
The testosterone ensures that there is no loss
of masculinity. The sperm ducts can be
rejoined by surgery but this is not always
successful.
2. Female sterilization – laparotomy
A woman may be sterilized by an
operation in which her oviducts are tied,
blocked or cut. The ovaries are unaffected.
Sexual desire and menstruation continue as
before, but sperm can no longer reach the
ova. Ova are released, but break down in the
upper part of the oviduct.
Methods of Barrier
1. Sheath or condom
A thin rubber sheath is placed on the erect
penis before sexual intercourse. The sheath
traps the sperm and prevents them from
reaching the uterus. It also prevents the
transmission of sexually transmitted infections
(STIs).
2. Diaphragm
A thin rubber disc, placed in the vagina
before intercourse, covers the cervix and
stops sperm entering the uterus. Condoms and
diaphragms, used in conjunction with chemicals
that immobilize sperm, are about 95%
effective. However, a diaphragm does not
prevent the risk of transmission of STIs.
3. Femidom
This is a female condom. It is a sheath or
pouch, made of polyurethane or rubber, with
a flexible ring at each end. The ring at the
closed end of the sheath is inserted into the
vagina to hold the femidom in place. The ring
at the open end is placed outside the vagina.
During sexual intercourse, semen is trapped
inside the femidom. A femidom reduces the
risk of infection by STIs.
Sexual Reproduction Disease
in Human
The AIDS initials represent the
immune-deficiency syndrome acquired. The
virus which causes AIDS is the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). (A' syndrome' is
a pattern of symptoms associated with a
particular disease.) Years may pass before
the symptoms develop after a individual is
infected.
Therefore, people are not yet able to
bear the virus. But other individuals can still be
contaminated. Where will AIDS come in at the
end of the day, it is not known for sure: 30–
50% or higher. Direct blood infection
transmits HIV. The risk of disease is high for
consumers of medications who exchange
needles contaminated with infected blood.
It can also be transmitted sexually,
both between men and women and,
especially, between homosexual men who
practice anal intercourse. Beside aids there
are also some disease that influenced
reproduction system that will be explain
below. Diseases related to the human
reproductive system include:
Gonorrhea is a venereal disease
caused by a bacterial infection of Neisseria
gonorrhea. This disease is transmitted through
sexual contact with signs / symptoms of pain,
swelling and suppuration of the genitals.
Syphilis is caused by bacterial
infection of Treponema pallidum, with
symptoms of genital injury, tongue and lips,
and swollen lymph nodes.
Genital herpes is a disease caused by
the Herpes simplex virus with symptoms of
watery nodules (grouping) which if broken will
leave dry sores crunching.
Prevention and Treatment
Well, you already know how
dangerous the diseases that attack the
reproductive organs. For that you have to
61
prevent it from being infected. How? Of
course for those of you who are teenagers,
the main way is not to have sex outside of
marriage and changing partners. In addition,
you also need to be careful when performing
blood transfusions and in the use of medical
and non-medical devices must be sterile and
62
maintain personal and environmental
hygiene. If all that has been done but still
infected, immediately contact a doctor or
health worker, to be treated thoroughly for
example by administering certain antibiotics.
Obey how to treat according to instructions to
ensure recovery.
SUMMARY

Asexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction is a mechanism leading to genetically identical offspring developed
by one parent.
 Reproduction without gametes or fertilization takes place without the asexual.
 Asexually, mushrooms can reproduce with one cell spores.
 Asexually reproduces by vegetative replication several flowering plants.
 Plants asexually replicate if some buds are developed into new plants.
 A genetically identical person is created through vegetative propagation.

Sexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction consists of a process involving a fusion of the nucleus with two gametes
(sex cells) to create a zygote and a genetic distinction between offspring.
 Semen is a male gamete. The nucleus of pollen is the male gamete of a flowering plant.
 Female gamete is called an egg. An egg cell in an egg cell is a women's gamete in a
flowering plant.
 Fertilization is a nucleus gametes synthesis.

Sexual reproduction in plants

 The flowers comprise the reproductive organs of the plant.
 The male organs are the stamens. We produce pollen grains containing the male gamete.
 Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of a
flower on the same plant or on another plant.
 Pollination forms are self-pollination and cross-pollination
 Fertilization begins when the pollen tube expands from the pollen kernel to the ovaries
and to the ovules.
 Upon fertilization, the ovaries grow rapidly to become flowers, and the ovules become
seeds.

63
SUMMARY
Sexual reproduction in humans
 Male cells (gametes) in the reproduction are eggs. They are formed and removed
for the remainder of the coupling via urethra and penis.
 Ova (eggs) are the reproductive cells of the woman. The ovaries are produced.
Every month, one is released. The ovum can also be fertilized if there is sperm, as
the oviduct flows into the uterus.
 When a sperm reaches into an ovum the fertilization is performed and the semen
and the egg-core (fuse) are attached.
Sex hormones in humans
 Throughout puberty the tests and ovaries establish secondary sexual properties and
begin to generate mature gametes.
 Each month the vaginal lining is readily thickened for a fertilized ovum. The vagina,
known as menstruation, loses the lining and certain blood if an ovum is not fertilized.
 •Secrete the estrogens and progesterone endocrine glands.
Methods of birth control in humans.
 There are effective ways of separating births and limiting the size of a family. Thes
e include natural, chemical, barrier and surgical procedures.
 Hormones may be used to regulate fertility, including abortion and to facilitate the
production of egg cells.
Reproduction System Disease in Humans
 HIV affects the immune system by reducing the number of lymphocytes and by
reducing the ability of antibodies to develop AIDS
 Gonorrhea is a venereal disease caused by a Neisseria gonorrhea bacterial
infection.
 Building signs with vaginal, lip and tongue infections and swollen lymph nodes are a
sign for bacterial infection of Treponema pallidum.
 Herpes genital is a disease caused by a basic virus of Herpes with symptoms of
watery nodules (grouping) that leave the dry sore when removed.

64
EXERCISE
1. Amoeba and Yeast reproduce asexually by fission and budding respectively, because
they are…
a. Microscopic organisms
b. Heterotrophic organisms
c. Unicellular organisms
d. Multicellular organisms.

2. A few statements with regard to sexual reproduction are given below:

i. Sexual reproduction does not always require two individuals

ii. Sexual reproduction generally involves fusion of gamete
iii. Meiosis never occurs during sexual reproduction
iv. External fertilization is a rule during sexual reproduction
Choose the correct statements from the options below…
a. i and iv
b. i and ii
c. ii and iii
d. i and iv

3. Given below are a few comments concerning to external fertilization. Choose the correct
comments…

i. The male and female gametes are formed and released simultaneously
ii. Only a few gametes are released into the medium
iii. Water is the medium in a majority of organisms exhibiting external fertilization
iv. Offspring formed as a result of external fertilization have better chance of survival
than those formed inside an organism

a. iii and iv
b. i and iii
c. ii and iv
d. i and iv

4. Offspring formed by sexual reproduction exhibit more variation than those formed by
asexual reproduction because of…
a. Sexual reproduction is a lengthy process
b. Gametes of parents have qualitatively different genetic composition
c. Genetic material comes from parents of two different species
d. Greater amount of DNA is involved in sexual reproduction.

65
 5. There is no natural death in single celled organisms like Amoeba and bacteria because:
a. They cannot reproduce sexually
b. They reproduce by binary fission
c. Parental body is distributed among the offspring
d. They are microscopic

6. Which of the following is a post-fertilization event in flowering plants?

a. Transfer of pollen grains
b. Embryo development
c. Formation of flower
d. Formation of pollen grains

7. When a female’s body releases an egg it is known as…

a. fertilization
b. Fallopian
c. DNA
d. Ovulation

8. The testes produce a hormone called…

a. testosterone
b. sperm
c. estrogen
d. meiosis

9. Two hormones that occur in both male and female would be…
a. Testosterone and Progesterone
b. Testosterone and LH
c. Progesterone and FSH
d. FSH and LH

10. The correct statement below about the relationship between sexual reproduction disease
and its caused is…
a. Syphilis is caused by bacterial infection of Treponema pallidum
b. Genital herpes is a disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus
c. AIDS is a disease caused by the herpes simplex virus
d. Gonorrhea is is a venereal disease caused by a bacterial infection of Treponema
pallidum

66
67
Inheritance

What to learn: Have you ever looking at photos of your mother /

father when they were young? If you compare your
- Inheritance
parents' photos at your age with your current physics, you
- Chromosomes,
will see something interesting. Yep! You are like twins!
genes, and proteins
- Mitosis There are similarities right? Why did it happen? Let’s check

- Meiosis it out to find the answer!

- Monohybrid
Inheritance

68
 Inheritance
Inheritance is a derived trait from the of genetics and published “Experiments in
first generation to the next generation. In Plant Hybridization” at Proceedings of
humans, inheritance is inherited from parents the Natural History Society in 1866
to their children. An influential trait in this Pea Plants as the Object of Mendel’s
inheritance is the chromosome that causes Experiment
similarities. When we have a similarity face
Have you ever seen pea plants grow faster
with brother or sister, have you asked what
when we compared to other plants?
factor affected this? Let’s check it out!

Mendel’s Law About

Inheritance
Father of Genetics

Figure 2. Pea Plants (Pisum Sativum L)

(Source: https://www.burpee.com/)

Mendel learns the inheritance of seven

different features in peas, including height,
Figure 3. Gregor Johann Mendel flower color, seed color, and seed shape. To
(Source : https://www.britannica.com/)
do so, Mendel sets the nut line with two distinct
shapes of a feature, such as a high vs. short
Gregor Johann Mendel, known as
height. He grew these lines for several
“Father of Modern Genetics”, was born in
generations until they breed purely (always
Austria, 20 July 1822. Mendel known as
producing offspring identical to the parents),
“Father of Modern Genetics”. He has
then raised them to each other and observe
pioneered the cross of organisms through
how the nature is inherited. In addition to
research using the objects of Cardamera beans
noting how the plants in each generation
(Pea Plants). Mendel was known as the Father

69
 appear, Mendel calculates the exact
 The two paired factors separated
number of plants that show each trait. Then he
during gamete production, such that
found a very similar pattern of inheritance to
all seven features he learned. each gamete (sperm or egg)
randomly received just one factor.
In 1865, Mendel presented the results
 The factors controlling different
of his experiments with nearly 30,000 pea
plants to the local Natural History Society. characteristics were inherited
Based on the patterns he observed, the independently of one another.
counting data he collected, and a
mathematical analysis of his results, Mendel Reason behind Mendel’s choose

proposed a model of inheritance in which: pea plants are as explained below:

 Characteristics such as flower colour,  Life cycle of pea plants is relatively

plant height, and seed shape were
controlled by pairs of heritable
factors that came in different versions.
 One version of a factor (the dominant
form) could mask the presence of
another version (the recessive form).
short, they are able to multiply plants
faster
 Pea plants are easily crossed plants,
such as high-stem, short-stalk plants
 Flower shape of pea plants has
perfect flower shape
 A variety of different, it makes us
easy to observe plant

70
 Chromosomes, Genes, and
Proteins
Chromosomes, genes, and Based on figure 3, autosomal can
affect X chromosomes to woman or man
proteins randomly.
Inheritance is process by which a
posterity cell or living being obtained or
become presdipose to attributes of its parent
cell or living being. Through inheritance,
varieties displayed by people can collect and
make an animal categories develop. From
here we can pull out the statements that
inheritance is transmitting from age to age,
from one chromosome to another. Part of
inheritance, including chromosomes, genes, Figure 3: Autosomal recessive

and proteins as described below: source: (https://www.kintalk.org/)

Chromosomes It happens because

Chromosomes are composed of abnormal gene located on X
genetic material that carries information or is chromosome and called X linked
called chromatin to its descendants. Every inheritance. Autosomal serves to
living things creature has 2 types of regulate and control the nature of the
chromosomes, which are chromosomes body in living creatures. Autosomal
(autosomal) and genital chromosome were found in males and females with
(gonosomal). What is the difference between the same number and paired
autosomal and gonosomal? (diploid). Autosomal has some
characteristics, as described below:
Autosomal
a) Cells in the body are somatic,
meaning cells that reside in the

71
 body and do not include a Structure of Chromosomes :
gametes cell (e.g. sperm or
Have you ever seen chromosome
egg). Somatic cells are the
under a microscope? Can you guess what type
supporting cells that make up
of chromosome is? Is it human chromosomes or
the cell body of the organism.
animal chromosomes?
But not the primary cell.
b) Autosomal cells are diploid
(2n). Diploid means that cell
that contain two chromosomes
c) Autosomal is mitosis division
cell
d) The amount of autosomal twice
than gonosomal
Gonosomal Figure 4 : Human chromosomes under
microscope
It has several other names,
Source : (http://www.sciencesource.com/)
such as heterocromosomes or genital
chromosomes. Chromosomes have
Figure 4. representing human
different arrangements between
chromosomes under the microscope, with
males and females. In humans, there
amplification 25,000 x. One of human
are 1 or 2 pairs of chromosomes. Just
chromosome of each pair has recreated
like fruit flies, have the same amount
during cell division to shape an
of chromosomes.
indistinguishable duplicate, or chromatid. The
Gonosomal has some characteristics,
chromatids of a couple are joined at the
as described below :
centromere, which partitions a chromatid into
a) The function of gonosomal is a
two uneven locales. Chromosomes are
cell that exists in genital area
available in the core of each cell of the body.
b) Gonosomal has haploid
They comprise of hereditary material, DNA
characteristics
(deoxyribonucleic corrosive), in relationship
c) Meiosis division cell
with proteins. Most human cells contain 46
d) The amount of gonosomal is
chromosomes, 23 acquired from the mother
half than autosomal
and 23 from the dad.

