Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thesis
Thesis
The purpose of this thesis is to introduce the reader to Latin inscriptions found in
the San Antonio Museum of Art. These inscriptions are epitaphs produced during the
time of Roman Empire, and studying these inscriptions will broaden the understanding of
Latin epigraphy. The first chapter consists of introduction and background of Latin
epigraphy. Chapter Two contains inscriptions from the San Antonio Museum of Art
along with complementation, direct translation, and evaluation of these inscriptions
followed by the examples from ILS for further classification and scholarly research.
Finally, Chapter Three contains the criticism of epigraphy and the importance of
inscriptions.
APPROVED BY DIRECTOR OF HONORS THESIS:
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
DATE: __________________________
LATIN INSCRIPTIONS IN THE SAN ANTONIO MUSEUM OF ART
Baylor University
Honors Program
By
Waco, Texas
May 2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................
TITLE PAGE.......................................................................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE:
Introduction and Background.......................................................................................... 1
ii
CHAPTER TWO:
Inscriptions from the San Antonio Museum of Art ..................................................... 13
CHAPTER THREE:
Criticism and Importance .............................................................................................. 38
Criticism of Epigraphy
...................................................................................................................
38
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
iv
CHAPTER ONE
I. Introduction
The title of this thesis is Latin Inscriptions in the San Antonio Museum of Art. The
purpose of this thesis is to present and to examine six Latin inscriptions found in the San
Antonio Museum of Art. During the last spring break, Dr. Smith and I visited the San
Antonio Museum of Art, searching for inscriptions worthy of further research and
tombstones. We realized that for each entry there is only minimal information available
regarding its functional name, origin of style, time period, material, and inscriptional
translation. After speaking with the curator, we further discovered that none of these
considered in this thesis are sepulchral inscriptions and epitaphs. Expansion, direct
translation, and evaluation of these inscriptions will be followed by examples from the
Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae and Harvard University’s Sackler Museum for further
classification and scholarly research. I dedicate this thesis to aspiring Latin scholars who
wish to apply their scholarship of Latin language beyond classroom readings and
translations. In the practical, first-hand field of epigraphy, one can utilize his or her
1
learning of language as well as acquire further knowledge of translating, cataloguing, and
wish that every Latin scholar has a chance to visit local museums and inquire practical,
everyday inscriptions from Roman civilization. This opportunity will not only broaden
his or her understanding of Latin, but also encourage him or her to investigate the life and
II. Background
areas of studies including history, archeology, sociology, and linguistics. In order better
to understand the lives and customs of antiquity, one must examine artifacts, writings,
and remains of the ancients. Scholars who are specialized in the study of inscriptions are
epigraphers identify the grapheme, translate its message, clarify its meaning, and classify
its uses by date and according to context. Then, epigraphers draw conclusions about the
writer and his/her intention(s), historical relevance, and cultural circumstance. Thanks to
and artifacts, scholars can reconstruct lives, traditions, culture, and history of ancient
civilizations.
Roman Epigraphy
2
The study of Roman inscriptions is distinguished from other inscriptions (e.g.
According to Lawrence Keppie, as of 1991, there were over 300,000 known inscriptions
with more inscriptions discovered at a rate of a thousand per year1. Roman civilization
lasted well over a thousand years, and its range stretched from the British Isles to Asia
Minor. Crucial to its extensive scope of influence was the road system, well-developed
and maintained by the Romans. During this thousand-year period, Latin was propagated
throughout the entire Roman world, and scholars discover Latin inscriptions from Italy,
Greece, Egypt, Turkey, and even Yugoslavia. Another distinguishing feature of Roman
epigraphy comes from its letters. Because Latin alphabets did not change in their forms
and are still used in the Romance languages, Latin inscriptions in good condition provide
The capital letters used in classic Roman inscriptions are the most living
element in the heritage handed down to us by antiquity. No other
civilization has endowed its letters with such an unmistakable character,
familiar to all those who read and write—a form which has lost none of its
validity and still constitutes the means of communication on the languages
of many people.2
from forgeries, they are authoritative because they are generally legible and incorruptible.
