Ch03 - Part1 - RealVector V2a (61) - DONE

Real Vector Spaces (Part 1) 1
MANAGEMENT
MATHEMATICS
Real Vector Spaces
(Part 1)
盧信銘
台大資管
Topics
• Preliminaries
• Vectors in the Plane and in 3-Space
• Vector Spaces
• Subspaces
• Span and Linear Independence
• Basis and Dimension
• Homogeneous Systems
• Coordinates and Isomorphisms
• Rank of a Matrix
▪ vector space：向量空間
▪ n-space：n維空間
▪ matrix space：矩陣空間
▪ polynomial space：多項式空間
• subspace：子空間
• basis：基底
• dimension：維度
• finite dimension：有限維度
• infinite dimension：無限維度
Topics
• Preliminaries
• Vector Spaces
• Subspaces
Preliminaries
• At this point we have a method for solving linear systems,

Gaussian Elimination, and a procedure for deciding if a
solution exists
• For a square matrix, the central issue is singular versus
nonsingular
• In these lectures we will generalize some concepts from
two-dimensional and three-dimensional vectors to develop a
deeper understanding of the vector spaces
Topics
• Preliminaries
• Vector Spaces
• Subspaces
• Four Fundamental Subspaces
Vectors in the Plane and in 3-Space

𝑥
• Defn - A vector in the plane is a 2 x 1 matrix 𝒗 =
𝑦
where x and y are real numbers
• Notation - In print, use bold letters for vectors. When writing by
hand use 𝑉.
• Defn - The numbers x and y in the definition of a vector are
called the components of the vector v.
𝑥1 𝑥2
• Defn - Will say that two vectors 𝒗 =
𝑦1 and 𝒖 = 𝑦2
are equal if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2
☼
Vectors in the Plane and in 3-Space

𝑥
• A two-dimensional vector 𝒗 =
𝑦 has several geometric
interpretations
1) A point ( x,y ) in the plane
2) A directed line segment from the origin to the point ( x,y )
3) A directed line segment from the point ( x1,y1 ) to the point
( x2,y2 ). Then x = x2 - x1, y = y2 - y1
• For applications to geometry and physics, some of the most
important operations are
1) Vector addition
2) Scalar multiplication
3) Vector subtraction ☼
Vector Addition
𝑢1 𝑣1 𝑢1 + 𝑣1
• Defn – Let 𝐮 = 𝑢 and 𝐯 = 𝑣2 . Define 𝐮 + 𝐯 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
2 2 2
• Geometric interpretation
y
v
u u+v
v
x
Scalar Multiplication
𝑢1
• Defn - Let c be a scalar (e.g. a real number) and 𝒖 =
𝑢2
be a vector. The scalar multiple c u of u by c is defined as

𝑐𝑢1
the vector 𝑐𝑢 .
2
☼
Vector Subtraction
• Define u - v as u + (-1) v
• Geometric relationship among u, v, u + v, and u - v
☼
Parametric Description of a Line

• Let P1 and P2 be points. The line passing through them can
be described as
𝐏 = 𝐏1 + 𝑡 𝐏2 − 𝐏1 = 1 − 𝑡 𝐏1 + 𝑡𝐏2 −∞<𝑡 <∞
P2 t 1
P2 − P1 t =1
P1 0  t 1
t =0
t 0
☼
Three-Dimensional Vectors
𝑥
• A three-dimensional vector is a 3 x 1 matrix 𝑦
𝑧
where x, y and z are real numbers
• Vector addition, scalar multiplication and vector subtraction
are defined analogously to two dimensions
☼
Example
☼
Basic Properties of Vectors in R2 or R3

• Theorem - If u, v and w are vectors in R2 or R3 and c and d
are real scalars, then
a) u+v=v+u
b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
c) u+0=0+u=u
d) u + (-u) = 0
e) c (u + v) = c u + c v
f) (c + d) u = c u + d u
g) c (d u) = (c d ) u
h) 1u=u How can we generalize?
How about Pictures?
• 林志玲金城武
• Photos of 250 X 250 pixels. Just like a matrix of same size.
• You can think of pictures as a vector.
• Each pixel has a value in [0, 255].
You can do linear combinations on

pictures!
• 𝑀𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑃𝑖𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑀
志玲 + 1 − 𝑎 𝑀城武
• In theory, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. However, since negative pixel values
does not have meanings in our setting, we will restrict 𝑎 ∈
[0, 1].
• What can we get?
• What will 𝑀𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑃𝑖𝑐 look like?
•
𝑀𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑃𝑖𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑀志玲 + 1 − 𝑎 𝑀城武
(二變.gif)
Question
• Consider 𝑀𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 , which is a picture of a tree.
• Can we find 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 such that
• 𝑀𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑏 𝑀
志玲 + 𝑐 𝑀城武 ?
• Yes or no; Why?