72
Genes
According to Thomas Hunt Morgan
(1911), said that genes is a hereditary
substance that resides in a locus inside a
chromosome. Which each of these genes has
different functions and tasks. The first gene
function according to Thomas is to determine
inherited traits. Second to give information to
the next generation and the last is to regulate
metabolism as well as development.
Genotype is a collection of genes in living
things. The properties of genotyping are
invisible, and will bring out phenotype
properties. Have you ever watched, in a gene
symbol there are uppercase and lowercase
letters? For example, there is Mm. (M)
signifying the gene's dominant nature,
whereas (m) signifies the recessive. Let’s
analyze pictures below :
Figure 5 : Family pictures
Source : (http://www.assante.com/)
If you see carefully, is there any
similarity between those 3 people? For
example, from hair type, skin type, or eyes?
Facial and structure likenesses are affected
by the qualities conveyed by the chromosome.
Simultaneously, an infant is created from a
gathering between the sperm cell and the
egg. Both sperm and egg cells each convey
an inherited quality to the hatchling that is in
the mother's belly. It tends to be said that
qualities are a conveyor of human instinct. This
quality that will later have the option to
decide a kid progressively like their dad or
mom, regardless of whether from the face,
physical, even the characteristics of the little
one.
Genes are located at the nucleus of
the cell and are composed of DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) where a set of DNA
will form a dense structure called
chromosomes. This DNA will be derived from
the parents to his descendants.
Human-owned genes are a mixture
of genes from the father and genes of the
mother, the term dominant gene is a gene that
can determine the physical appearance
(phenotype) of an organism while the
recessive gene does not have a significant
impact on appearance Physical individual. A
homozygous phenomenon arises when an
organism has an identical (equal) Alleles for a
character, whereas a heterozygous
phenomenon arises when an organism has 2
distinct alleles for a character. In
heterozygous cases, the phenotype that will
appear in an individual will be determined by
73
the allele of the dominant nature of the Table1. Transcription and Translation in
characters Protein
Protein Transcription Translation
Protein synthesis is a process of Purpose RNA Protein
protein involving two aspects, namely DNA synthesize synthesize
(Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribose Place Genome mRNA
Nucleic Acid). In the process of protein Location Nucleus Cytoplasm
synthesis, DNA molecules are the source of Enzyme RNA are Ribosome are
coding nucleic acids to become amino acids enyzme enzyme
that compose proteins but are not directly Initiation Binding RNA Binding tRNA to
involved in the process. The DNA molecule of polymer AUG codon
a cell is transcribed into an RNA molecule. The Pre-cursor 4 nitrogen 20 different
RNA molecule is the one that is transform into base : amino acid
amino acids as protein compilers. RNA Adenine,
molecules are the most important role in the guanin,
protein synthesis process. The relationship cytosine,
between DNA molecules, RNA, and amino precursor
acids in the process of protein formation is Lengthening RNA Ribosome moves
known as the "Central Dogma of Biology" polymerase to the next
which is spelled out with the DNA process extends from codon position
series of making DNA and RNA, RNA making 5 ′ to 3 ′ from 5 ′ to 3 ′
proteins, expressed in the DNA equation > > direction direction
RNA > > Protein. Like most dogma, there are Bonding Between two Peptide bonding
exceptions to the protein formation process nucleotide from amino acid
based on the evidence found thereafter, so Termination Enzyme Polypeptide
this dogma is finally referred to as the rule release and chain release
Proteins in inheritance of properties DNA
are divided into 2 stages, namely spinning
transcription and translation. To make more Product mRNA , Protein
understand, see the differences in the tRNA, rRNA,
following table 1. non code

74
 Product Addition of 5 The formation of  Autosomal Dominant Inheritance
process ′ to 3 ′ poly a disulfide
tail and bridges,
splicing phosphorylation,
Localization Core of Adding
prokaryote, ribosome
cytoplasm, prokaryote
and cytoplasm,
eukaryote eukaryote to
Figure 6 : Autosomal dominant
reticulum
inheritance illustration
endoplasm.
Source : (http://www.sciencedirect.com)
Autosomal dominant inheritance, one
Patterns of Inheritance
person only needs to inherit one copy of the
Within a population, there may be a number
abnormal gene in order to develop the
of alleles for a given gene. Individuals that
condition. Lynch Syndrome is an example of
have two copies of the same allele are
an autosomal dominant condition. A parent
referred to as homozygous for that allele,
with an autosomal dominant disorder has
and individuals that have copies of different
50/50 chance of passing the disorder to each
alleles are known as heterozygous for that
of his or her children.
allele. The inheritance patterns observed will
depend on whether the allele is found on an  Autosomal Recessive Inheritance
autosomal chromosome or a sex chromosome,
and on whether the allele
is dominant or recessive.
Patterns of inheritance are fairly
straight forward. Depending on gene,
common patterns of inheritance are autosomal
dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked and
mitochondrial, as described below :

Figure 7 : Autosomal recessive inheritance

illustration
Source : (http://www.sciencedirect.com)

75
 In autosomal recessive conditions, a In X-linked inherited conditions, the
person needs to inherit abnormal copies of the abnormal gene is located on the X
gene from both parents in order to develop chromosome. Because women have two copies
the condition. If the person inherits the of the X chromosome and men have one X and
abnormal gene from only one parent, the one Y chromosome, mutations on the X
person is a carrier of the mutation (and can chromosome can affect men and women
pass it on to their children), but does not differently. Duchenne muscular dystrophy,
develop the health problems associated with which is the most common form of muscular
the mutation. If two carriers of the same dystrophy, is an example of an X-linked
autosomal recessive condition have a child condition
together, there’s a 25 percent chance that
their child will have the condition, a 50
percent chance that the child will be a carrier,
and a 25 percent chance that the child will not
inherit any copies of the abnormal gene. This
risk applies to each pregnancy. Examples of
autosomal recessive conditions include cystic
fibrosis and sickle cell disease.

 X-Linked Inheritance

Figure 8 : X-Linked Inheritance Illustration

Source : (http://sciencedirect.com/)

76

Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, which
are body cells. Mitosis cell division produces a
pair of (2n) chromosomal which occurs the
process of division of the nucleus into two
nucleus and each tiller receives a set of
chromosomes. A set of chromosomes is the
form of fine threads that amount to the
amount of the parent's cell chromosome.
Function of mitosis is to retain genetic
factors from next generation to generation
remains normal and keep the saplings cells
that are formed still have their parent
properties without any change of the nature
itself.
Mitosis Cell Division
Mitosis cell division means
chromosome in the cell nuclei are separated
into two identical sets of chromosomes, each in
its own nucleus. The results of the division of
mitosis cells are two women cells that are
genetically identical to each other and stem
cells. They resemble qualitative
quantitative mutually. Her mother
daughter have the same number
chromosomes (2N), and both are haploid.
Therefore, this type of division is also called
the equatorial cell division. Mitosis has several
purposes, which are :
Mitosis
 For Growth
As we know, beginning zygous from 1
cell, which then the cell is experiencing
repeated cleavage – so that the cells – cells
on the zygote become much and grow into a
fetus, at birth, the cell continues to divide so
that the size of the baby grows, then the goal
of cell division in humans, animals and plants
is for growth.
 Repair
We know our cells consist of various
kinds, there are muscle cells, bone cells, blood
cells etc, in carrying out the function of the cells
– the cells will be damaged, for example
when we fall, the part of our body there is a
wound or abrasions, then it is where the cells
the have a cleavage to close our wounds, so also
in red blood cells or damaged white blood
cells will be replaced with new cells.
 Reproduction
In genital cell formation process, through the
stage of meiosis cleavage, that is from a
and diploid cell to a haploid cell, or the number of
and chromosomal cells of the 1/2 of the mother
of number of stem chromosome, from the genital
cell division will form a gametes which is an
ingredient in the process of reproduction.
Mitosis cell division divided into 4 stages, as
described below :
77
  Prophase: At this stage the chromosome is
located lined on the equator field. The
centromere part of the chromosome binds to
the special case in chromosome centromere,
associated with the spindle yarn. In this phase
the chromosome appears most clearly visible
so that the number is easily identifiable.
Metaphase is a stage that
Figure 9 : Mitosis Phase (Prophase)
requires the smallest energy and the shortest
Source : (http://www.utakatik.com/)
time.
 Anaphase
This is the longest and most energy-
consuming mitosis phase. Events that take
place during the prophase are as follows:
 From the chromatin yarn to
chromosomes, then the chromosome
crazes into two chromatids but is still
inherent in one Centromere Figure 11 : Anaphase process
 Core membranes and Nucleoli Source : (http://www.utakatik.com/)
disappear
 The centrosome split into two When the centromere anaphase

centrioles, and among them stretched divides, then the spindle yarn pulls the

out spindles yarn chromosome towards the opposite cell pole.

The movement of the chromosomes is
 Metaphase:
influenced by dynein enzymes.

Figure 10 : Metaphase process

Source : (http://www.utakatik.com/)

78
  Telophaase  Chromosomal transformed into
chromatin yarn
 Core membranes and Nucleoli
reconstituted
 Cytokenesis (cytoplasmic division)
occurs, resulting in two cells identical
to the original cell
Figure 12 : Telophase process
Source : (http://www.utakatik.com/)
At this stage the following events occur:

79
 Meiosis
Meiosis is a special type of cell Figure 14 : Steps in meiosis II
division used by sexually-reproducing Source : (http://www.utakatik.com/)
organisms to produce the gametes, such as
sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of
division that ultimately result in four cells with a. The core membrane starts to
only one copy of Teach chromosome break down (fragments) and
(haploid). Additionally, prior to the division,
forms a cleavage.
genetic material from the paternal and
maternal copies of each chromosome is b. The chromatin yarn thread
crossed over, creating new combinations of starts to blend into a
code on each chromosome. Meiosis cleavage
chromosome and a
divided into two stages, which are meiosis I
and meiosis II. Stages in meiosis are described homologous chromosome start
below : pairing.
c. An exchange of DNA molecule
segments corresponding to the
unequal chromatid.
 Metaphase I:
Chromosome will be lined up in the
field of cleavage.
 Anaphase I:
Figure 13 : Steps in meiosis I
The homologous chromosome will split
Source : (http://www.utakatik.com/)
and start moving to the opposite polar
pole.
 Prophase I
 Telophase I:
This picture is representing the phase in
a) Homologous chromosomes split
Prophase 1.
and move to the opposite
polar
b) Core membranes start to
reform
c) Cytokenesis causes 2 haploid-
cell saplings

80
 Stages of meiosis 2 :
Steps regarding meiosis will be
explained below:
 Prophase II :
a) The core membrane starts to
break down (fragments) and
forms a cleavage
b) The chromatin yarn thread
starts to blend into
chromosome and
homologous chromosome start
pairing
c) An exchange of DNA molecule
segments corresponding to the
unequal chromatid
 Metaphase II :
Chromosome will be lined up in the
field of cleavage.
 Anaphase II :
The homoloous chromosome will split
and start moving to the opposite polar
pole.
 Telophase II :
a Nuclei begin to form, chromosomes
a begin to break down and cytokenesis
occurs.
81
 Monohybrid Cross
Example of monohybrid cross:
 Gregor Mendel’s Peas
Gregor Mendel used monohybrid
crosses to identify dominant and recessive
traits in his landmark experiments with peas.
Figure 15 : Pea plants, used as the object of
Mendel’s experiment.
Source : (http://www.burpee.com/)
Gregor Mendel consider about crops
based on its trunk, So that the variable taken
is a plant that has long stem (LL), and plant
that has short stem (ll). The dominance of
plants that has long stem and short stem,
makes it easy for scientists such as Mendel to
express their genes in inheriting. Breeding a
long-stemmed pea plant with a short-
stemmed pea plant creates offspring that all
have a heterozygous genotype (Ll). As long
stems are dominant, all offspring will have the
long-stemmed phenotype. In different terms,
and as modelled by Gregor Mendel’s classic
82
pea example observing the offspring of a
monohybrid cross allows for determination of
dominant genotypes and, by extension,
dominant phenotypes.
Huntington’s Disease
What is Huntington’s disease and how
it can happened?
Figure 16 : People suffering from
Huntington’s disease
Source:
(http://www.geneticliteracyproject.com/)
Basically, Huntington’s disease is brain
disorder, when normal people has normal
frontal horns of the lateral ventricle, different
with Huntington’s disease is enlargement of
frontal horns of the lateral ventricle. It will
inhibit growth of human thinking.
There is a connection to Huntington's
disease with Monohybrid, talk about
Huntington's progressive degenerative
conditions that occur in 4 to 15 of every
100,000 people in the United States. After no
medication, it was a certain death penalty for
those diagnosed. While little is known about
this condition, geneticists are convinced that it
is inherited through the dominant gene.
At its simplest level, a monohybrid
cross is used to determine the genetic nature
of Huntington's disease. Everyone carries the
proper named Huntingtin gene, the gene in
charge of complications. With this information,
scientists attach the individual Huntingtin
genes that are predominant homozigous to
the condition (HH) with the Huntingtin gene of
a recessive homozygous for the condition
(HH).
Confirming Dominant Traits
In dominant traits, there are several
characteristics that influence, which are :
 Dominant traits can be caused by
heterozygous or homozygous sets of
alleles
 Dominant traits will be more visible in
an organism
 Dominant traits are traits that are
expressed
 In dominant traits, there are
combination between 3 alleles such as
BB, Bb, bb
 Only one alleles that can make
recessive traits, which are bb
 Example of dominant traits, are curly
hair, ability to roll your tongue,
dimples
83
PRACTICAL WORK!
Mendelian Experiment
Tools and Materials :

 6 Beaker Glass
 30 Pairs of red eyelets
 30 Pairs of white eyelets
 30 Pairs of yellow eyelets
 30 Pairs of green eyelets

Procedure :

1. Sit properly
2. Read the worksheet carefully.
3. One of the group representatives took the tool to be used for practicum.
4. Attach the label on the first and second beaker glasses as individual male (♂) generation F1, third
and fourth Beaker Cups as female individual (♀) generation F1. Then the fifth Beaker was pinned
label A and the sixth glass was pinned label B.
5. The experiment is divided into 3, namely:

1) Proving Mendel II law (full domination)

Before starting the experiment, please note the following conditions.