Thus R.G. Collingwood claims that the inscriptions are, “the most important single
1
Lawrence Keppie. Understanding Roman Inscriptions (London, 1991), 9.
2
Giovanni Mardersteig, ed. Felice Feliciano veronese, Alphabetum Romanum (Verona 1960, Editiones
Officinae Bodoni), 9 (transl. R. H. Boothroyd).
3
R. G. Collingwood and I. A. Richmond. The Archaeology of Roman Britain (Oxford, 1930), 162.
3
Types of Latin Inscription
intended functions, media of the writing, and the time of their production. Among these,
the most common method of categorization is the function, by which scholars identify the
temples, baths, theaters, and other public works (tituli operum publicorum). They often
indicate the person or the community responsible for the building project, as well as any
individual to whom the work might be dedicated. Many aqueducts, bridges, and arches
bear the names of their builder in the nominative case and the description of achieved
M . AGRIPPA . L . F . COS .
TERTIVM . FECIT.
FECIT.
Lucius, made this building when consul for the third time.
4
Honorific Inscriptions (tituli honorarii): These inscriptions, often found on the base of
statues of distinguished men, honor the life and achievements of a particular individual.
This practice was originally a Greek custom, and early Roman honorific inscriptions
display the Greek influence by having the name of the person honored in the accusative
case with the verb omitted. Later honorary inscriptions present the name of the person
Dedicatory Inscriptions (tituli sacri): These inscriptions appear on the objects that are
consecrated to the gods or goddesses. Dedicatory inscriptions are found on altars, vases,
and votive tablets. The name of the divinity is usually written in the dative case except
for those written occasionally in the genitive case. The name of the dedicator often
libertatique publicae
populi Romani.
Translation: For perpetual good health of Augustus and to the public freedom of the
Roman people.
5
Sepulchral Inscriptions or Epitaphs (tituli sepulcrales): These inscriptions are often found
on tombstones, cinerary urns, and burial grounds. These indicate the name of the
deceased in the nominative case with some in the genitive case, the profession of the
deceased, the duration of his or her life, and the name(s) of the individual(s) responsible
for the monument. In other cases, one may find the life and achievement of the deceased
An inscription found in Celma (Calama) and Constantine (Cirta) Numidia (CIL VIII.
5682):
d(is) m(anibus) M. Munatius Victor v(ixit) a(nnos) XXX, h(ic). s(itus). e(st)., o(ssa) e(i)
b(ene) q(uiescant).
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, Marius Munatius Victor, who lived 30 years. Here
smaller, movable objects of different shapes and uses. Some are made of metal while
others are made of clay, gems, or tiles. Examples of these are weights, armors, missiles,
EX OF(FICINA) FL(AVII?)
HONORINI.
6
Graffiti and Dipinti: These inscriptions are writings and drawings scratched (graffiti) or
election. Graffiti are casual and unofficial scribbles that mention nearly any topic such as
Many of the inscriptions can fall into multiple categories described above. For
example, the Arch of Titus has both a building inscription and an honorific text that
Jews.
Senatus
Populusque Romanus
Vespasiano Augusto.
Translation: The Roman Senate and People (dedicate this) to the divine Titus
7
Materials of Latin Inscription
The vast majority of surviving Latin inscriptions are cut or carved in stone of
various kinds. Some are scratched or stamped on the surface of metals such as gold,
silver, bronze, or lead. Others are incised on wax tablets, potteries, and earthenware. In
rare instances, some inscriptions are painted on walls and form mosaic messages with
small pebbles4.
Keppie mentions the general lack of exact dating in Latin inscriptions. However, he
claims, this lack of precision occurs not because they did not have a calendar system or
means of expressing a date. On the contrary, the Romans had several ways of conveying
a date. First, each year was known by the names of the two senators elected as consuls. A
4
Arthur E. Gordon. Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy (Berkeley: University of California, 1983),
5.
