LATER VEDIC SOCIETY

This Final Draft is Submitted in partial fulfillment in the subject of Indian History
for completion of the degree B.A., LL.B. (Hons.)

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Dr. Priya Darshini MANGLESH MISHRA

Associate Professor of History Roll no. 23129

B.A., LL.B.(Hons.)
Semester: 1st

Chanakya National Law University, Patna

September, 2023

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................3
DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................4
1. INTRODUCTION:...................................................................................................................5
Literature Review.........................................................................................................................7
Aims & Objectives:......................................................................................................................7
Research Question:......................................................................................................................7
Hypothesis:..................................................................................................................................7
Research Methodology:...............................................................................................................8
Sources of Data:......................................................................................................................8
Mode of citation:.....................................................................................................................8
Scope and Limitations:................................................................................................................8
2. ORIGIN (TIME PERIOD), HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SOURCES:............................8
3. CULTURAL CHANGE IN LATER VEDIC SOCIETY:.......................................................11
4. ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATION:..............................................................................15
5. SOCIETY AND GOTRA SYSTEM:.....................................................................................17
6. CONCLUSION:.....................................................................................................................19
BIBLIOGRAPHY:.........................................................................................................................19

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to my

guide, Dr Priya Darshini, Associate Professor of History, for her exemplary
guidance, monitoring, and constant encouragement throughout this project.

Her blessings, help, and guidance from time to time shall carry the researcher a long
way in the journey of life on which the researcher is about to embark.

The success and outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and assistance
from many people, and I am highly privileged to have gotten this all along with the
completion of this project. Last but not least, I am thankful to all the members of my
family, friends, and teachers; without their assistance and encouragement, I could
not have been able to complete my submission.

Manglesh Mishra

Roll. No. 23129

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DECLARATION

I, Manglesh Mishra, hereby declare that the work reported in the B.A., LL.B.
(Hons.) project titled Later Vedic Society submitted at Chanakya National Law
University, Patna is an authentic record of my work carried out under the
supervision of Dr Priya Darshini.

I have not submitted this work elsewhere for any other degree or diploma, and I am
fully responsible for the contents of my project report.

Manglesh Mishra (23129)

B.A., LL.B. (Hons.)

First Semester

1. INTRODUCTION:

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The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were compiled
after the age of the Rig Veda. The collections of Vedic hymns or mantras are known as the
Samhitas. The Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we have
described the early Vedic age. For the purpose of recitation, the prayers of the Rig Veda were set
to tune, and this modified collection was known as the Sama Veda. In post- Rig Vedic times, two
other collections, the Yajur Veda Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita, were composed. The
Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but also rituals to accompany their recitation, the latter
reflecting the social and political milieu of the time. The Atharva Veda contains charms and
spells to ward off evils and diseases, its contents throwing light on the beliefs and practices of the
non-Aryans. The Vedic Samhitas were followed by the composition of a series of texts known as
the Brahmanas. These are replete with ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious

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meaning of rituals. All these later Vedic texts were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin in c.
1000-500 BC. During the same period and in the same area, digging and exploration have
brought to light nearly 700 inhabited sites. These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites
because they were inhabited by people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey
pottery. They also used iron weapons. With the combined evidence from the later Vedic texts
and PGW iron-phase archaeology, we are able to form an idea of the life of the people in the first
half of the first millennium BC in western UP and the adjoining areas of Punjab,
Haryana, and Rajasthan.

The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western UP covered by
the Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Bharat a Puna, the two major tribes, combined and thus formed
the Kara pe Initially they lived between the Sararvati and the Drishadvati just on d fringe of the
doab. Soon the Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper reaches of the doab, the area called
Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. Gradually they coalesced with a people called the
Panchalas who occupied the central part of the doab. The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people
spread Delhi, and the upper and central parts of the doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur
situated in Meerut district. The history of the Kuru tribe important for the battle of Bharata,
which is the principal theme of be great epic called the Mahabharata. This war is supposed to
have been fought around 950 BC between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Since both of the
belonged to the Kuru clan, as a result of war virtually the whole of the Kurs clan was wiped out2.

Literature Review

1.Sharma, R. S. India’s Ancient Past. India, History, 2005

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Sharma, R.S. India’s Ancient Past. India, History, 2005

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 In this brilliant and widely acclaimed work, R.S. Sharma provides a comprehensive and
accessible account of the history of early India. Beginning with a discussion on frameworks of
the writing of history approaches, sources, and significance the book sheds light on the origins
and growth of civilizations, empires, and religions. It covers the geographical, ecological, and
linguistic backgrounds, and looks at specific cultures of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Vedic
periods, as well as at the Harappan civilization.

2.Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India, History, 2003

Romila Thapar's " The Penguin History of Early India" is a comprehensive historical work that
explores the early history and civilization of the Indian subcontinent from its earliest known
origins up to the end of the first millennium AD (1300 CE). The book covers a vast period,
addressing various aspects of ancient Indian society, culture, religion, politics, and economics.