 Genetic buttons are regarded as the gametes containing the dominant or recessive genes produced
by the F1 generation acting as the second parent.
 The red button (B) is dominant against the white button.
 The yellow buttons (K) are dominant against the green buttons (k).
 Coat B for round seeds, and b for wrinkled seeds.
 Coat K for yellow seeds, and k for green seeds.
 Separate the 20 pairs of red and white colored buttons into two equal parts as a male gamete
(prominent buttons) and a female gametes (a basketed button).
 Combine the male gametes each of the red and white studs also the female gametes each of the
red and white studs. Insert the male buttons into the glass labeled ♂ and the female

84
PRACTICAL WORK!
Eyelets as object of experiment:

Source : (http://www. Indonesian.alibaba.com/)

3) Prove false legal irregularities Mendel

A. Before starting the experiment, please note the following conditions.

Genetic buttons are regarded as the gametes containing the dominant or recessive genes produced
by the F1 generation acting as the second parent.
M = red button, m = green button.
P = white button, p = Yellow button.
MM for red flowers.
PP coat for white flower.
When the dominant gene meets another dominant gene that is not as alleles, it produces purple
flowers.
B. Separate 20 pairs of red and green buttons each into 2 equal parts as male and female gametes.
C. Mix the male gametes each of the red and green buttons also the female gametes each of the red
and green buttons. Insert the male buttons into the ♂ glasses and the female buttons to the ♀ glasses.
D. Pair randomly and put in A glass
E. Perform step (a) and (b) for white and yellow buttons, pair them randomly and insert them into
Beaker B.
Information:
 M : red button
 m : green button
 P : white button
 P : yellow button
 MM : red flowers

85
SUMMARY
 Chromosomes owned by organisms can generally be distinguished into two types, namely
the body chromosome (autosomal) and sex chromosome (gonosomal). Autosomes exist in
both male and female individuals and the properties brought have nothing to do with
gender determination. Gonosomal is a chromosome that determines the gender of an
individual.
 The chromosome structure consists of centromere and arms. The or gene is a part of the
chromosome where the spindels yarn threads are wrapped in the role of moving the
chromosomes during the cell division. This section is round and does not contain genes.
Centromere also known as chromosome Center.
 The reason Mendel chooses pea plants is that plant is easy to cross pollination, easy to
get, easy to live or easy to maintain, short-lived or quickly fruitful, can occur self-
pollination, and there are types that have properties A striking. These striking properties,
for example: Flower color (purple or white), seed color (yellow or green), fruit color
(green or yellow), seed shape round skin properties (subtle or coarse), flower layout (at
the tip of the stem or on the armpits leaves), as well as bar size (high or low).
 Some important conclusions about Mendel's experimental results are as follows.
1. A hybrid (the result of a cross between two individuals with a different sign) has
properties similar to its parent and each hybrid has the same properties as the other
hybrid of the same species.
2. The character or nature of a hybrid is always revived regularly and this is what
instructed Mendel that there are certainly certain factors that take part in the transfer of
properties from one generation to another .
3. Mendel feels that these "hereditary factors" follow a logical distribution, so a law or
pattern will be known by holding many crosses and counting different forms, as seen in
offspring.

86
Exercise
1. Assume a white-furred bunny breeds with a dark furred hare and the entirety of their
posterity have a phenotype of dim hide. What does the quality for hide shading in hares
have all the earmarks of being a case of?
a. Mosaicism
b. Codominance
c. Incomplete dominance
d. Complete dominance

2. In the ABO blood group in human, if an individual of Type-B blood has youngsters with an
individual of type-AB blood, what blood classifications could their kids have?
a. Type-AB, type-A, and Type-B
b. Type-AB, type-A, Type-B, and Type-O
c. Type-B and Type-AB
d. Type-A and Type-B

3. The following is the reason Mendel uses the pea plant for its tests, except....
a. Have pairs of contrasting traits
b. Is a vegetable material that is easy to find
c. Capable of self-pollination
d. Quickly generate offspring

4. The cell characteristics in the appropriate interphase phase are....

a. Genetic material formation in chromosome form
b. Core membranes still visible
c. Invisible Nucleoli and Nucleolus
d. A reduction in genetic material in the form of DNA

87
 5.

Gonosomal on the picture above is indicated by the number....

A. 23
B. 1
C. 18
D. 22

6. A child has a character and face similar to both his parents. This is due to the....
A. Mixing both traits of parents resulted in new properties
B. The nature of both parents passed down through the gene
C. The nature of both parents is passed down through blood
D. The nature of both parents passed through embryogenesis cell

7. Intermediates that are intermediate between red and white flowers will produce a color
F2 descent....
A. Red and white
B. Pink and White
C. Red and pink
D. Red, white and pink

8. The cross between the dominant red color (MM) with white flowers (mm) resulted in a
comparison of genotype in F2....
A. 75% MM: 25% mm
B. 50% MM: 50% MM
C. 25% MM: 50% Mm: 25% mm
D. 25% Mm: 50% MM: 25% mm

88
9. Three types of abnormalities in humans that can be passed down from generation previously
was....
A. Colorblind, anemia, and leukemia
B. Diabetes, polio, and epilepsy
C. Colorblind, epilepsy, and polio
D. Diabetes, colorblind, and hemophilia

10. When we hold a cross marriage, the descendants have specific properties. If in his offspring
only one trait is visible, then this visible trait is called....
A. Intermediates
B. Dominant
C. Recessively
D. Genotype

89
90
91
Variation and Selection

What to learn: You can't ignore the huge diversity of living

- Variation things with over a million living species. In middle
school, in several different fields, you may enjoy
- Adaptive feature your curiosity regarding nature and observe
several different organisms. The best way to
- Natural selection
understand diversity is recognizing nature!
- Mutation

92
 Variation
Variation is cell differences, eyes color, tall, and etc. The example is figure
individuals, organisms and any species by 2 describes humans are different
genetic differences (genotypic variation) by characteristics. Color, tall, and etc. The
influences of environmental aspects on example is figure 2 describes humans are
characteristic of genetic potential (phenotypic different characteristics.
variation). For examples is all birds are same
species such as variations of skin color, size,
eye color, beak types, etc. Selection is survival
and reproduction of individual with genetic
composition by natural or artificial towards
environment.

Feature of variation
Acquired characteristics outcomes from a Figure 2. Inherited traits
human’s activities or from environmental (Source: https://idahopublictelevision.org/)
situation on life time. Such as giraffe stretch
neck to achieve leaves on the tree. Because of
Influence of variation
this, the giraffe’s neck is longer then passed to
Continuous variation is effected by genes
offspring by figure 1 shows Lamarck theory
and environment, it results dimension of
claims giraffe’s neck is getting longer, but
phenotype between two extremes, example:
Darwin theory shows long time ago, there
blood type AB and O, B, and A. AB is rare
were giraffe with short and long neck. The
found in our surrounding than other blood
ones with short neck could not eat, they were
type. Figure 3 shows the example of
really hungry. Only long-necked giraffe
continuous variation is human heights.
survived.

Figure 4. Darwin theory and Lamarck theory

(Source: https://id.pinterest.com/)
Inherited characteristics is appearance Figure 3. Continuous variation
characteristics that occurs from parents to their (Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/)
generation. For example skin color, hair color,

93
Discontinuous variation is genetically
controlled that they cannot be changed by
external situation. Examples are sickle cell
anemia, dwarfism, blindness, etc. figure 4
shows the range dwarfism and normal human.
Figure 4. Discontinuous variation
(Source: https://www.edplace.com /)
Adaptive feature
a. Mountain
An adaptive trait is a hereditary attribute
that allows an individual in its condition to
adapt and survive. Animals that live in the
mountain have thick fur coats to shield
them from the cold as they head up in
altitude. Higher elevations imply less
oxygen. The Himalayan yaks have built
stronger hearts and lungs, allow them to
live 18,000 feet above sea level where
the air is poor. The features of mountain-
living animals are usually larger teeth as
shown on figure 5 and long slender limbs.
The Himalayan yaks have built stronger
hearts and lungs, allow them to live
18,000 feet above sea level where the
air is poor. The features of mountain-living
animals are usually larger teeth and long
slender.
94
Figure 5. Grizzly bear
(Source: https://www.huckberry.com/)
b. Ocean
The ocean is a very hard place to live. The
animals that live in the oceans have to
search for food at all times to defend
themselves from threats. There are many
methods to hide protect and eat, there are
benefits of various animals in every
different strategy. Sea Survival
Adaptations explore some of the
adaptions used only to stay alive by
different marine creatures. For instance,
certain species use camouflage to avoid
detection or sneak up on their victims,
while other animals have a camouflage
that makes them stand out purposely.
Many species are covered by poisonous
spines or poison, but sometimes the most
poisonous organisms become prey.
Various animals also gained from various
food sources, many fed at the top of the
food chain, and some eating at the edges.
Each species, therefore, is both predator
and prey. This instructional film shows that
species in the ocean have adapted to
survive by adapting to their surroundings
by aquatic footage shot in the wild. In the
water, figure 6 shows fish traits tend to
hide to avoid prey.
 Figure 6. Fish hiding
(Source: https://www.reefs.com/)
c. Rainforest
We're going to get into behavioral
changes with these cases. The concept of
behavioral adaptation is an alteration or
improvement in an individual's actions that
helps it to function rather than alter the
structure / phenotypic expression. Animals
generally have good potential for life.
The instinct is a psychological modification
that gives birth to an individual. From
conception, for instance, a little lion
instinctively knows how to drink milk from
his mom (see how this is in line with the
concept of behavioral adaptation we've
been going over earlier). Survival instincts
drive certain species to relocate, travel a
long distance together, seeking
environments for hotter or cooler seasons
that best fit their needs. For example, the
wildebeest on the African Serengeti
continues to travel long distances in
looking for food and safety. Generally,
for example on figure 7 shows in forest,
monkey is swinging tree to tree as search
some foods to survive their life.
Figure 7. Monkey is swinging the tree
(Source: https://www.luvbat.com/)
d. Snow
With the aid of biological and behavioral
modifications, species have adapted to
survive in a rugged tundra environment. In
such cold conditions, figure 8 shows bears
have quite thick fat and fur that helps
them warm and also allows them to adapt
on cold land. The color of the coat is white
which allows them to mix in with the
nearby frost. Animals have big claws and
sharp teeth to rip off their prey's flesh and
food. A good sense of smell helps them to
find food thus warning them of the
existence of predators. During the winter,
they hibernate and save on energy needs
and are willing to use accumulated body
fat in hibernation as a source of energy.
They are good swimmers and divers,
given their weight, and they can navigate
through ice slabs (or pieces) floating in the
sea.
Figure 8. Bear adaptation
(Source: https://pbslearningmedia.org/)
95
 Selection
Natural selection
Natural selection is a mechanism that
occurs in an organism's adjustment to its
environment through the selective replication
of variations in its genotype. In 1858, a
hypothesis of evolution through natural
selection was presented by Charles Darwin
and Alfred Russel Wallace, which is still
acceptable. Natural selection which says that
species that are best suited for their climate
has a greater chance of survival and
reproduction. Figure 9 shows the yellow mice
is lower number than black mice in next
generation.
Figure 9. Beetles evolution
(Source: https://pbslearningmedia.org/)
Figure 9 shows that visualize that it is easier
for birds to find (and eat) green beetles.
Brown beetles are a bit more likely to keep
growing offspring. They cause their genes to
colour their offspring in brown Therefore,
brown beetles are more widespread in the
next century than in the previous generation.
96
Evidence for evolution
The theory of evolution is now generally
accepted by natural selection. Proof of
Darwin's hypothesis is now visible as traits of
DNA be passed on to offspring. In the fossils,
there is additional evidence and information
as to how antibiotic resistance grows in
bacteria.
Competition and selection
There will be a rivalry for food burrows and
partners for representatives of the rabbit
population. This is natural selection;
environmental pressures ' select' the better-
adapted varieties. Evolution is the idea that
evolved from earlier forms all the types of
living things that exist today. Adaptation is the
mechanism which occurs from natural selection,
through which species over many years
become more adapted for their climate. As a
result of natural selection, evolution can be
defined as the change in the adaptive
characteristics of a given population.
Consequence of evolution
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
Antibiotics are antibiotics used to cure
diseases. Bacterial cells replicate very quickly
possibly as frequently as after per 20
minutes. Thus a mutation is likely to happen in
a larger population of bacteria, although it
happens just rarely. If that particular drug is
applied to a community of microbes
containing one or two antibiotic-resistant
mutants, the non-resistant bacteria will be
destroyed but the drug-resistant mutants will
live.
Selection process
Comparing natural and artificial selection
Natural selection takes place in groups of
organisms bypassing genes to the next
generation, without human interference, by
the best-adapted species.
Often regarded as artificial selection is the
selective breeding. It is humans who pick
desirable characteristics in a population and
choose which persons to raise to improve
biodiversity. Figure 10 shows the difference
between natural selection and artificial
selection.
1. Selecting parents from a diverse
population with the ideal trait.
2. They're being bred together.
3. Connect the offspring to be bred
together with the required
characteristic.
4. This goes on for many years until all
offspring display the desirable
feature
The trait for utility or appearance can be
selected:
1. Resistance to illness in food crops.
2. Animals consuming more beef or milk.
3. With a gentle nature, domestic dogs.
Figure 10. Natural selection and selective
breeding
(Source: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/)
Mutation
A mutation is genetic changes. Mutation is the
changed new alleles are formed. Mutagen is
radiation and chemical radiation. Some of
smokes’ substance are tar. Tar is mutagen that
cause cancer. X ray and radioactive
substances and ultraviolet from sun light can
increase the mutation rate. Whether there is a
low radioactive dose where there seems to be
a small risk remains unknown. Constant
exposure to small radiation doses may be as
dangerous as once heavy-dose exposure. In
recent times, it became apparent that
excessive sensitivity to sunlight radiation will
cause a type of skin cancer in light-skinned
individuals.
A mutation of the genome is a switch in the
DNA base chain. In a gene or chromosome, a
mutation can happen. It may be that one or
more genes may not be expressed properly
in a mutation. A gene mutation may occur from
damage to or trouble of chromosome during
meiosis or mitosis, or even the build-up an
extra chromosome.
Gene mutation example
a. A group of detects affecting red
blood cells, the molecule in red blood
cell that distributes oxygen to cell
across the body, is sickle cell illness.
Figure 11 shows the difference of
normal cell and sickle cell.
Figure 11. Sickle cell diseases
(Source: https://wagmc.org/)
97
 b. Down's syndrome is a chromosomal anomaly that happens when a cell division failure
contributes to an additional 21 chromosomes.