8
list of consuls of Rome down to the end of Augustus’ reign in a fragmentary condition
“from the foundation of the city” (ab urbe condita= A V C). However, few inscriptions
contain this dating method. Finally during the imperial period, dates were indicated by
the names of the incumbent emperor. Both governmental records and private writings
provided ample information about the known dates of each emperor’s reign and their
For inscriptions that bear no dating system, epigraphers estimate the dating based
on their media, their ornamentations, their circumstances of discovery, and their contents.
For example, if multiple inscriptions are found in a proximal location, one is considered
older than others if it is excavated from a lower stratum. The grammar and words used in
Although scholars did not reach a general consensus on the nature and beginning
renowned Classical scholar of San Marino, as the founder of the modern Latin epigraphy.
5
Keppie (1991), 26.
9
During his research career, Borghesi investigated much about the Fasti Consulares and
epigraphers devised a plan to examine, record, and catalogue all known Latin inscriptions
and to publish them in one place. This ambitious project was endorsed initially by the
French Academy, but ultimately taken up by the Royal Prussian Academy at Berlin.
historian, and archaeologist who received the Nobel Prize in Literature (1902). While he
superb scheme to gather and examine known inscriptions in order to present the history
and development of the laws of Italian communities. The Berlin Academy adopted
Mommsen’s proposal for a project to catalogue all known Latin inscriptions, now known
as the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (commonly referred as CIL). The first volume
appeared in 1863, and the complete CIL consisted of seventeen volumes, of which
Mommsen wrote five and edited many more. From its inception, the CIL became the
authoritative source for Latin epigraphy, with its approximately 180,000 inscriptions.
Latin inscriptions, spanning a period from the sixth century B.C. to the end of the sixth
century A.D. It is organized by the location of inscriptions and by the time of their
6
De La Blanchere. Bibliothèque Historique Et Littéraire. Histoire Naturelle Pittoresque, Mémoires D'une
Ménagerie, Frosch Et Pécopin (Paris: Albanel, Baltenweck, 1876), 45-58.
10
production. Each volume contains inscriptions from different regions ruled by Rome. For
example, the Oriental (Asia, Egypt, and the Greek provinces) inscriptions are covered in
Volume III while those of Central and Southern Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia are covered in
inscriptions, many found it simply too long and extensive to search for a particular
inscription. Part of the problem comes from its organization: the inscriptions are grouped
under the location or town name rather than their subject matter. Readers are tempted to
suppose that location indicates the artifact’s original findspot. However, this supposition
is not always accurate because the location or town can be a major collection center or a
museum rather than a findspot. Moreover, the insufficient organization based on the
subject matter further frustrated epigraphers who wished to compare and contrast
inscriptions by their kind and functions. Recognizing this problem of CIL, a German
epigrapher named Hermann Dessau (1856-1931) edited and published the Inscriptiones
Latinae Selectae (commonly referred as ILS). ILS offers a five-volume selection of about
supporting materials and notes to guide epigraphers for further research. Upon studying
an inscription, an epigrapher may consult ILS for the classification and organization and
7
John Edwin Sandys. Latin Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions (Cambridge,
1919), 31.
8
Keppie (1991), 37.
11
Roman Names
Although some of the earliest inscriptions contain single names such as Duenos or
Bonus, scholars generally agree that, by the beginning of the Republic, Romans had at
least two names, his/her praenomen (forename) and nomen (family name). Most of the
freeborn Romans had three names: the praenomen, the nomen, and the cognomen.
Examples of this are Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Julius Caesar. In an inscription,
the praenomen and nomen of the individual are followed by the praenomen of the
person’s father. Next would come a surname (cognomen), which provides further
The praenomen was the personal name given to a boy after his birth. In earlier
times, praenomen was often omitted in inscriptions. However, after the ordinance of
Marcus Aurelius passed to oblige all people to report the birth of a son, more inscriptions
contained children’s praenomina. The nomen was common to both men and women of
the household, and many of them were formed by adding a suffix such as –ius or –anus.