What if we add the tree picture?

• 𝑀𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑃𝑖𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑀
志玲 + 𝑏 𝑀城武 + 𝑐𝑀𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 ,
• 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, > 0, and 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1
• Then we have more possibility in the linear combination of
pictures.
(三變.gif)
A few observations
• You can create new vectors by doing linear combinations
of selected “base” vectors.
• You can generate as many new pictures as you want.
• However, these generated pictures are “restricted” in
certain sense.
• You can broaden the restrictions by adding more pictures
into the base vectors.
• The base vectors will be referred to as the “basis” in the
text book.
• The linear combination of basis formed a vector space.
• We are going to discuss the properties of the vector space
shortly.
Topics
• Preliminaries
• Vector Spaces
• Subspaces
☼
Vector Spaces
• Defn - A real vector space is a set V of elements on which two
operations ⊕ and ⊙ are defined with the following properties
(a) 1) If u, v ∈V, then 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉. (closed under operation ⊕)
2) 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒘 for all u, v, w ∈ V.
3) There exist a unique 0 ∈V such that 𝟎 ⊕ 𝒖 = 𝒖 ⊕ 𝟎 = 𝒖, ∀𝒖 ∈ 𝑉.
4) For each u ∈ V, there exist a unique v ∈ V such that
𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 = 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒖 = 𝟎.
5) 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 = 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒖 for u, v ∈ V.
(b) 6) If u ∈ V and c is any real number, then 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉. (closed under operation ⊙)
7) For 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 and a real numbers c, 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 = 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ (𝑐 ⊙ 𝒗).
8) 𝑐 + 𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 for any 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 and
real numbers c and d.
9) 𝑐 ⊙ 𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝑐𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 for any 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 and real numbers c and d. ☼
10) 1 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝒖 for any u∈ V.
A Real Vector Space is Like an Invisible

Jail
• A vector is a prisoner in the jail.
• Two moves a prisoner can do:
Vector addition
Scalar multiplication
• Need to make sure that the vectors can
not break the jail.
• Why the jail is invisible?
☼
About Real Vector Spaces

• V is called a real vector space because scalars c and d
are real numbers, not because of any characteristics of
the elements of V, e.g. if the elements of V involve
complex numbers, but c and d are real, then V is a real
vector space.
• The identity element 0 for ⊕ does not need to have
anything to do with the number zero.
• There is nothing in the definition that requires the
elements of V to be columns of numbers.
☼
About Real Vector Spaces

• To show that V is a vector space, we have to prove
properties 1 through 10. So, the verification involves
ten small proofs
• To show that V is not a vector space, all that we have
to do is show that a single property does not hold
☼
Examples: Real Vector Spaces

Example 1
• The set of two-dimensional vectors, as defined earlier,
forms a vector space. The verification of the properties
follows from the properties of matrices.
Example 2
• The set of three-dimensional vectors, as defined
earlier, forms a vector space. The verification of the
properties follows from the properties of matrices.
☼
Example: Real Vector Spaces

Example 3
 x1 
• The set Rn of all n x 1 matrices with real entries  
 x2 
forms a vector space with ⊕ as matrix addition and  
⊙ as scalar multiplication.  
 xn 
Example 4
• The set mRn of all real m x n matrices forms a vector
space with ⊕ as matrix addition and ⊙ as scalar
multiplication.
☼
Example: Polynomials
• Consider polynomials in a variable t
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑎0 𝑡 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑛
where a0,
a1, …, an are real numbers. If a0 ≠ 0, the degree of p(t)
is n.
• The zero polynomial 0𝑡 𝑛 + 0𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 0𝑡 + 0 has no
degree.
• Polynomials of degree 0 are constants.
• Let Pn be the set of all polynomials of degree ≤ n
together with the zero polynomial.
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑏0 𝑡 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛
• Let p(t) be as above and let
continue next slide…
☼
(continued)
Define 𝑝 𝑡 ⊕𝑞 𝑡 as
𝑝 𝑡 ⊕ 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑏0 𝑡 𝑛 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛
For a real number c, define 𝑐 ⊙ 𝑝(𝑡) as