98
PRACTICAL WORK!
Simple activity

Inherited characteristics worksheet

Group name:

Procedure:
1. Make your group into 4 students
2. Observe your friend’s appearance
3. Then, fulfill the characteristics of friend’s appearance based on the table below

Result:
No Your Hair Eyes Dimple Tongue
name color color (Yes/No) (roll/not
friend roll)
1
2
3
4

Discussion
1. What you can get from this after fulfill the worksheet?
Answer:………………

Conclusion
What you can get from this activity?
Answer:…………………..

99
SUMMARY

Variation applies to the variations within a population between each individual. Variation is useful to
organisms as it enables natural selection and decreases the risk of disease extinction. There are two kinds
of variation: biological variation and variation of phenotypes.
Genetic variation— every human species has a different set of DNA caused by genetic variation.
Throughout meiosis, genetic variability decreases, which creates gametes. Each gamete has a different
set of alleles, meaning that a whole new set of genes will be generated when the two gametes fuse.
Variation can be continuous and discontinuous. Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes, for example height or weight. Discontinuous variation, however, is limited to a
discrete number of categories, such as blood group, which is limited to A, B, AB, or O in humans.
Discontinuous variation is mainly caused by genes alone.
Mutations are hereditary modifications that contribute to the pattern of DNA bases being modified.
Such improvements can happen due to a number of factors, including chemical exposure and ionizing
radiation. If the mutation occurs in a single allele, it may modify that allele, affecting what it functions.
That's how new alleles are produced.
Sickle-cell anemia is one example of this: sickle-cell anemia is a disorder in which red blood cells form
sickle. Sickle cells pass less oxygen and block the vessels of the blood. This disease is triggered by a
mutation that affects the allele that creates hemoglobin (protein) in the beta-hemoglobin gene. The
mutation may also have beneficial effects; individuals who are homozygous or heterozygous, i.e. have
one sickle cell allele and one unmutated allele, are immune to malaria because the malaria parasite
cannot infect the sickle-shaped cells. Therefore, sickle-cell anemia is common in areas where malaria is
prevalent. It indicates that in these environments there is a natural selection for this mutation, as those
with the allele do not catch the disease and are more likely to survive. This makes the conservation of this
allele.
Adaptive features are genetic adaptive characteristics that improve the organism's health, which is the
individual's ability to survive and replicate from its environment.
These have a variety of adaptive characteristics that help to raise survival by minimizing water loss:

 Fewer stomata-water vapor passes through the stomata out of the field, so less water is lost when
there are fewer stomata. Stomata are also sunken in the leaf's holes, enabling the trapping
around them of moist air bubbles. It decreases the level of the liquid volume, so less moisture from
the plant is lost.
 Small, rolling leaves or spines-this decreases the surface area of the leaf and traps humidity to
minimize potential gradient of water, reducing the loss of water.
 Strong roots-this makes it possible for plants to consume ground moisture. Roots are also
developed when it rains for storage to absorb lots of water, e.g. in monsoon seasons.

100
  Thick waxy cuticle-this creates a water-resistant barrier across the leaf to stop water loss.
In comparison, hydrophytes are plants that are modified to live under very humid conditions
and include species such as water lily and lotus.
Such plants are suited to xerophytes uniquely because they do not have to reduce water loss:
a. Plant-shaped, usually large, flat leaves with a large area of surface that facilitates water
loss.
b. Stomata at the edge of the sun-struck plant. There are also several stomata, which are usually
open to allow water vapor to escape out of the ground.
c. Thin / no waxy cuticle-this layer in hydrophytes does not have to limit water loss.
d. Small root system as a large quantity of water is available reliably, root systems may be
shallow and water may spread effectively into the stem.

101
Exercise
1. There are variations between people of the same species...
a. variation
b. fitness
c. natural selection
d. adaptation

2. ______ enables adaptive organisms to survive and transfer offspring characteristics

a. Evolution
b. Natural Selection
c. Extinction
d. Artifical Selection

3. Of the following, is this not part of the natural selection theory of Darwin?
a. Suitable group differences tend to be passed down because unacceptable population changes
do not arise.
b. There are variations in a group and they are hereditary.
c. Individuals with environmentally-friendly variations have shorter lifespan and produce
shorter offspring.
d. In a group, there are variations, and they are inherited.

4. According to the research conducted out by the scientists on the pocket mouse, what are
the conclusions they created?
a. The skin color of the mouse can change due to its environment
b. The skin's colour has not changed.
c. The color of the rock is changing, contributing to the mice having to adapt
d. All of the above

102
5. Why are advantageous characteristics more likely to carry on offspring?
a. Because they more often live and replicate.
b. Because they come from dominant alleles.
c. Because they come from recessive alleles.
d. Because the trait is an acquired phenotype.

6. It is suggested by the similarity with the early embryos between various types of vertebrates?
A. No adaptive relationships among groups
b. Classic ancestors of recent times
c. Similar past conditions
d. A distant human ancestor's origin

7. A risk that impacts a community adversely because the population is small is

a. genetic drift
b. mutation
c. speciation
d. migration

8.

Many organisms with a shared ancestor have features that have functions that are different but
similar. These are known as….
a. vestigial structures
b. analogous structures
c. homologous structures
d. fossil structures

103
9. Which one of the above is relevant of antibiotic-resistant bacteria?
a. Because the environment produces antibiotics, they are resistant.
b. They are able to battle the antibiotics
c. A mutation ends in resistance to antibiotics
d. All of these

10. Why should a community with a large amount of genetic variation be more likely to withstand
a real climate change in its ecosystem?
a. Individuals can produce only well-adapted offspring to climate change
b. The population will produce more offspring
c. Individuals better adjusted to the new climate can help people who are less suited to live
d. Many citizens will have characteristics that are more appropriate to the new environment and
are more likely to pass them on

104
105
Organisms and Their
Environment

What to learn: What are the giraffes doing? Why are they
- Energy Flow live in savannah? Is there any relationship
- Food Chain and
between the giraffes with savannah? To
Food Webs
- Nutrient Cycles understand about this relationship, we have to
- Population size study about Organisms and their environment in
this chapter!

106
 Energy Flow
For life maintaining, cycling nutrients
and energy that we obtain from several
external sources is important. All living things
in this earth provide energy from the sun. The
energy is delivered on from trophic level to
trophic level and each time about 90% of the
energy is vanished, with some being lost as
heat into the environment (an effect of
respiration) and some being lost as
incompletely digested food.
The energy flows at the trophic level
along Food Chain. First, primary producers
such as algae, some bacteria, and plants, use
the sun’s energy to produce organic plant
material by the process of photosynthesis.
Then energy continues to herbivores or
animals that only feed on plants are a part of
the second trophic level. The third trophic level
contains the predators that eat herbivores.
Also, if there are even larger predators, they
placed on the higher trophic levels. Organisms
that eat both plant and another organism are
at the highest trophic levels as they feed on
multiple trophic levels.
Grow plants and make use of their
products, such as starch, sugar, oil, alcohol and
wood, for food or as energy sources is the
best way to maximize the energy from
sunlight. Sugar from sugar-cane can be
fermented to alcohol, and used as a motor
fuel instead of petrol. Later, all the chemical
energy in organisms is transferred to the
environment again through one process or
another.
107
 Food Chains and Food Webs
Food Chains that eat the dead bodies of predator-killed
animals. These are not definitions that are
Food chain, in ecology is the system of hard and simple. Predators are sometimes
transfers of matter and energy in the form of going to scavenge for their food and
food from organism to organism. Plants, which scavengers may sometimes kill live animals.
convert solar energy to food by Animals get their food from ingestion.
photosynthesis, are the primary food source,
Basically, for their food, all animals rely
called producer. In a predator chain, a
on plants. Foxes are allowed to eat rabbits,
consumer refers to a plant-eating animal is
but they feed on grass. A hawk eats a lizard,
eaten by a flesh-eating animal. In a parasite
the lizard eats a grasshopper, but the
chain, a smaller organism consumes part of a
grasshopper feeds on a blade of grass. It's
larger host and may it be parasitized by even
called this relationship a food chain. The
smaller organisms. The animals that eat the
species are typically very small at the
plants are called primary consumers, e.g.
beginning of a food chain, while the animals
grasshoppers. Animals that prey on the plant-
at the end of the chain are often scarce and
eaters are called secondary consumers, e.g.
few in numbers. There are a lot of food chain
shrews, and these may be eaten by tertiary
in our environment, the example is food chain
consumers, e.g. weasels or kestrels. A
in ocean shown in Figure 2.
decomposer in a saprophytic chain is
microorganisms live on dead organic matte Pyramids of numbers
through photosynthesis.

Organisms depend on each other for their

food. Many animals feed on plants. Such
animals are called herbivores. Animals that
eat other animals are called carnivores. A
predator is a carnivore that kills other species Figure 2. Food Chain
and consumes them. A fox is a rabbit- (Source:
producing hunter. Scavengers are carnivores https://wallpapercave.com/wp/wp2
101669.jpg)

108
 web. The example of food web is shown in
Figure 4.

Figure 3. Pyramids of number

(Source:
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/34/00
/42/340042c985b8068c84f930d68
8c177b9.jpg)

A pyramid of numbers is a graphical

representation that shows the number of
organisms at each trophic level. It is an Figure 4. Food Webs
upright pyramid in an ecosystem. The (Source:
producers are always more in number than, it https://cdn.thinglink.me/api/image/57895
4718689099777/1240/10/scaletowidth)
is shown In Figure 3 by that the producer has
bigger band than other trophic levels. The
pyramid shape is like that because there must Over-harvesting
always be enough plants to produce food at
Over-harvesting causes a species to
the bottom. Otherwise, the entire food chain
decrease in numbers to the point where it
would collapse. However, the circumstances
becomes endangered or extinct. Biodiversity
where a number pyramid would not have the
is affected as a consequence. The species may
same effect.
be harvested for food, or for body parts such
Food Webs as tusks (elephants), horns (rhinos), bones
and fur (tigers) or for selling as pets (reptiles,
Food web is a multi-food chain link.
birds and fish, etc.). In parts of Africa, bush
The food chain follows a single path, while
meat is used widely as a source of food.
the food web follows a variety of routes. We
However, hunting these animals is not always
get to learn how species are linked to each
regulated or controlled and rare species can
other from the food chain. An integral part of
be threatened as a result of indiscriminate
this ecosystem is the food chain and food
killing.

109
Over-fishing
Overfishing can reduce the
populations of fish species and can also do Try it by yourself
great damage to the environment where they
live. For example, the use of heavy nets Go to the field near your house.
dragged along the sea floor to catch the fish Observe the plant and animal
can wreck coral reefs, destroying the habitats around there. Make a food web in
of many other animal species. Even if the reef according to your observation.
is not damaged, fishing for the top predators Explain and show it in front of
such as grouper fish has a direct effect on the your class!
food chain: fish lower down the chain
increase in numbers, and overgraze on the
reef. This process is happening on the Great
Barrier Reef in Australia. Grouper fish are
very slow growing and take a long time to
become sexually mature, so the chances of
them recovering from overfishing are low
and they are becoming endangered.