The cognomen, invented later than the nomen, was often abbreviated or omitted in many
9
Sandys. (1919), 201-222.
12
CHAPTER TWO
13
Inscription:
DIIS . MAN. SAC.
SAT. VRNIAE
PAIDEROS.
CONSER.DVIC.
Expanded Inscription:
SATURNIAE
PAIDEROS
CONSERVAE DVLC(I)
My Translation:
For Saturnia
Paideros
14
This inscription is translated as, “Sacred to the spirits of the dead. Paideros made
[this urn] for Saturnia, his sweet, well-deserving fellow slave, who lived 16 years.” From
this inscription, one can deduce that Paideros (Ancient Greek:Παιδέρος) was a slave of
Greek origin who loved his fellow-slave woman named Saturnia. The rosette and
palmetto ornamental patterns and the inscription of this marble urn indicate great artistry
and care during its production. This inscription’s content clearly indicates that this is an
epitaph.
Just as many societies of modern and ancient times, so the Romans were greatly
concerned with recording the life and accomplishments of an individual upon his or her
death. Often, in some instances, a person created his or her tomb monument while still
living. For these, epitaphs usually begin with the letter V(ivus) F(ecit). During the
literatures (e.g. Virgil’s Aeneid). Ashes from a cremation were collected and kept in a
small stone chest, an urn, or other container. Thus one can assume that this cinerary urn
of Saturnia dates back to the Late Republic and Early Empire era10.
Another hint for the dating of this inscription comes from the letters in the
context. The beginning abbreviation Diis Man(ibus), which corresponds to the Greek
sepulchral formula µνήµης χάριν11. J. E. Sandys indicates that this abbreviation is used
especially in and after the Augustan age. Therefore, both inferential observations agree
One minor problem of reading this inscription comes from a misleading spelling
of ‘L' which looks like ‘I’. The abbreviated word DVLC cannot be read this way because
10
Keppie. (1991),
11
Salomon Reinach, Traité D'épigraphie Grecque (Paris, 1885), 427.
15
the word engraved seems to be DVIC. According to Elliott’s list of abbreviations from
Latin inscriptions he compiled with the support of American Society of Greek and Latin
Epigraphy (ASGLE), only a few possible entries with letters DVI could be spotted: DVI
for d(i)vi; DVIDC for d(uum)v(iri) i(ure) d(icundo) C(ai); DVIR for d(uo) vir(um).
Because none of these entries fits in the context of this inscription, it is necessary to
consider the third spelling of this abbreviation DVIC as DVLC instead. In fact, DVLC is
inscription. Therefore, one could assume that there was a misspelling (I instead of L) in
this inscription.
Selectae (Volume 3) that begins with the abbreviations Diis Manibus. Thus comparing
and contrasting the inscription given with two similar inscriptions from ILS can give
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, for Hateria Superba who lived 1 year, 6 months,
and 25 days. (Her) most unfortunate parents, Quintus Haterius Ephebus and Julia Zosima,
made (this) for their daughter, for themselves and their own family.
This inscription is comparable to that of the cinerary urn of Saturnia because both
begin with the word diis manibus, a common invocation at the beginning of funerary
inscription. Both inscriptions contain the name and age of the deceased and the name(s)
12
This was found in a graveyard and portrays a young girl offering fruit and holding a dove. Further, see
ILS 8005.
16
of the dedicator. An adjective used to describe Saturnia is dulci (sweet). This contrasts
with the superlative adjective used in this inscription, infelicissimi, which denote the
unhappy parents who lost their child Hateria Superba.
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, for Decimus Avonius Thalamus the tailor, a patron
who has merited well, Decimus Avonius Heuretus the freedman made (this).