𝑐 ⊙ 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑎0 𝑡 𝑛 + 𝑐𝑎1 𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑎𝑛
Want to show that Pn forms a vector space.
continue next slide…

(continued)
• Since 𝑝 𝑡 ⊕ 𝑞 𝑡 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 ➔ 1) holds
𝑐 ⊙ 𝑝 𝑡 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 ➔ 6) holds
• To verify 5), observe 𝑞 𝑡 ⊕ 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 +
⋯ . + 𝑏0 + 𝑎0 = 𝑝 𝑡 ⊕ 𝑞 𝑡
• Similar techniques can verify 2)
• The zero polynomial is the 𝟎 needed in 3)
• If 𝑝(𝑡) is as given, then −𝑝 𝑡 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 𝑛−1 −
⋯ − 𝑎0 (Property 4))
• 𝑐 + 𝑑 ⊙ 𝑝 𝑡 = ⋯ = 𝑐 ⊙ 𝑝 𝑡 ⊕ 𝑑 ⊙ 𝑝(𝑡) (Property
8))
• Can also verify Property 7, 9, 10.
☼
Example: C[0,1]
• Let V be the set of all real valued continuous functions on
the closed interval [0, 1]. For f, g ∈V, define 𝑓⨁𝑔 as
𝑓⊕𝑔 𝑡 =𝑓 𝑡 +𝑔 𝑡 ∀𝑡 ∈ 0,1
For f ∈V and a real number c, define 𝑐 ⊙ 𝑓 as

𝑐 ⊙ 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑡 ∀𝑡 ∈ [0,1]
Can show that V is a vector space.

• It is commonly called C [0, 1].
☼
Example: C[0,1]
• (continue)
For property 1, want to show that if 𝑓 ∈ 𝐶[0,1] and 𝑔 ∈
𝐶[0,1], then (𝑓 ⊕ 𝑔) 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑡 ∈ 𝐶 0,1
Sum of two continuous function is an continuous

function.
Proof: Omitted (using standard 𝜖 and 𝛿 arguments in

Calculus).
Try to proof other properties by yourself!

☼
Your Turn
• Example: Let V be the set of all real numbers with the
operations 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒗
and 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝑐𝒖. Is V a vector space?
☼
Vector Space Properties

• Theorem - If V is a vector space, then
a) 0⨀𝒖 = 𝟎 for every u in V

b) 𝑐⨀𝟎 = 𝟎 for every scalar c
c) If 𝑐⨀𝒖 = 𝟎 , then either c = 0 or u = 0
d) −1 ⨀𝒖 = −𝒖 for every u in V
• Comment - The proof is not as obvious as it seems. For example, in part

(b) the vector 0 need not be a column of zeros
☼
• Proof:
• (a) 0 ⊙ 𝒖 = 0 + 0 ⊙ 𝒖
= 0 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 0 ⊙ 𝒖 (property 6).
Add −0 ⊙ 𝒖 to both side of the above equation:
0 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ −0 ⊙ 𝒖 = 0 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 0 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ −0 ⊙ 𝒖
➔ 𝟎 = 0 ⊙ 𝒖 (property 4 and 6),
so we obtain 0 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝟎
• (b) and (c): Exercise 21
• (d) −1 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒖
= −1 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 1 ⊙ 𝒖 (Property 10)
= −1 + 1 ⊙ 𝒖 (Property 8)
= 0 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝟎.
Since −𝒖 unique, we conclude that −1 ⊙ 𝒖 = −𝒖
☼
Topics
• Preliminaries
• Vector Spaces
• Subspaces
☼
• Subset (子集): Example 1

• If A and B are sets and every element of A is also an element
of B, then:
• A is a subset of (or is included in) B, denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
• If A is strictly contained in B, denoted by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, we say that
A is a proper subset of B.
𝑥1
• Let 𝑆 = |𝑥 2 = 2𝑥1 , then S is a subset of R2.
𝑥2
• Want to show that 𝑆 is a vector space. To achieve
this, note the following:
𝑐
• If 𝒙 = is any element of S and  is any scalar,
2𝑐
𝑐 𝛼𝑐
then 𝛼𝒙 = 𝛼 = ∈𝑆
2𝑐 2𝛼𝑐
Continue next slide…