110
 Nutrient Cycle
The Carbon cycle
Carbon is an element that take place
in all the compounds which make up living
organisms. It is also a greenhouse gas and
traps heat in the atmosphere. Without Carbon
and other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a
frozen world. But since 150 years ago, the
start of the Industrial Revolution, humans
have burned so much fuel and released so
much carbon dioxide into the air that global
climate has risen over one degree Fahrenheit.
Figure 5. Carbon Cycles
(Source:
http://s3.thingpic.com/images/Do/1p9iCv
3jw35keKWH88fymZvC.jpeg)
The carbon cycle describes the
process in which carbon atoms frequently
travel from the atmosphere to the Earth and
then back into the atmosphere as seen in
Figure 5. Since our planet and its atmosphere
form a closed environment, the total of
carbon in this system does not change.
Removal of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere
Photosynthesis
Green plants eliminate carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere as a result of their
photosynthesis. The carbon from the carbon
dioxide is built first into a carbohydrate such
as sugar. Some of this is changed into starch
or the cellulose of cell walls, and the proteins,
pigments and other compounds of a plant.
Once the plants are eaten by animals, the
organic plant material is digested, absorbed
and combined into the tissue compounds of
the animals. Therefore, the plant's carbon
atoms become part of the animal.
Fossilization
Any environment that prevents rapid
decay may produce fossils. For millions of
years, the carbon in the dead organisms
becomes trapped and compressed and can
remain there. The carbon may form fossil
fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Some
animals make shells or exoskeletons
111
containing carbon and these can become
fossils.
Addition of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere
Respiration
By oxidizing carbohydrates in their
cells to carbon dioxide and water, plants and
animals can obtain energy. The carbon
dioxide and water are expelled so the carbon
dioxide go back again to the atmosphere
Decomposition
A vital factor in carbon recycling is
the process of decomposition or decay.
Essential materials would not be released
from dead organisms, if it were not for decay.
When an organism dies, the enzymes in its
cells, freed from normal controls, start to
digest its own tissues (auto-digestion).
Presently, scavengers appear on the scene
and eat much of the remains; blowfly larvae
consume carcasses, earthworms consume
dead leaves. The decomposers, fungi and
bacteria (collectively called micro-
organisms), arrive and enter the remaining
tissues. These saprophytes secrete
extracellular enzymes into the tissues and
reabsorb the liquid products of digestion.
When the micro-organisms themselves die,
auto-digestion takes place, releasing the
112
products such as nitrates, sulfates,
phosphates, etc. into the nearby water to be
taken up again by the producers in the
ecosystem.
The rate of decline depends on the
abundance of micro-organisms, temperature,
water presence, and oxygen in many cases.
High temperatures speed up decay because
they speed up respiration of the micro-
organisms. Water is essential for all living
processes and oxygen is needed for aerobic
respiration of the bacteria and fungi. Decay
can take place in anaerobic conditions but it
is slow and incomplete, as in the waterlogged
conditions of peat bogs.
Combustion (burning)
When carbon-containing fuels such as
wood, coal, petroleum and natural gas are
burned, the carbon is oxidized to carbon
dioxide (C + O2 →CO2). The hydrocarbon
fuels, such as coal and petroleum, come from
ancient plants, which have only partly
decomposed over the millions of years since
they were buried. So, an atom of carbon
which today is in a molecule of carbon
dioxide in the air may tomorrow be in a
molecule of cellulose in the cell wall of a
blade of grass. When the grass is eaten by a
cow, the carbon atom may become part of a
glucose molecule in the cow’s bloodstream.
The carbon atom will be breathed out into the achieved by a process called ‘slash and burn’,
air once again as carbon dioxide, while the where the felled trees are burned to provide
glucose molecule is used for respiration. The land for agriculture and this releases even
same kind of cycling put on to all the more atmospheric CO2.
elements of the Earth. New matter is not
created, but rearranged at so many times. A
The Water cycle
great proportion of the atoms will have been
part of other organisms.

If you look back at the carbon cycle,

you will see that the natural processes of
photosynthesis, respiration and
decomposition would be expected to keep the
CO2 concentration at a steady level. The
Figure 6. Water Cycles
concentration of CO2 has increased from
(Source:
0.029% to 0.035% since 1860. It is likely to
https://www.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/styles/scale
go on increasing as we burn more and more
_crop_1120x534/public/thumbnails/image/watercyc
fossil fuel. Although it is not possible to
le_rc.png?itok=CcUyhuxd )
prove beyond all reasonable doubt that
production of CO2 and other ‘greenhouse
The water cycle shown in figure 6, is
gases’ is causing a rise in the Earth’s
temperature, i.e. global warming, the only a tiny quantity of the water that is
reprocessed passes through living organisms.
majority of scientists and climatologists
agree that it is happening now and will get Evaporation is when the water turns into
gas, makes animals lose water by excretion,
worse unless we take drastic action to reduce
the output of these gases. Another factor urination and exhalation. They take water
from their food and drink. Plants take up
contributing to the increase in atmospheric
water from the soil and lose it by
CO2 is deforestation. Trees are responsible
transpiration. Only a tiny fraction of this has
for removing gaseous CO2 and trapping the
taken part in the reactions of respiration or
carbon in organic molecules. When they are
photosynthesis, even though millions of tons
cut down the amount of photosynthesis
of water are transpired. The great proportion
globally is reduced. Often deforestation is

113
of water is recycled without the intervention
of animals or plants. The water vapor
produced through the atmosphere and
eventually condenses to form clouds. The
clouds release their water in the form of rain
or snow (precipitation). The rain collects in
streams, rivers and lakes and come back to
the oceans. The human population diverts
some of this water for drinking, washing,
cooking, irrigation, hydroelectric schemes
and other industrial purposes, before
allowing it to return to the sea.
The Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is one of all the primary
nutrients for the survival of all living
organisms. Although nitrogen is very
abundant in the atmosphere, it is largely
inaccessible in this form to most organisms.
Figure 7. Nitrogen Cycles
(Source:
https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/images/thumb/3/3
a/Intro1.jpg/500px-Intro1.jpg )
Nitrogen exists in many different forms,
including both inorganic (e.g., ammonia,
114
nitrate) and organic (e.g., amino and nucleic
acids) forms. Thus, nitrogen undertakes
many different transformations in the
ecosystem, changing from one form to
another as organisms use it for growth and, in
some cases, energy. The major
transformations of nitrogen are nitrogen
fixation and nitrification.
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen gas (N2) makes up approximately
80% of the Earth's atmosphere; it is because
plants and animals are incapable to use
nitrogen gas in that form. To be available to
used, it must first be transformed into a
different chemical form, such as ammonia.
The process of converting N2 is called
nitrogen fixation. Most nitrogen fixation is
carried out by prokaryotes, some nitrogen can
be fixed abiotically by lightning or certain
industrial processes, including the
combustion of fossil fuels. The reaction of
nitrogen fixation is stated below:
𝑁2 + 8𝐻 + + 8𝑒 − → 2𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2
Nitrification
Nitrification is the process that changes
ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate and is
another important step in the global nitrogen
cycle. Most nitrification occurs aerobically
and is carried out by prokaryotes. There are
two distinct steps of nitrification, the first step is the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite, which is
carried out by microbes known as ammonia-oxidizers. The reaction stated below:

𝑁𝐻3 + 𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑂2 − + 5𝐻 + + 4𝑒 −

The second step in nitrification is the oxidation of nitrite (𝑁𝑂2 − ) to nitrate (𝑁𝑂3 − ). This step is
carried out by a completely separate group of prokaryotes, known as nitrite-oxidizing Bacteria.
The reaction stated below:

1
𝑁𝑂2 − + 𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂3 −
2

Nitrates are the most oxidized form of nitrogen present in soil and water; it is highly soluble and
mineral salts. They are used by plants and serve as a basis for the nitrogenous diet of many
cultivated plants.

115
 Population Size
Population size refers to the density of Individual
individuals within different size classes of a
population. In biology, the term population I am an individual, panda is an

always refers to the number of living people individual, a moose in Sumatra is an

that live together in the same place. A individual, a coconut palm tree on an island

biologist might refer to the population of bird in the Africa Ocean is an individual, and a

in a farmyard or the population of fish in a tapeworm living in the gut of a cow is an

lake. In show the total numbers of organisms individual, as is the cow itself. An individual

in the stated area. is one organism or any living thing, it refers

to as the species. An individual is any living
thing or organism. Individuals do not breed
with individuals from other groups.

Population
Populations are geographically based
and species are made up of populations.
Population well-defined as a group of
individuals of the same species living and
interbreeding within a given area. There are
Figure 8. Level of Organisms
populations of moose, for example, in
(Source: pinterest.com )
Yellowstone National Park, Maine,
Minnesota, Alberta, Manitoba and other U.S.
In figure 8, There are terms such as states and Canadian provinces.
individual, population, species, community
Communities
and ecosystem all represent distinct
ecological levels and are not synonymous, Communities can have different sizes
interchangeable terms. It will be explained and boundaries. The plant community will
below:

116
consist of the same organisms, for example rooted plants with submerged leaves, rooted plants
with floating leaves, reed-like plants growing at the lake margin, plants floating freely on the
surface, filamentous algae and single-celled algae in the surface waters.

Ecosystems
The people group of creatures in a natural surroundings, in addition to the non-living piece
of the earth (air, water, soil, light, and so forth) makes up a biological system. A lake is an
environment, which comprises of the plant and creature networks referenced above, and the water,
minerals, disintegrated oxygen, soil and daylight on which they depend. A biological system is
self-supporting people of a similar POPULATION non-living piece of condition ECOSYSTEM
species populaces COMMUNITY of different species. In a forest biological system, the plants
assimilate light and water for photosynthesis; the creatures feed on the plants and on one another.
The dead survives from creatures and plants, followed up on by growths and microorganisms,
return supplements to the dirt. Lakes and lakes are clear instances of biological systems.

117
PRACTICAL WORK!
r. Objective
Shows the unit of living things in the ecosystem
s. Material and Equipment
Ropes rapia and 4 wooden pegs
t. Procedure
1) As a group, make observations (2 x 2 meters) around your class or school using rapia ropes
and wooden stakes
2) Observe animals and plants contained in the field of observation. Observations were made
in 2 places, namely a bright place and in a shady place. Write your observations in the
exercise book

u. Result
Please fill the table below based on your analyses
Bright place Shady Place
Type of Type of
No Living Amount Population individu Living Amount Population individu
Thing Thing
1.
2.
3.

v. Discussion
1) What kind of living things do you meet in a bright and shady place?
2) How many animals and plants are there in light and shaded areas?
3) Are there only one living creature that you meet in a bright or shady place, if so please
specify the type?
w. Conclusion
From this experiment we can conclude that
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

118
SUMMARY

 A food chain shows the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning
with a producer.
 A food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
 A producer is an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy
from sunlight, through photosynthesis.
 A consumer is an organism that gets its energy from feeding on other organisms.
 A herbivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating plants.
 A carnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.
 A decomposer is an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic
material.
 A population is a group of organisms of one species, living and interacting in the
same area at the same time.
 A community is all of the populations of different species in an ecosystem.
 An ecosystem is a unit containing the community of organisms and their
environment, interacting together.

119
EXERCISE
1. What is an ecosystem?
A. Interaction of two or more populations of organisms in their environment
B. All the organisms of the same or closely-related species
C. Two or more populations of organisms
D. The environment around us

2. In an ecosystem, at which stage is most energy lost?

A. sunlight → trophic level 1
B. trophic level 1 → trophic level 2
C. trophic level 2 → trophic level 3
D. trophic level 3 → trophic level 4

3. Two species of animal are found in the same area of forest and grassland. In the spring
and summer they eat the same plant food. However, in the autumn and winter one eats nuts
in theforest and the other eats roots on the grassland.
Both species are preyed upon by the same predator. Numbers of root-eating animals are
reduced most by this, but they recover faster since they reproduce faster.
What can be concluded about these two species of animals?
1 They are part of the same community.
2 They are at different trophic levels.
3 They occupy different habitats.
4 They have different niches.

A 1, 2 and 4 C 1 and 2 only

B 2, 3 and 4 D 1 and 4 only

4. What do decomposers release onto dead matter to break it down?

A. Enzymes
B. Saliva
C. Carbon dioxide and water
D. Ammonia

120
5. In a food chain, which link involves the least efficient energy transfer?
A Bull fishes feed on small crustacea.
B Herons feed on bull fishes.
C Mangrove plants trap sunlight during
photosynthesis.
D Small crustacea feed on dead mangrove

6. What type of traps catch small mammals?

A. Kick sampling
B. Sweep nets
C. Pitfall traps
D. Nets

7. If you were investigating species richness what would you be counting in a quadrat?
A. The number of different species
B. The percentage of a quadrat covered by one species
C. The number of times one species is present
D. The number of plant

8. A farmer grows a different crop in a field each year for three years.
In the fourth year the farmer plants a
leguminous crop and then ploughs this into the
soil. The next year the rotation starts again.
Which microorganisms will increase by the
time the rotation starts again?
1 denitrifying bacteria
2 nitrifying bacteria
3 nitrogen-fixing bacteria
4 decomposing bacteria

A 1, 2 and 3 C 1, 3 and 4
B 1, 2 and 4 D 2, 3 and 4

121
 9. The flow of nutrients in an ecosystem is shown in the diagram.
Which letter represents decomposers?