Diis Manib(us).
Athicto, Thr(e)pti
Sallustiaes Lucan(aes)
dispesator(is), vicari
Hermetis f(ilio); vix(it)
ann(is) III et men(sibus) III,
diebus III.
This epitaph is dedicated to the deceased man Athictus, who was the son of Hermes,
the underslave of Threptus, the household manager of Sallustia Lucana. Note that the tall
second letter I in Diis matches perfectly with that of the cinerary urn of Saturnia.
17
2. Cinerary urn of Flavius
D.M.T. FLAVIO
IERACI. F.EVT
YOHIA. COIVGI.
B.M.F.
18
Expanded Inscription:
YOHIA CO(N)IUGI
My Translation:
Son of Hierax.
This inscription is translated as “To the spirits of the dead. Eutychia made [this
urn] for her well-deserving husband Titus Flavius, the son of Hierax.” This is also a
marble cinerary urn probably created around the first or second century A.D. Frequently
Romans managed the construction of their own graves and inscriptions before death, and
the uninscribed parts of a tombstone were often chiseled with scenes, patterns or symbols
representing the activities or work of the person. This inscription shows two male heads
with rams’ horns at the sides of the urn. The figure represent a syncretic deity, God
(Egyptian) deity, Ammon. This image provides a hint for dating this inscription, because
the Roman domination over Egypt began after Octavian’s campaign against Mark
19
Anthony and Cleopatra (32 to 30 B.C.). The syncretism of deities might have happened
An essential part of a typical Latin funerary inscription is B. M., which stands for
indicates the family relationship between the deceased and the bereaved. In their book,
The Roman Family in Italy: Status, Sentiment, Space, Beryl Rawson and Paul Weaver
For instance, it has long been recognized that bene merens appears more
frequently on tombstones than any other epithet; Nielsen asserts that
patrons and clients are commemorated with this epithet much more
frequently than with any other, while for children it runs a distant third.
Both the literary sources and the epitaphs support the notion that bene
merens "seems primarily to have been used to characterize relationships
based on obligation."13
13
Beryl Rawson and P. R. C. Weaver. The Roman Family in Italy: Status, Sentiment, Space. (Canberra:
Humanities Research Centre, 1997)
20
Other examples from ILS (Volumes I and II) provide funerary inscriptions that
have similar structures. Typical funerary inscriptions often contain d(is) m(anibus), name
and age of the deceased, name(s) of the dedicator, relationship between the deceased and
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, for Marius Ulpius Eutychus, freedman of
Augustus, who lived 40 years. Flavia Daphne made (this) on the Appian Road for her
well-deserving husband.
ann. VIII m. | IIII [d.] XXII, Aur. Nice|phorianus et Filume|ne filio dul-
cissi|mo b. m. f.
Romae ut videtur rep., nunc Neapoli (VI 2192 vidit Mommsen). — 1) Decu-
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, for Titus Aurelius Pomt(inus), son of Titus,
decurion of the guild of Roman flute players, who lived 8 years, 4 months, and 22 days.
Aurelius Nicephorianus and Filumene made (this) for their most sweet, well-deserving
son.
21
3. Cinerary urn of Lepidia
D. M
L.EPIDIAE C FLVPERCAE
VIXIT.ANN.XIX
MENS.VI
22
Expanded Inscription:
D(IIS) M(ANIBUS)
MENS(IBUS) VI.
My Translation:
6 months.
This inscription is translated as “To the spirits of the dead. For Lepidia Luperca,
the daughter of Gaius, who lived 19 years and 6 months.” This cinerary urn is decorated
with two carved lions whose manes are draped with wreaths of laurel leaves and berries
and donkeys on the lower corners. According to the museum’s notes, this marble urn
23
Figure
6
Cinerary
urn
of
Lepidia
In a typical Latin epitaph, the name or names (forename and family name) of the
deceased occur in the nominative case (so that the deceased is the ‘subject’ of the
subsequent sentence), in the dative case (for it is dedicated ‘to’ the deceased), or in the
genitive case (so that the inscription ‘belongs to’ the deceased). After the name of the
deceased, the name of his/her father (in the genitive case) and the voting-tribe or surname
will follow. Then the age of death follows in the form of vix(it) ann(os). During and after
the Augustan age, funerary inscriptions begins with popular, introductory invocations e.g.