𝑎 𝑏
• if 2𝑎
∈ 𝑆 and ∈ 𝑆 , then
2𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
+ = ∈ 𝑆
2𝑎 2𝑏 2(𝑎 + 𝑏)
• (not shown here) All 10 vector space properties are

satisfied.
•  S is a vector space
Observation: (1) S is a subset of 𝑅2 ,

(2) S is a vector space,
(3) S includes 0. ☼
Subspace
• Defn - Let V be a vector space and let W be a subset of V.
If W is a vector space with respect to the operations in V, then W
is called a subspace of V.
• Defn - The trivial subspaces of V are V itself and { 0 }
☼
Examples of Subspaces
Example
• Let Pn be the vector space of all polynomials of degree ≤ n.
Then P2 is a subspace of P3, P3 is a subspace of P4. In
general, Pk is a subspace of Pn if k ≤ n
Example
• Let W be the set of polynomials of degree exactly 2. Then
W is a subset of P3 but it is not a subspace since it is not
closed. 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1 ∈ W and −𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 1 ∈ W
but
𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1 + −𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 1 ∉ W
☼
Subspaces
• Theorem - Let V be a vector space with operations ⨁ and ⨀

and let W be a nonempty subset of V.
Then W is a subspace of V if and only if the following
conditions hold
a) If u and v are any two vectors in W, then 𝒖⨁𝒗 ∈ 𝑾
b) If c is any real number and u is any vector in W, then
𝑐⨀𝒖∈𝑾
• Proof -  If W is a subspace of V, then properties (a) and

(b) hold automatically.
☼
(continue next slide…)
• Prepare to proof 
• Restate our goal:
• If the following properties holds:
a) If u and v are any two vectors in W, then 𝒖⨁𝒗 ∈ 𝑾
b) If c is any real number and u is any vector in W, then
𝑐⨀𝒖∈𝑾
• Then, W is a subspace of V
• Key idea: What do a) and b) say about 0 and –u?
• If b) is true, then for 𝒖 ∈ 𝑾, 0 ⨀ 𝒖 = 𝟎 ∈ 𝑾, (Slide 29;
Vector Space Property) ➔ 𝑾 contains the zero vector.
(Property 3)
• If b) is true, then for 𝒖 ∈ 𝑾, −1 ⨀ 𝒖 = −𝒖 ∈ 𝑾, (Slide 29;
Vector Space Property) ➔ W satisfy (Property 4)
 Since W is a subset of V, propertiesReal
2, 5, 7, 8,
Vector 9, and
Spaces 101)of the vector44space
(Part
definition hold. Properties (a) and (b) above ensure that properties 1 and 6 of
the vector space definition hold.
From previous slide, Property 3 and 4 hold.
Therefore, W is a vector space and a subspace of V.
◼ [Need to verify] A real vector space properties

1) If u, v ∈V, then 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 (closed under operation ⊕)
2) 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒘 for all u, v, w ∈ V
3) There exist a unique 0 ∈V such that 𝟎 ⊕ 𝒖 = 𝒖 ⊕ 𝟎 = 𝒖, ∀𝒖 ∈ 𝑉
4) For each u ∈ V, there exist a unique v ∈ V such that 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 = 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒖 = 𝟎
5) 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 = 𝒗 ⊕ 𝒖 for u, v ∈ V
6) If u ∈ V and c is any real number, then 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉
7) For 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 and a real numbers c, 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗 = 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ (𝑐 ⊙ 𝒗)
8) 𝑐 + 𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝑐 ⊙ 𝒖 ⊕ 𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 for any 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 and
real numbers c and d
9) 𝑐 ⊙ 𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝑐𝑑 ⊙ 𝒖 for any 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 and real numbers c and d
☼
10) 1 ⊙ 𝒖 = 𝒖 for any u∈ V
Your Turn
• Let S = {(x1, x2, x3)T | x1 = x2 }, is S a subspace of R3?
☼
Your Turn
𝑥
• Let S = { | x is a real number}, is S a subspace of R2?
1
☼
Your Turn
• Let S = {A  R22 | a12 = -a21}, is S a subspace of R22?
☼
Your Turn (continue)
☼
True of False
Example
• True or False: Let W be the set of all vectors in R2 with
nonnegative components. W is a subspace.
☼
Example: Pn
• Let S be the set of all polynomials of degree < n with the
property that p(0) = 0. The set S is nonempty since it
contains the zero polynomial.
• Is S is a subspace of Pn?
• Yes!
• This follows because
(i) If p(x)  S and  is a scalar, then
p(0) =  · 0 = 0
and hence p  S.
☼
Example Continued
(ii) If p(x) and q(x) are elements of S, then
(p + q)(0) = p(0) + q(0) = 0 + 0 = 0
and hence p + q  S.
☼
Example: C[-1, 1], 𝐶1[−1, 1], 𝐶2[−1,1]
• The function f(x) = |x| ∈ C[-1, 1], but it is not differentiable