10. What carbon conversion occurs in respiration?

A. Glucose to carbon dioxide
B. Carbon dioxide to glucose
C. Fuel to carbon dioxide
D. Oxygen to carbon dioxide

122
123
124
Biotechnology
and Genetic Engineering

What to learn: Have you ever drink yogurt? How does it

- Biotechnology taste? Do you know that yogurt contains bunch of
- Bacteria in
vitamins? In this chapter we are going to learn the
biotechnology
- Fungi in techniques that applied to make yogurt and other
biotechnology fermented foods! And even we are going to learn
- Conventional advance technology in making antibiotics!
biotechnology
- Genetic engineering

125
 Biotechnology
Biotechnology comes from the term
‘Bio’ which means life and ‘technology’ that
deals with engineering or applied science.
Therefore, biotechnology is the application of
biological organisms in the process of
manufacturing products especially in food,
beverages, medical products, and plant. The
use of biotechnology has begun around the
end of the 19th century, and at the beginning
of the 20th century, industry and agriculture
started to integrate this technology in their
production processes. By the mid-century,
scientist found out that the DNA carries the
genetic code. Watson and Crick was then
describes the structure of the ‘double helix’,
new techniques called genetic engineering
begins to grow.
Organisms Used
The terms ‘bio’ in biotechnology refers to the
usage of biological organism such as
microorganism in producing biotechnology
products. The most common types of
microorganism used is bacteria and fungi,
due to their ability to carry out the process of
fermentation.
Bacteria
Bacteria is single-celled microorganism that
exist in millions and can be found in every
environment, even in organism body. One of
the example of bacteria usage in
biotechnology are the process of adding
Lactobacillus bulgaricus in to the milk in order
to make yogurt. The structure of Lactobacillus
bulgaricus can be seen in Figure 1.
126
Figure 5. Lactobacillus bulgaricus used in the
process of yogurt making
(Source: https://www.york.ac.uk/)
Bacteria are often used in the process of
biotechnology because of their ability, such
as:
- Prokaryotes, includes Bacteria and
Archaea, reproduce asexually through binary
fission which happen rapidly and produces
genetically identical off springs. A single
prokaryotic cell divides into 2 cells, which then
divide into 4, 8, 16, and so on. Under optimal
conditions, many prokaryotes can divide
every 1-3 hours
- Ability to make complex molecules
- Has same genetic code as another
organisms, so that the genes from other
animals or plant can be recombined into the
DNA sequence of the bacteria
- Contains DNA in the form of plasmids
(a circular strand and also small circular
pieces). This plasmid is then taken, cut, and
opened to insert sections of DNA from other
organisms, called transformation process.
When the bacterium divides, the DNA in the
modified plasmid is copied, including the
‘foreign’ DNA. The structure of the can be seen
in the Figure 2.
 - Can work as decomposers, which aid
Figure 6. Plasmid in bacteria
(Source: IGCSE, 2014)
Fungi play an essential role in the ecosystem
balance. They cover most habitats on earth.
One of the example of the use of fungi in
biotechnology can is tempeh, as can be seen
in Figure 3.
- Useful
Figure 7. Rhozhopus oligosporus used in the
process of tempeh making
(Source:
https://tempebumbung.files.wordpress.com/)
Fungi are often used in the process of
biotechnology because of their ability, such
as:
in nutrient cycles
The ability of fungi to cut down many
large and indecipherable molecules is
due to their mode of nutrition. Large
molecules are broken down into small
molecule, which are transferred into
the cell by a system of protein carriers
embedded in the cell membrane. Fungi
produces a variety of exozenzymes to
digest nutrients. These enzymes are
either released into the substrate or
remain bound to the outside of the
fungal cell wall.
in carrying out
biotransformation processes
Biotransformation is a process by
which organic compounds are
converted into different form in order
to reduce the persistence and toxicity
of the chemical compounds. This
process is supported by bacteria,
fungi and enzymes. This mechanism has
been developed by microbes to
acclimatize to environmental changes
and it is useful in a wide range of
biotechnological processes.
127
 Types of Biotechnology
Conventional biotechnology
Conventional biotechnology usually utilize
the living organisms in their natural form
(without changing the DNA sequence). Most of
conventional biotechnology involves
fermentation process. Fermentation process is
the anaerobic respiration of glucose to
alcohol or lactic acid. Micro-organisms used in
biotechnology uses the chemical reaction to
produce energy they needed to undergo their
living processes. The micro-organisms needs
nutrients such as glucose, with added by salts,
and sometimes vitamins. This conventional
biotechnology needs maintained pH and
temperature for the micro-organisms being
cultured.
Food and Beverages
Yeast-Based
Yeast are single-celled fungi, mostly are
Ascomycota, they are eukaryotic organisms.
Yeast cell are consists of cell membrane,
vacuole, cytoplasm, nucleus, and granule, as
can be seen in Figure 4. Most yeast reproduce
asexually by budding, which protruding a
small bump from the parent, enlarges,
matures, and then detaches. While some of
them reproduce by binary fission, where the
parent cell divides into two equal cells. In
128
biotechnology, yeast is used to cause
fermentation process. The yeast will feed on
sugars, producing alcohol (ethanol) and
carbon dioxide. Following are some examples
of yeast-based products:
- Bread
Bread are widely used in all over the
world as food. It is made by mixing flour,
Figure 8. Bread dough
(Source:
https://www.kingarthurflour.com/)
water, salt, oil, and yeast. Yeast is a
micro-organism that undergoes the
fermentation process to produce the
carbon dioxide, which are needed to
produces bubbles in the bread dough. The
bubbles make it texture lighter. Yeast has
no enzymes for digesting the starch in
flour but the addition of water activates
the amylases already present in flour and
it is digest some of the starch to sugar.
The dough was then kneaded repeatedly
and left for an hour at a temperature of
about 27°C while the yeast done its work.
 The carbon dioxide that are accumulated
in the dough make it rise up to double its
volume, as can be seen in Figure 5. Last
step is to bake the dough in 200°C, this
temperature makes the dough expand
- Lactose-free milk
more, kills the yeast, and evaporates the
alcohol.
- Tempeh
Figure 9. Rhizhopus oryzae Structure
(Source: Mardinata.com)
Tempeh is a fermented product made
from soybeans that have been soaked
and cooked to soften them. The process of
making tempeh involves the starter as
well, the starter Rhizopus oryzae are
added to the unskinned cooked beans.
This mixture was then left for 24 hours and
as a result, the firm textured product with
high nutrition was made. The addition of
Rhizopus oryzae to the bean functions to
carry out fermentation process so that
tempeh has firm structure. The structure of
Rhizopus oryzae can be seen in Figure 6.
One serving of tempeh contains saturated
fat, potassium, carbohydrate, sodium,
calcium and iron to fulfil daily needs of
nutrition.
Milk-based
In some cases, there are some people who
can’t drink milk due to allergic issue. Some
people with lactose intolerance does not
produces enough lactase enzymes due to
the digestive problem. The lactose will
remain in the gut and fermented by
bacteria which cause symptom such as
flatulence, diarrhoea, and stomach pain.
The process of making this lactose-free
milk is by adding enzyme lactase to milk.
So that the enzyme will break down
lactose (which are disaccharide sugar) into
two monosaccharide sugars, glucose and
galactose, which can be directly
absorbed by the intestine. In large scale
production, lactase is restrain on the
surface of beads. The milk is then passed
over the beads and the lactose sugar is
effectively removed. Figure 7 indicates
the process of lactose-free milk making.
129
 Streptococcus thermophiles,this
fermentation process produces lactic acid,
impacting to the sour taste and thick
structure of liquid. The process of making
yogurt is begin with heating milk in 180°F
for 30 minutes to denature the whey
proteins, then the milk undergoes
pasteurization process to kills any
pathogens that can spoil milk. The milk
was then cooled down into 108°F, and
then the starter cultures (probiotic) is
Figure 10. Lactose-free milk making
process added. Then it is incubated until pH of
below 5 is obtained.
(Source: GEA.com)
- Cheese
- Yogurt
The basic principle of cheese manufacture
is to remove water from milk. Cheese
manufacture involves the process of
coagulating casein protein in milk,
separating curds and liquid whey as
shown in Figure 9, the curds was then
captured, pressed, and moulded to form
Figure 11. Yogurt as Daily Diet
block of cheese, and the last step is to
(Source: https://lexiscleankitchen.com/) ripen the cheese by storing it in a
temperature and humidity-controlled
Yogurt is a fermented milk that widely
environment.
spread in the world found by Herdsmen.
Yogurt is known as the nutritional source of
food and its flexibility to be served in
many ways, one of the example of yogurt
serving can be seen in Figure 5.
Nowadays, to make yogurt, milk are
fermented by two bacterial strains which
Figure 12. Curds and Whey
are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
(Source: Countryside.com)

130
PRACTICAL WORK!
Let’s Make Delicious Homemade Yogurt!
x. Objective
4. Producing homemade yogurt
5. Defining the interaction between milk and bacteria

y. Material and Equipment

The material and equipment needed to make yogurt are:
- Milk 500mL
- Yogurt starter 3tbs
- Stove
- Pan
- Spatula
- Container
- Spoon

z. Procedure
Follow the procedure below systematically!
- Pour the milk into the pot, add 2tbs of sugar
- Heat the milk up to 90°C
- Let it cool until its warm (43°C) and stir every once in a while
- Add the yogurt starter, whisk the yogurt and milk thoroughly until it’s smooth enough
- Place the solution in a bowl and keep it warm at 48°C until it reached pH below 5
- Cool the yogurt and you can add flavour if you want

aa. Result
Please fill the table below based on your analyses
Aspects Milk Yogurt
Colour
Smell
Texture
pH
Taste

131
Medical Uses
Biotechnology has been used in varies medical
application, such as production of hormones,
production of microbes, and prenatal
identification of genetic disease alleles.

Antibiotic production
Antibiotics are the complex organic compound
which synthesized by micro-organisms in the
fermentation process. Bacteria and fungi that
live in the soil are commonly used in the
making of antibiotics. There are several types
of antibiotics that produced commercially,
which are Streptomyces (produces
streptomycin), Penicillium (produce Penicilin).
There are two ways of antibiotic works, the
one that stop bacteria from reproducing
organism and then the enzymes are
called bacteriostatic, and the one that kill
extracted
bacteria named bacteriotidal.
b. Intracellular enzymes
In intracellular enzymes, the micro-
Enzymes production
organisms are filtered from the feedstock.
Enzymes production involves conventional Then they are crushed and the enzymes
fermentation using readily available are extracted from water or other solvent
feedstock such as corn-steep liquor or molases. Some commercial uses of enzymes are:
The production of enzymes commonly use a. Proteases, used in washing powders to
fungi (e.g. Aspergillus) or bacteria (e.g. dissolve strains, removing hair from
Bacillus) since they are non-pathogenic and do animal fleeces, cheese manufacture,
not produce antibiotics. There are two types tenderising meat
of process in this enzyme making: b. Lipases, used as cheese flavour enhancer
a. Extracellular enzymes , removing fatty stains in washing powder
In extracellular enzymes, the liquid c. Pectinases, used as elucidation of fruit
feedstock needs to be filtered from the juices, maximising juice extraction

132
d. Amylases, used in the starch to produce Table 1.
glucose.
The use of microorganism in conventional
Biofuel
biotechnology
One of the biofuels is ethanol, which produced
from fermented sugar or surplus grain. Ethanol Main
No. Product Microorganism
is a renewable resources that can replace or material
at least supplement the use of petrol which Tempeh Soy Rhizopus
1.
widely used as the main source of fuel. Ethanol bean oryzae
produces less pollution than petrol, but it uses Cheese Milk Penicillium
2.
more energy to grow, fertilise, and harvest camemberti
the sugar-cane and cost much to extract sugar Yogurt Milk Lactobacillus
3.
and converting it into ethanol. Another biofuel bulgaricus
is the oil produced from rapeseed or Bread Fluor Saccharomyces
4.
sunflower seed, this oil is less polluting than cereviceae
diesel but more expensive to be produced. Nata Coconut Acetobacter
5.
de coco water xylinum
Here are some examples of the use of
Wine Grape Saccharomyces
microorganism in conventional biotechnology 6.
ellipsoideus