“D(is) M(anibus)”14.
It seems that the stonemason intended to chisel in the letter “C” as shown above. Later,
this letter “C” becomes “G” by careful addition of an extra, horizontal stroke. This
misspelling was a rather fortunate mistake for the mason because this ingenious editing
amended the misspelling. As seen in previous urns, frequent misspelling and erroneous
14
Keppie. (1991), 106-107.
24
forms of the words were commonplace in ancient inscriptions on stones. On the other
hand, the plethora of mistakes may indicate the varied multiplicity of Latin grammatical
eorum. | Haec taber. cum aedif. huius monum. tutela est. | H. m. sive
Romae (Vl 9664 cf. p, 5470 saepius descripta saec. XVI), — 1) Alius nego-
tians ferrariou II 1199, Fabros ferrarios habes infra N. 7723 seq. — 2) Locus urbis
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, Lucius Lepidius Hermes, freedman of Lucius, the
bronze and iron broker and Obellia Threpte, near the shrine of Fortune near the lake of
Aretes, dedicated (this) for Lucius Lepidius Hermeroti, son of Lucius Pal(atius) who
lived 8 years, 1 month, and 12 days, and for Lepidia Lucilla, daughter of Lucius, who
lived 5 years and 8 days, their children, most sweet and pious toward them, and to their
sons and daughters and their posterity. This shop together with the structure of this
25
monument are to be the object of their care. This monument or building that it is will not
Romae (VI 15493 aliquoties descripta saec, XVI), Buecheler carm. epigr. n. 1129.
epigr. n. 67.
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, for the best mother, Claudia Lepidilla Amebiana,
from the province of Belgica, (her) children Lepidus and Trebellius made (this). Here, we
dedicated the ashes of our mother on one altar. Earth, who gave birth to her, covers her
26
4. Cinerary urn of Sulpicia
D. M.
SVL.PICIAE
EXSOCHE
27
Figure
8
Cinerary
urn
of
Sulpicia
Expanded Inscription:
Translation:
For Sulpicia
Exsoche (made).
28
This inscription is translated as, “To the spirits of the dead. Exsoche [made this
urn] for Sulpicia.” Empty area of the cinerary urn is decorated with two eagles holding a
garland of fruits. There are also two small birds between the garland and the inscription.
This urn dates to the second century A.D. The funerary inscription typically begins with
Particularly interesting are the traces of black paints on the inscription itself. This
hints that some Latin inscriptions were carved and painted. This would explain how
painting of letters in the inscription might have offset minor misspellings. For example,
the misspell error mentioned in the Cinerary urn of Lepidia (confer figures 3 and 4), in
which “G” was originally written as “C”, could have been amended by the coloring of
letters.
Inscriptions with the names Exsoche and Sulpicia were searched and found in
ILS:
ann. LVll.
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, for Titus Flavius Liberalius, freedman of
Augustus, a custodian of the Temple of Mars Ultor, Claudia Exoche made this for her
29
Isem pelagiam, | vix. an. XXXVIl, aeditu|avit an. X, fecit uxor | Ventria
Aprodisia (sic) | vir. bene merent., mul. | infelicissuma, et sibi suis | l. l. p. eor.
Translation: To the spirits of the dead, for Servius Sulpicius Alcimus, freedman of
Augustus and custodian of the temple of Isis Pelagia; he lived 37 years, taking care of the
temple for ten years. His most unhappy wife Ventria Aprodisia (sic) made (this) for her
well deserving husband and for herself, and for their children, and their many
descendants.