at x = 0 and hence 𝑓 𝑥 ∉ C1[-1, 1].
• The function g(x) = x|x| ∈ C1[-1, 1], since it is differentiable
at every point in [-1, 1] and g’(x) = 2|x| is continuous on [-1,
1].
• However, g  C2[-1,1], since g’’(x) is not defined when x =
0. Thus, the vector space C2[-1, 1] is a proper subspace
of both C[-1, 1] and C1[-1, 1].
☼
Example: Cn[a, b]
• Let Cn[a, b] be the set of all functions f that have a
continuous nth derivative on [a, b], then Cn[a, b] is a
subspace of C[a, b].
• Proof:
• (1) C[a,b] is a vector space and 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏] ⊂ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]
(why?). Need to show 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏] satisfy closure
properties.
• (2) if 𝑝 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏], and 𝑞 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏], then from theories
in Calculus, we know 𝑝 + 𝑞 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]
• (3) if 𝑝 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏], and 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, then
𝑐 ⋅ 𝑝 ∈ 𝐶 𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏].
• ➔ Cn[a, b] is a subspace of C[a, b]. ☼
Example: Solution to Ordinary Differential Equations
• Let S be the set of all f in C2[a, b] such that

𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 for all x in [a, b].
• The set S is nonempty, since the zero function is in S.

• If f  S and 𝛼 is any scalar, then, for any x in [a, b],
(𝛼𝑓)″ (𝑥) + (𝛼𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝛼𝑓 ″ (𝑥) + 𝛼𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝛼(𝑓 ″ (𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝛼 ⋅ 0
• Thus, f  S.
☼
Example Continued
• If f and g are both in S, then
(𝑓 + 𝑔)″ (𝑥) + (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 ″ (𝑥) + 𝑔″ (𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
= [𝑓 ″ (𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)] + [𝑔″ (𝑥)
=0+0=0
• Hence, the set of all solutions on [a, b] of the

differential equation y’’+ y = 0 forms a subspaces of
C2[a, b].
• Note that f(x) = sinx and g(x) = cosx are both in S.
• Since S is a subspace, it follows that any function of
the form c1sinx + c2cosx must also be in S.
☼
Constructing a Subspace
• Let v1 and v2 be vectors in a vector space V. The set of all
vectors of the form a1v1 + a2 v2 , for real numbers a1 and
a2 , forms a subspace of V
To see why:
• Let 𝒘1 = 𝑎1 𝒗1 + 𝑎2 𝒗2 and 𝒘2 = 𝑏1 𝒗1 + 𝑏2 𝒗2 be vectors in
W. Then 𝒘1 + 𝒘2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝒗1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝒗2 ∈ 𝑊
• If 𝑐 is a scalar, then 𝑐𝒘1 = 𝑐𝑎1 𝒗1 + 𝑐𝑎2 𝒗2 ∈ 𝑊
• Hence W is a subspace of V.
☼
Null Space
• Let A be an m x n matrix and consider the homogeneous
system Ax = 0 where x ∈ Rn.
• Define W = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 | Ax = 0 }. W is a subspace of Rn
called the null space of A.
• Notation: N(A) denotes the null space of A.
• Let x and y be solutions of the homogeneous system,
i.e. Ax = 0 and Ay = 0.
A( x + y ) = Ax + Ay = 0 + 0 = 0. So, x + y ∈ W.
• Let c be a scalar, then A( c x ) = c( Ax ) = c 0 = 0.
So, c x ∈ W and W is a subspace of Rn. The null space
is also called the kernel of A
☼
Example
1 1 1 0 
• Determine N(A) if A =  
• Sol:  2 1 0 1 
Using the Gauss-Jordan reduction to solve Ax = 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
⇒
2 1 0 1 0 0 −1 −2 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
⇒
0 1 2 −1 0
1 1 1 0 0
⇒
0 1 2 −1 0
1 0 −1 1 0 ☼
⇒
0 1 2 −1 0
Example Continued
lead variable: x1, x2, and free variable: x3, x4