133
 Types of Biotechnology
Genetic engineering involves
changing, removing, or transferring genes
from one organism to another species.
Bacteria is widely used as the main factor of
genetic engineering. The circular strand of the
DNA carries the genes that control bacteria
mechanism. Plasmid, the small circular pieces
of DNA, carry genes that make the bacteria
resistance to particular antibiotics such as
tetracycline and ampicillin.
Restriction enzymes are carried out by
bacteria in which they ‘cut’ DNA molecules at
certain sites with the help of endonucleus
enzyme. The DNA from other organism was
then ‘cut’ at predictable area with the same
length to be added to the open-cut sites to
make DNA recombinant with the help of DNA
ligase enzyme.
Agricultural Uses
Figure 13. GMO Crops Field
(Source: http://www.events.utas.edu.au/)
Genetically Modified (GM) Crops is the plant
which genes are modified to show a certain
134
result of changing of the crop products, this
crops can produces different result in colour,
nutrition rate, etc. There are two types of GM
Crops which are Pest resistance, where the
plant produces toxin and show increases
resistance to attack by insect larvae, and
Herbicide resistance, where resistance to the
attack of herbicides. Since GMO is modified
genetically it is not allowed to be freely
spread in the environment due to some
environment issues. Therefore, the field of
GMO should be given a sign as shown in
Figure 10, and isolated from the environment
Medical Uses
Vaccine Production
Figure 14. Influenza Vaccine produces by
the concept of genetic engineering
(Source: https://i2.wp.com/)
The gene for the protein coat of the virus
is inserted into cells. When the cells are
cultures, they produce a protein that acts
as an antigen (a vaccine) and promotes
the production of antibody to the disease. when Leonard Thompson became the first
One of the example of this vaccine is human to receive an injection of man-
Hepatitis B vaccine. There are also made insulin.
transgenic plant, this plant has been Insulin can be produced by
engineered to produce vaccines that can inserting insulin gene into bacteria, which
be taken effectively by mouth. Several then secrete human insulin. The complete
species of plant have been used, including process of the insulin making can be seen
banana. One of the example of vaccine in the Figure 12 below.
product is influenza vaccine as can be
seen in Figure 11.
Insulin Production
The hormone insulin is naturally
produced by human body in gallbladder.
This hormone is essential for the control of
blood sugar levels in human. Diabetes
mellitus is a disease in which some people
cannot make insulin themselves. This
disease kills many people in the world Figure 15. The process of insulin
production
every year. Insulin has been used in the
(Source: https://www.eduhk.hk/)
treatment of diabetes mellitus since 1922

135
KEYWORD

136
EXERCISE
1. Some people are lactose-intolerant. The concept of biotechnology has been applied to get
rid of this problem by creating lactose-free milk. This milk contains no lactose ever since the
lactose in the milk was changed into … and …
a. Glucose and Galactose
b. Fructose and Glucose
c. Sucrose and Maltose
d. Galactose and Sucrose
2. In genetic engineering, plants are more readily manipulated rather than animals because…
(Quizlet.com)
a. Plant genes do not contain introns
b. More vectors are available for transferring recombinant DNA into plant cells
c. A somatic plant cell can often give rise to complete plant
d. Plant cells have larger nuclei
3. DNA technology has many medical applications. Which of the following is not done routinely
at present? (Quizlet.com)
a. Production of hormones for treating diabetes and dwarfism
b. Production of microbes that can metabolize toxins
c. Introduction of genetically engineered genes into human gametes
d. Prenatal identification of genetic disease alleles
4. The specific enzyme which acts to facilitate the joining of DNA fragment by catalysing the
formation of phosphodiester bond is …
a. Plasmid
b. Clone
c. DNA ligase
d. Protease
5. The restriction enzyme that cuts the bonds of DNA molecule at the origin of replication is …
a. Endonuclease
b. DNA polymerase
c. DNA gyrase
d. DNA ligase

137
 6. Why does in the process of making yogurt, the raw yogurt should be placed in a warm
condition?
a. To make the fermentation process faster
b. To make the fermentation process slower
c. To kill the bacteria
d. To make it more coagulated
7. Which of the following is the most suitable microorganism used to make nata de coco?
a. Penicillium sp
b. Acetobacter xylinum
c. Saccharomyces cereviceae
d. Aspergillus oryzae
8. Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes to
manufacturing and service industries. The basic principal of conventional biotechnology is
…
a. DNA Manipulation and microorganism work
b. Genetic modification and microbe work
c. Fermentation and microorganism work
d. Fermentation and DNA manipulation
9. Which of the following is not true about biofuel?
a. Ethanol is a renewable resources that can replace or at least supplement the use of
petrol
b. Ethanol produces less pollution than petrol, but it uses more energy to grow, fertilise,
and harvest the sugar-cane
c. It cost much to extract sugar and converting it into ethanol
d. Ethanol produces more pollution than petrol, but it uses more energy to grow, fertilise,
and harvest the sugar-cane
10. The use of bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in genetically modified crops is to get …
a. Plant with rapid photosynthesis process
b. Pant that produce complete amino acid
c. Plant that produce pest-killer pesticide
d. Plant that are able to fertilize themselves

138
139
Human Influence
on Ecosystem

In this chapter you are going to learn about how the human
What to learn: activities can affect to the environment. The environment which
already polluted be the public secret. It is also will be continuously
- Food Supply happen if human activity still gives the negative impact to the
environment. Therefore, human should execute the thing for
- Habitat Destruction conserve the negative impact itself. Hopefully you will be enjoyed
- Pollution to learn in this chapter and can be the next generation whose can
- Conservation be reduce the negative impact for our environment 

140
 Have you ever go to rice field? How
are the looks like of the rice field? Rice field
is very common field that placed in village
because in village still there is many space to
plant the rice as human food supply. If you
imagine that there is no spade to plant the rice
field, how can human in that country or that
place can maintain their live. Rice is one kind
of human food supply.
A few thousand years ago, most of the
humans on the Earth obtained their food by
gathering leaves, fruits or roots and by
hunting animals. The population was probably
limited by the amount of food that could be
collected in this way. Human faces, urine and
dead bodies were left on or in the soil and so
played a part in the nitrogen cycle. Life may
have been short, and many babies may have
died from starvation or illness, but humans
fitted into the food web and nitrogen cycle
like any other animal. Once agriculture had
been developed, it was possible to support
much larger populations and the balance
between humans and their environment was
upset.
The human influence on ecosystem
actually is divided into 4 parts, then we should
discuss it step by step together. The human
very influences in ecosystem especially in
activity in daily life. There is the positive
impact and negative impact that influence to
the ecosystem. Let’s discuss it one by one. Four
parts that should we discuss in this chapter is
first, we should know how the food supply
condition in our earth. Since we as a human
also need the food as a supply energy for
take any activity in every day. The second
that should we discuss is about Habitat
Destruction, since the habitat destruction also
very close to human activity. The third is about
Pollution, this also very close with human
activity since it’s the negative impact that
maybe can cause by the human activity. The
fourth and the last is about Conservation, in
this part you may learn how we can conserve
the ecosystem from the disorders.
Let’s jump to the first stage which we
will learn about Food Supply.
141
 Food Supply
To know more about the food supply,
human or other living things needs food to
maintain their live. Before that have you ever
heard about monoculture? Let’s see the
explanation bellow.
Improvements in Farming
Do you know what is the important
thing that human need to supply the energy?
Sure! It’s the Food. How the food can deserve?
Do you know? The food that we consume
every day is from the farmer. Long time ago
the farmer is farmed the food that we
consume such as vegetable, rice, and many
fruit using conventionally method that is still
use the energy from the human. Today the
technology very grows rapidly, the
technology also influences the farmer fields.
So know days the farmer used the technology
itself for harvesting their product as we can
see in Figure 1.
Figure 1. rice field
Source: suara.com
142
Technology also can increase the
production of the product in case of the
vegetable, rice, and fruits as human food
supply. Since the population of the human in
this world also increase, the technology very
helpful for maximize the yield. There is some
method that farmer used in some condition.
There are:
1. Use of machinery, now the agricultural
machinery is used in many place. The
agriculture machinery also helpful,
useful, quicker and more efficient. In
the order of time, the product from the
farmer is resulted in large amount.
Thus large amounts can be farmed at
once. Agricultural machinery also
2. Chemical fertilizer, this method is used
for the plant that can increase the
nutrients inside the soil that of the
plants, the impact that the plant can
grow faster compare than usual and
can produce more fruit or vegetable
and also increasing the yield.
3. Insecticides and herbicides. Pesticides
that is used in harvest field is there are
two which are pesticides and
herbicides, is the chemical that used
for kill off the disturber insect and
weed species. When the chemical is
already spread the plants the other
 insect can’t eat and spoil the plant that happening? Because, there is loss of
should farmed. This also means that biodiversity since it only planted one species
the competition between other insect is grown in one field. Another negative impact
decrease, so the spoiler of the plants of this monoculture is can harm or maybe can
itself is less that not used this chemical disturb the food chains and also can increase
one. The quality of the plants itself not one population in order in one ecosystem.
spoiled because there is no spoiler
from another insect. Actually, the Intensive Farming
function of both chemicals are
Next, we discuss about intensive
different. The pesticides one is for
farming which still part of Food Supply. Do
destroy the insect that can eat and
you know, the animals and harvests can be
damage the plants while the
farmed seriously. the harvest can be
herbicides one the function is for
harvested in monoculture using large amounts
maintain the competitor one inside the
of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer to
soil such as fungus.
increasing or maximize the production of the
4. Selective breeding, this method is used
fruits. For the animals are kept in high
for increasing the quality of the
densities and energy loss is limited by
product that will resulted from the
restricting movement and keeping a constant
plants itself. This method also will
optimum temperature so that the organisms do
increase the number of production
not waste energy to the thermoregulation.
from the plants and the livestock itself.
High amount of antibiotics is used for prevents
The quality of this method very
the animals from the disease.
concern since, from this method the
However intensive farming sometimes
farmer need the good quality
is not sustainable. Intensive farming can
resulted.
damage the environment such as the farm
animals can produce large amounts of the
Rice field is the yield that planted for the
methane gas, which it’s can very influence to
rice. In one yield, is farmed only one kind of
the global warming, while the crops take up
plant which can we call it as monoculture. So
huge amounts of space, it means that forest
means the monoculture is that only one species
and other habitats should be destroyed to
of crop is grown at once. However, the
make space for farming.
monoculture has negative impact on the
surrounding of the ecosystem. Why it can be

143
Food shortage the people should have to provide more the
land to harvesting and farm animals, which
Some times when people do not
means that the possibly the forest destroyed
receive enough food or stock of food, hunger
or deforestation occur is increase, and also
will occur. This case can be caused by a many
about the increasing of the amount of
of factors, including natural disasters, such as
greenhouse gases that produce by the
drought and flooding, increasing population
production of the farm animals or we usually
of human, poverty, and the distribution of
called as livestock. Greenhouse gases cause
food that unable. The fact and the researcher
global warming, which is a worldwide issue
said that population of human in the world is
that leads to increased natural disasters, such
increased, therefore when the population of
as tropical storms and drought, as well as
the people increased the food production also
rising sea levels, which floods homes and
should increase to sustain the population. This
decreases the amount of habitable land.
case actually is one of the problem or one
concern because to maintain its problem,

144
 Habitat destruction
Many habitats are destroyed by
humans to make space for other economic
activities, or by pollution from these activities.
Consequently, the biodiversity of many places
is decreasing. This interrupts food chains and
webs and means that more species may die
because their prey is gone. Long time ago the
fields of grass such we can see in Figure 2 and
hayfields is important habitat for some
populations of plants and animals, many food
chains that exist there. Unfortunately, intensive
agriculture has destroyed many of these
habitats. However, know is already changes
by many of monoculture that build by
intensive agriculture. We hardly found the
natural grassland and natural habitat in some
places.
Figure 2. field
Source: unsplash.com
Main causes of habitat
destruction
There are 3 causes of the habitat
destruction that should be discussed by us.
1. Clearing land for farming and housing -
crops, livestock and homes all take up a large
amount of space. As there is an increasing
population and demand for food, the amount
of land available for these things must be
increased by clearing habitats such as forests
(deforestation).
2. Natural resource extraction - natural
resources such as wood and stone must be
gathered to make different products.
Therefore, many trees are cut down,
destroying forest habitats. In addition, some
resource extraction takes up a large amount
of space, for example mining, which means
that the land must be cleared first.
3. Marine pollution (we can see in Figure 3) -
human activities lead to the pollution of
marine habitats. In many places, oil spills and
other waste pollutes the oceans, killing sea
life. In addition, eutrophication can occur when
fertilizers from intensively farmed fields
enters waterways. This causes a huge
decrease in biodiversity as most species die.
145
 the extinction of species that lived there.
Extinction is the condition when the animals is
going to extinct and we can see in figure 4.
b) Soil erosion - without roots to anchor the
soil, it is carried away by the wind and heavy
rains. This decreases the fertility of these
areas. Soil erosion is the condition when the
position of the soil in the upper or high
position, the soil is going down to the lower
Figure 3. marine polution position we can see the illustration in figure 4.
Source: theguardian.com c) Flooding - forests prevent flash flooding by
slowing the time that water takes to reach the
ground. They also allow the water to be
Deforestation
absorbed into the soil. Flooding itself shows
The next habitat destruction that we
that the condition when our house, street, and
should continually discuss is about
the land around us is awash by the water,
deforestation. Deforestation involves cutting
usually the water comes from the rain, we can
down large amounts of trees to gather as
see the illustration in figure 4.
resources for manufacturing or to clear space
d) Increased carbon dioxide in the
for other economic activities. Deforestation is
atmosphere Trees absorb carbon dioxide
very important case because it’s very
from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. If
dangerous for others living things, not only we
there are fewer trees, less carbon dioxide is
as human which needs the oxygen which
absorbed, thus there is more in the
produce by the big plants or we say it as
atmosphere. This increases global warming.
trees, but also for the animals and also the
You can see the Figure 4 in the next page.
habitat in the forest include bees as keystone
species in the world.
Therefore, deforestation has a large
amount of unacceptable effects:
a) Extinction - habitat destruction can lead to

146
 Figure 4. Extinction, Soil Erosion, and Flooding.
Source: pinterest.com, istockphoto.com, twinkl.co.uk

147
 Pollution
Know a day, many human activities 1. Eutrophication and water
that very influences and led the pollution in the pollution
land, water, and air. The impact of that
Bodies of water, such as lake, rivers,
pollution is resulted variety of the negative
and oceans, are polluted in a variety of ways,
outcomes, such as global warming and habitat
such as oil spills, waste disposal, and
destruction. The pollution is coming from many
chemicals. When fertilizers are washed off
sources, its includes industry and
fields into waterways, eutrophication occurs.
manufacturing process, waste and discarded
Here is the step of the process when
rubbish, chemicals from farming practices,
eutrophication happens.
nuclear fall-out, and untreated sewage. The
1. Fertilizers are washed from fields
most product that resulted by the human is
into the waterways by rain. This brings
plastic waste, the plastic itself has the big
an excess of nutrients into the habitat.
negative outcomes on both land and water
2. The nutrients cause plants to grow
habitat due to their non-biodegradability.
rapidly, and there is an algae bloom
Mostly the plastics is found in anywhere, in
across the surface.
land, in water, and in some habitats therefore
3. Algae covers the surface of the
sometimes the animals try to eat the plastics
water, preventing sunlight from
or sometimes the animals are trapped by the
passing through. This means that plants
plastics that can cause the animals injuries
cannot photosynthesize to produce
even the animals are death, which also can
energy so they begin to die.
affect whole the food chain. Its effect can
4. As there are less plants to
cause and happen it’s because the plastic
photosynthesize, less oxygen is
need very long time for break down. They
released into the water. The dead
accumulate in habitats which causes an
plants are broken down by
increasing problem.
decomposers, which use up the
In this chapter, the pollution will
remaining oxygen from the water.
explain into two water pollution and air
5. The lack of oxygen causes
pollution which is the most case that appear
organisms such as fish to die, reducing
and very close with human activity.
the biodiversity of the habitat.