30
5. Funerary relief of Lucius Gallonius Ascanto, Lucius Gallonius Philodamus, and
Gallonia Laais
31
Expanded Inscription:
(LUCIA) GALLONIA.
My Tranlation:
This inscription is unique because it contains only the names of three figures: two
men and one woman. As the names Lucius/Lucia and Gallonius/Gallonia are common to
all three, scholars believe that these were emancipated slaves whose former master was
Lucius Gallonius. During the time of the Roman Empire, freedmen had three names just
as did free Roman citizens. Customarily, freedmen followed the praenomen and nomen
of their master, to whom they owed their liberty. For the cognomen, they used their slave
name15.
In addition to their names, they wear clothes that indicate the elevation of social
status. Both Ascanto and Philodamus are wearing togas, raiment reserved only for Roman
citizens. Laais is wearing a veil, a symbol of modesty and chastity, just as an ideal
Roman matron. This inscription shows the possibility of social mobility in the Roman
15
Sandys (1919), 219.
32
Empire. Several entries from ILS contain the word libertus, which refers to an individual
status as a freedman:
per annos quos inter | mortales fuit ante eum diem | qui fuit VI idus
In agro Albano (prope Castel Gandolfo) rep., est Romae (XIV 2302 vidi). —
Translation: The freedslaves of Caius Julius Augustus, Eros, a baker of white bread
through the years during which he was among the mortals, before this day, which was six
days before the ides of May and Julia Glaphyra, freedwoman, performed the offices and
was in charge of the rites during the consulship of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Titus
Statilius Taurus.
Romae (VI 9802 bis vel ter descripta saec. XVI), — 1) Decurio (collegii ali-
Translation: Tiberius Claudius Primigenius, the baker and menber of the college of
Decurii, made this for himself and his wife, Antonia the daughter of Claudius the
freedman.
33
The name Lais appears in the inscriptions from Harvard’s Sackler Museum:
formula of this epitaph, along with the explicit indication of freed status and the carving
of the letters (the letter Q with its long, descending tail16), are typical of the inscriptions
16
The letter Q found in the second line of rightside, with a long, descending tail is a characteristic of the
lettering of the Julio-Claudian era after Augustus: Gordon 112-13.
34
6. Funerary Inscription
Inscription:
D / M
FRUCTOSAE VERN
CLAUDI.AUG. LIB TA
XI -D- VIII
35
Expanded Inscription:
D(IS) M(ANIBUS)
FRUCTOSAE VERNAE
XI D(IEBUS) VIII.
My Translation:
This inscription is translated as, “To the shades of the dead. For Fructosa Verna, a
slave born in the household of Clarus, an accountant and former slave of the emperor.
She lived 2 years and 11 months, and eight days.” Because the exact age of Fructosa is
written on the inscription, one may presume that Fructosa was dear to this household.
This inscription dates to the first to third century A.D. and was discovered outside of the
city.
36
This typical sepulchral inscription follows the general formula that includes Dis
Manibus, the name of the dead, the dedicator of the monument, and the age of the
deceased. Tombstones constitute most surviving Latin inscriptions.The form and type of
tombstones differ based on the times and places, but this particular one is described as
part of columbarium, a burial-room in the walls of which were several niches for holding
the ashes of the dead. Most tombstones derive from the cemeteries outside the walls of a
town, because the law prohibited burial inside the walls of the city17.
lettering. The letters carved in this inscriptions are those of grafitti rather than those of
17
J. C. Egbert, Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions. (New York,1896), 241.
37
CHAPTER THREE
I. Criticism of Epigraphy
While inscriptions are a valuable source for understanding personal and societal
conventions of antiquity, one must not overlook the fact that surviving inscriptions do not
constitute complete documentation of the past. Rather, inscriptions present only a part of
the whole that is readily expressed by their creators. This relationship denotes that some
inscriptions may contain misleading messages skewed or even fallacious. Because the
For these reasons, there has been hypercriticism over the authority of inscriptions.