x1 - x3+ x4 = 0  x1 = x3 – x4
x2 + 2x3 - x4 = 0  x2 = -2x3 + x4
set x3 = , x4 = , then
−𝛽 𝛼 −𝛽 1 −1
−2𝛼 + 𝛽 −2𝛼 𝛽 −2 1
= + =𝛼 +𝛽
𝛼 𝛼 0 1 0
𝛽 0 𝛽 0 1
is a solution to Ax = 0
☼
Example Continued
The vector space N(A) consists of all vectors of the form
1 −1 , where ,  are scalars

−2 1
𝛼 +𝛽
1 0
0 1
☼
Homework (Ch 3, Part 1)

• 歡迎在影片中留言
• 3.1: 15, 18, 22

• 3.2: 3, 8, 12, 19, 21
• 3.3: 6, 10, 18, 28, 30
• Computer Homework (請使用Jupyter Lab/Notebook回答，

將文件轉成HTML格式上傳至Ceiba):
• Reduced row echelon form: reduced_row_ech_v3.html

Ch03 - Part1 - RealVector V2a (61) - DONE

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Real Vector Spaces (Part 1) 1

• At this point we have a method for solving linear systems,

Vectors in the Plane and in 3-Space

Vectors in the Plane and in 3-Space

be a vector. The scalar multiple c u of u by c is defined as

Parametric Description of a Line

𝐏 = 𝐏1 + 𝑡 𝐏2 − 𝐏1 = 1 − 𝑡 𝐏1 + 𝑡𝐏2 −∞<𝑡 <∞

Basic Properties of Vectors in R2 or R3

How about Pictures?

You can do linear combinations on

𝑀𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑃𝑖𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑀志玲 + 1 − 𝑎 𝑀城武

• Yes or no; Why?

What if we add the tree picture?

A Real Vector Space is Like an Invisible

• Why the jail is invisible?

About Real Vector Spaces

About Real Vector Spaces

Examples: Real Vector Spaces

Example: Real Vector Spaces

𝑝 𝑡 ⊕ 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑏0 𝑡 𝑛 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛

For a real number c, define 𝑐 ⊙ 𝑝(𝑡) as

continue next slide…

For f ∈V and a real number c, define 𝑐 ⊙ 𝑓 as

Can show that V is a vector space.

Sum of two continuous function is an continuous

Proof: Omitted (using standard 𝜖 and 𝛿 arguments in

Try to proof other properties by yourself!

Vector Space Properties

a) 0⨀𝒖 = 𝟎 for every u in V

• Comment - The proof is not as obvious as it seems. For example, in part

• Subset (子集): Example 1

Continue next slide…

• (not shown here) All 10 vector space properties are

Observation: (1) S is a subset of 𝑅2 ,

• Defn - The trivial subspaces of V are V itself and { 0 }

• Theorem - Let V be a vector space with operations ⨁ and ⨀

• Proof -  If W is a subspace of V, then properties (a) and

◼ [Need to verify] A real vector space properties

• Let S = {(x1, x2, x3)T | x1 = x2 }, is S a subspace of R3?

• Let S = {A  R22 | a12 = -a21}, is S a subspace of R22?

Your Turn (continue)

(ii) If p(x) and q(x) are elements of S, then

(p + q)(0) = p(0) + q(0) = 0 + 0 = 0

Example: C[-1, 1], 𝐶1[−1, 1], 𝐶2[−1,1]

• The function f(x) = |x| ∈ C[-1, 1], but it is not differentiable

Example: Solution to Ordinary Differential Equations

• Let S be the set of all f in C2[a, b] such that

• The set S is nonempty, since the zero function is in S.

• Hence, the set of all solutions on [a, b] of the

lead variable: x1, x2, and free variable: x3, x4

The vector space N(A) consists of all vectors of the form

1 −1 , where ,  are scalars

Homework (Ch 3, Part 1)

• 3.1: 15, 18, 22

• Computer Homework (請使用Jupyter Lab/Notebook回答，

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