148
 The process of eutrophication is shown
by the figure 5 as the illustration, so you can
imagine how does the eutrophication work.
Figure 5. Eutrophication Process
Source: earthhow.com
Another reason of water pollution is
female contraceptive hormones. These
hormones are excreted from the body in urine
especially in female body and then make
their way into the water supply, as they are
not filtered out by sewage treatment plants.
When they spread into male aquatic
organisms, such as fish and frogs, which are
very sensitive to the hormones, it causes
feminization. This is where male organisms
begin to produce eggs and lose the ability to
reproduce. As a result, a small amount of
offspring is produced that can affect the
survival of the species and also interrupt the
food chain for animals that usually feed these
organisms. In addition, these hormones can
reduce the sperm count in men, which causes
problems with fertility.
2. Air pollution
In this world, the main air pollutant is
methane and carbon dioxide (CO2). These
phenomena are released into the atmosphere
due to farming practices and manufacturing,
especially during the burning of fossil fuels.
Even though these gases are released in small
amounts naturally, human activity has been
greatly increased the rate of its emission.
Air pollution leads to a number of
environmental problems such as carbon
dioxide and methane contribute to the
increasing rate of global warming and
climate change, as well as causing acid rain.
Global warming occurs when greenhouse
gases rise into the atmosphere and form a
layer around the Earth, preventing heat from
the Sun escaping the atmosphere. This means
that the climate of Earth becomes hotter. Acid
rain is caused by carbon dioxide dissolving in
rain water to form carbonic acid, and sulphur
dioxide dissolving to make sulphuric acid.
Acid rain then falls and accumulates in bodies
of water and soils, causing a change in pH
which may harm organisms living there. The
acid also corrodes infrastructure and
damages tree bark and leaves.
To reduce acid rain, sulphur dioxide is
removed from gases before they are
released into the atmosphere. Sulphur can
also be removed from fossil fuels before
burning, although this process is expensive.
Soils and water can be made less acidic by
adding powdered limestone or slaked lime.
149
 To bridge you into next point about conservation, let’s do the experiment. This experiment
will have resulted the literacy of the environment and also you can use this experiment some times
in the future. Let’s check next page.

150
PRACTICAL WORK!
WATER PURIFICATION
A. Objectives:
1. To make one environment-friendly device (simple water purifier).
2. To purify dirty water into a clearer water.
B. Tools and Materials
Tools

Dirty water Water fiber

 Cotton or cloth
Plastic bottle
(1500 mL)
Materials

Pebbles Zeolite sand

Charcoal Powder
C. Procedures
1. Make sure all the apparatuses are complete
2. Cut the plastic bottle into a shape that can be use as the filter water device
3. Places the cloth on the first layer and adding with water fiber
4. Places the charcoal powder on the second layer
5. Places again the water fiber on the third layer
6. Places the zeolite sand on the fourth layer
7. Places the pebbles on the fifth layer
8. Pour the dirty water into the filter simple device that already arrange
9. Observe and notes the result
D. RESULT
Based on the experiment, write the result that you get on the table below!
Condition of water
The Order of material
 No. After
stakes initial
purification
   

151
 How was your experiment? Do you
happy during conducted the experiment? How
was the result of the experiment? It was
amazing result right? So, you can use that
Conservation
In previous page, we have already
understand about pollution and its source.
Know, we are going to learn how to reduce
that much impact by conserve it. It is very
important for human to reduce the negative
impacts that human have on the environment
to conserve the biodiversity of ecosystems.
Means that human should increase the
sustainability of resources and manufacturing.
Sustainable resource are those which can be
deserve from the environment without the high
risk of them running out, such as the those plant
which ca be production by naturally process
and also can be quickly harvested. Other
resources such as coal and oil are not
sustainable as fossil fuel because it can’t be
renewable. Others resources such as wood
and fish, can be harvested sustainably with
the help of quotas, education, and re-stocking.
Development should also happen
sustainably. Sustainable development is
defined as development which meets the
needs of people today, as well as providing
for an increasing population without
damaging the environment. Development must
be managed carefully to maintain
152
experiment method to purify the dirty water
around you.
sustainability. This involves cooperation
between different players, from local councils
and companies, to governments and NGOs,
each of whom may have differing demands.
For example, some companies may want to
continue harvesting resources to protect jobs
and profits, whereas other people may
disagree as it could damage habitats.
There are some activities which human
can do or support to reduce the negative
effect that we have discuss before, which are:
1. Reducing waste
Unsustainable practices can lead to
large amounts of waste. This waste
can be reduced by introducing
recycling programmers. Paper, glass,
plastic and metals can all be reused
and recycled, which greatly reduces
the amount of these materials
polluting the environment or in
landfills. It also reduces the demand
on sourcing raw materials, which in
turn reduces the amount of habitat
destruction.
2. Sewage treatment
Water treatment happens in three First setting aeration second
Screening Grit
tanks tanks settling
stages, which are sedimentation,
filtration and chlorination. In
Figure 6. steps of activated sludge
sedimentation, larger solids separate
process
out from the water to form sludge, Source: earthhow.com
whilst water and lighter particles 3. Conservation of endangered species
which float on top are drained into When the number of surviving
another tank. This liquid is then passed organisms in a species becomes very
through gravel and sand filters in low, the species is classed as
filtration to remove any particles still endangered. This is harmful to a
left in the water. Finally, chlorine is species as it greatly reduces the gene
added to the water to kill pool by decreasing the number of
microorganisms such as bacteria which alleles available. This makes the
makes the water safe to consume. Its species more susceptible to disease
process commonly conducted by and less able to adapt to changes.
common procedure to treat the water Species can become endangered for
from the sewage. There is another a variety of reasons, such as habitat
process that very important in large destruction, climate change, hunting,
town in sewage treatment which used pollution, and competition from
activated sludge process. The steps of introduced species. The species that
sludge process can be seen in Figure going to extinct such as ospreys and
6 below. sea eagle which we can see the
picture of that animals in Figure 7
bellow.

153
 can be monitored. This allows the
number of organisms left to be
tracked over time and can also
highlight their preferred habitats and
migration patterns, allowing important
habitats to be protected.
b. Education - this allows people to
understand why a species is becoming
extinct so that protective measures can
be implemented.
c. Captive breeding programmers -
endangered animals can be bred in
captivity where their chance of
survival is greater. They can later be
reintroduced to habitats in the wild.
d. Seed banks - seeds from
endangered
Figure 7. Ospreys and Sea Eagle
plant species can be preserved so that
Source: bobo.grid.id, fws.gov
the plants may be grown in the future.

If an endangered species is
Conservation is important to prevent the
not protected, it can become extinct.
extinction of species and to protect the
There are many measures that can be
environment. It is important to protect these
used to protect a species from
things to improve sustainability and to make
extinction:
sure that there are resources available in the
a. Monitoring - endangered animals
future.

154
SUMMARY
 Food Supply
Modern technology has resulted in increased food production.
Insecticides improve quality and yield.
Herbicides reduce competition with weeds.
Selective breeding improves production by crop plants and livestock.
Monocultures can have negative impacts on the environment.
 Habitat Destruction
Deforestation is an example of habitat destruction: it can lead to extinction, soil erosion,
flooding and carbon dioxide build-up in the atmosphere.
The conversion of tropical forest to agricultural land usually results in failure because forest
soils are poor in nutrients.
Through altering food webs and food chains, humans can negatively impact on habitats.
 Main cause of Habitat Destruction:
1. Clearing land for farming and housing - crops, livestock and homes all take up a large
amount of space.
2. Natural resource extraction - natural resources such as wood and stone must be gathered to
make different products.
3. Marine pollution - human activities lead to the pollution of marine habitats. In many places,
oil spills and other waste pollutes the oceans, killing sea life.
 Deforestation involves cutting down large amounts of trees to gather as resources for
manufacturing or to clear space for other economic activities.
 Pollution
Eutrophication: Fertilizers are washed from fields into the waterways by rain. This brings an
excess of nutrients into the habitat.
The nutrients cause plants to grow rapidly, and there is an algae bloom across the surface.
Algae covers the surface of the water, preventing sunlight from passing through. This means
that plants cannot photosynthesize to produce energy so they begin to die.
As there are less plants to photosynthesize, less oxygen is released into the water. The dead
plants are broken down by decomposers, which use up the remaining oxygen from the water.
The lack of oxygen causes organisms such as fish to die, reducing the biodiversity of the
habitat.
 Conservation
It is important to reduce the negative impacts that humans have on the environment to conserve
the biodiversity of ecosystems.
A sustainable resource is one that can be removed from the environment without it running out.
We need to conserve non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels.
Recycling metals, paper, glass and plastic helps to conserve these materials and save energy.
Some resources such as forests and fish stocks can be maintained.
Sewage can be treated to make the water that it contains safe to return to the environment or
for human use.

155
EXERCISE
1. What is a reason for conserving plant species?
A. to absorb oxygen from the air
B. to decrease rainfall
C. to obtain drugs for medicinal use
D. to release carbon dioxide into the air
2. Which two gases both contribute to global warming?
A. carbon dioxide and methane
B. methane and oxygen
C. oxygen and sulfur dioxide
D. sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide
3. Which process may result in eutrophication in a lake?
A. bleach entering from a factory
B. fertilizers entering from farmland
C. hot water entering from a power station
D. pesticides entering from farmland
4. Which activity will be least likely to lead to the extinction of species?
A. conservation
B. deforestation
C. use of herbicides
D. use of pesticides
5. What is reduced when untreated sewage is released into rivers?
A. the amount of nitrate
B. the concentration of carbon dioxide
C. the concentration of oxygen
D. the number of bacteria
6. The diagram shows a food chain. A farmer sprays his cabbages with pesticide.
Which organisms does the farmer want to kill?

7. What is an effect of pollution by nuclear fall-out?

A. deforestation
B. eutrophication
C. global warming
D. increased mutation rate
8. A large amount of herbicide is applied to a field. Heavy rainfall carries much of it into a
nearby lake.
What will be the effect of this on the lake?
A. Herbicide decreases the growth of water plants.
B. Herbicide decreases the number of bacteria.
C. Herbicide increases the rate of evaporation from the lake.

156
 D. Herbicide kills the fish.
9. Which human activity can cause eutrophication of lakes?
A. releasing carbon dioxide
B. releasing sulfur dioxide
C. using fertilizers
D. using pesticides
10. There is evidence that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere is
increasing.
Which change could explain this?
A. less combustion of fossil fuels
B. more combustion of stored carbon compounds from dead organisms
C. more photosynthesis by plants
D. people breathing faster

157
Answer Key
Chapter 1 – Respiration Chapter 2 – Excretion in Human Chapter 3 – Co-ordination and
1. A 1. B response
2. B 2. C 1. B
3. B 3. A 2. D
4. C 4. C 3. A
5. D 5. B
6. D 6. B
4. A
7. B 7. C 5. B
8. A 8. D 6. C
9. D 9. B 7. D
10. C 10. D 8. C
9. A
10. B

Chapter 4 – Reproduction Chapter 5 – Inheritance Chapter 6 – Variation and

1. C 1. D Selection
2. B 2. B 1. A
3. B 3. B 2. B
4. B 4. B 3. C
5. C 5. C 4. A
6. B 6. B
5. A
7. D 7. A
8. A 8. D 6. D
9. D 9. C 7. A
10. A 10. C 8. C
9. C
10. D
Chapter 7 – Organism and their Chapter 8 – Biotechnology and Chapter 9 – Human influence on
environment genetic engineering Ecosystems
1. A 1. A 1. C
2. B 2. C 2. A
3. B 3. C 3. B
4. C 4. C 4. A
5. C 5. A 5. C
6. C 6. A 6. B
7. A 7. B 7. D
8. D 8. C 8. A
9. D 9. D 9. C
10. A 10. C 10. B

158
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