This criticism seems unnecessary because most inscriptions are simple records of birth,
inscriptions that contain names, age of death, and family relationship. This kind of
inscription is rarely fallacious because its focus is on private life. Even if the purpose of
remaining sources— whether they are inscriptions or writings or artifacts— of the past
will offset the bias. In order better to reconstruct the antiquity, scholars must combine
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compartmentalized disciplines such as epigraphy, papyrology, and archaeology and then
An epigrapher also needs to be wary of forgeries. Peoples from both past and
advantages. However, many of these attempts were exposed and set apart as false
falsifiers 19 . In this case, CIL inserts certain statements against the veracity of the
inscription such as “quamquam fortasse genuina, suspecta tamen utpote a tali auctore
solo relata” or “inter titulos suspectos releganda errant necessario propter auctorem fide
omnino indignum.” Egbert writes that criteria of criticisms include deviations from
violations.
Fortunately, all inscriptions from San Antonio Museum of Arts are epitaphs
the deceased, and the minor misspellings and grammatical errors do not invalidate the
veracity of these inscriptions. For the most part, they fit into the general formula of a
18
Keppie (1991) 131.
19
J. C. Egbert, Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions (New York,1896) 11.
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Diis Manibus Sacrum Invocatory Phrase
Many scholars have stressed the value and importance of Latin inscriptions. The
inscriptions are newly discovered and recovered now thanks to advanced technology.
categorize them into specific types and to establish general formulae of each type. Our
governance comes from inscriptions. The broad categories of inscriptions, ranging from a
giant arch in the middle of Rome to small coinage found in Britain, reflect the thriving
human history of the Roman Empire. How, then, do inscriptions from the San Antonio
First, these inscriptions are relatively simple and harmonious with past
scholarship on the same subject matters. As mentioned above, almost all of funerary
inscriptions from the San Antonio Museum of Art follow with minor variations the
general trend of sepulchral writings in the first and second centuries A.D. Emerging
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scholars of Latin inscriptions would find these entries helpful for understanding the
general progression of funerary inscriptions. Because entries from the ILS and CIL are
not readily available for scrutiny due to their physical remoteness and exclusiveness,
American scholars may find these inscriptions helpful and available for close
examination.
abbreviations, and incorrect cases are observed in six inscriptions from the San Antonio
Museum of Art. These occur not merely due to the inattentive workmanship of
stonemasons, but also indicate the fluidity of Latin language as Roman influence spread
ideas. The palmetto and rosette patterns of the urn signify the southern influence because
these plants are not native to Rome. Even more intriguing is a carving of the god Jupiter
Ammon on the cinerary urn of Flavius, a carving that implies religious syncretism
exotic origins (Greek) such as Paideros, Eutychia, and Hierax further strengthen this
argument.
Finally, one can examine the social mobility of the Roman society from these
inscriptions. Several contain the word libertus (freedman), which denotes the former
status of the person as a slave. These former slaves now have three-part names, a
privilege of Roman citizens. Because work on stone was not easy, the cost was
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expensive. Thus, these freedmen must have been financially successful in their trades.
Although these inscriptions may not have an academic significance, each contains an
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Bibliography
Hartnett, Matthew. By Roman Hands: Inscriptions and Graffiti for Students of Latin.
Newburyport, MA, 2008.
Mommsen, Theodor, Emil Hübner, and Géza Alföldy. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
Berolini U.a.: Reimer U.a., 1933.
Rawson, Beryl, and P. R. C. Weaver. The Roman Family in Italy: Status, Sentiment,
Space. Canberra: Humanities Research Centre, 1997.
Reinach, Salomon, and C. T. Newton. Traité D'épigraphie Grecque. Paris: [s.n.], 1885.
Sandys, John Edwin. Latin Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions.
Cambridge, 1919.
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