Aims & Objectives:

i. To interpret the Later Vedic Society of Indian Subcontinent.

ii. To understand the societal development of Later Vedic Society.
iii. To analyze social, political, economic, and cultural significance of Later Vedic Society.

Research Question:

i. What are developments in Later Vedic Society from Early Vedic

Society?

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 ii. What is importance of Later Vedic Society in Indian History?

Hypothesis:

There was an efficient administrative system during the Later Vedic Society.

Research Methodology:

The researcher will be relying on secondary sources of data.

Sources of Data:

1. Secondary Sources
1. Books
2. Blogs
3. Editorials

Mode of citation:

The researcher has followed the 20th edition of the Bluebook for citation.

Scope and Limitations:

The scope of study is social, cultural, political, economic and administrative aspect of Later
Vedic Society.

2. ORIGIN (TIME PERIOD), HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SOURCES:

1. Origin of Later Vedic Age Society – After the age of Vedic Period Society started evolving
throughout time periods at various stages. The society started settling down in a confined
territory. The use of term ‘Rashtra’ also seen for first time in this period. The Society

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 started forming its tribal states into ‘Janpadas’. This period also shows expansion of
Aryans from Punjab to whole western Uttar Pradesh in Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Aryans
advanced eastward during the Later Vedic Period. According to the Satapatha Brahmana,
Aryans spread to the eastern Gangetic plains. During the Later Vedic Age, the Aryans
completely subjugated the rich plains nourished by the Yamuna, Ganges, and Sadanira
rivers. They crossed the Vindhyas and settled in the Deccan, north of the Godavari. The
concept of controlling people also seen in this period and term ‘Rajya’ originated.

2. Time Period – According to various veteran historians like R.S. Sharma, the time period
for Later Vedic Age is given 1000-500 BC. But it’s also mentioned that Later Vedic
Society existed in between 1000-600 BC.
3. Sources – The various sources are:
 The four Vedas i.e., Rig Ved, Sam Ved, Yajur Ved, Atharv Ved. (Samhitas)

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I. Rig Veda – It’s a collection of 1028 hymns or the sukta which is divided
into 10 mandals. It’s collection of hymns by number of priestly family
which were chanted by them on sacrificial occasion.
II. Sam Veda - The Samaveda is the Veda of melodies and chants. It consists
of 1603 verses.
III. Yajur Veda - It is essentially a guide-book for the Adhvaryu priest who had
to do practically all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. His works vary from the
selection of a plot of land for the sacrificial altar down to offering oblations
to the sacred fires. Just as the Samaveda-Samhita is the song-book of the
Udgata priest, so the Yajurveda-Samhitas are the prayer-books for the
Adhvaryu priest. It is solely meant for the purposes of sacrificial rituals.
IV. Atharva Veda - The Atharvaveda is the oldest literary monument of Indian
medicine. It is believed to be the origin of Ayurveda, the Indian science of
medicine. There are a series of Mantras related to cure various physical and
mental diseases. Another class of hymns includes prayers for protection
from the bite of snakes or injurious insects. We find mention and
application of medicines and medicinal herbs. This feature distinguishes
the Atharvaveda from the rest of the Vedas.
 Aranyaka, Brahmanas text, Upanishads
 Iranian text ‘Zend Avesta’
 Painted Grey ware (PGW), Black Ware, Red Ware
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I. PGW – It’s a type of wheel made pottery and of well levigated clay. It used
to be Grey or Ashgrey in color and the painting in black or a deep
chocolate color on inner and outer surface. It has more than 40 designs,
and its most common forms are bowls and dishes. Objects of copper, glass,
iron and bone unearthed include axes, fish hooks, chisels and arrow heads.

4. Historical Context – The Later Vedic Age had various historical events. The compilation
of Later Vedic text also called Brahmnas done in this period. The famous Mahabharata
war also took place in this period. Upanishads also originated only this time. The use of
Iron weapons started for cultivations and wars. Narrative literature, where it is initially
preserved as an oral tradition, is frequently stitched together from bardic fragments. Hence
the insistence on single authorship, even if the text is far too long to have been composed
by a single author. This also permits constant interpolation, making it difficult to give a
date to the composition. Epic literature is not history but is again a way of looking at the
past. A later age looks back with nostalgia at an earlier one and depicts it in terms of ideals
and activities now receding. The social assumptions implicit in the narratives are of value
to the historian even if the events are fictional.6

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Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India, History, 2003

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3. CULTURAL CHANGE IN LATER VEDIC SOCIETY:

During the later Vedic era, the upper doab region became the birthplace of Aryan culture
influenced by Brahmanical traditions. It appears that all Vedic literature was compiled in this
area, within the land of the Kuru Panchalas. The central focus of this culture was the practice of
sacrificial rites, accompanied by elaborate rituals and incantations. Notably, the significance of
the two prominent Rig Vedic deities, Indra and Agni, diminished during this period. In contrast,
Prajapati, the creator, ascended to the supreme position within the later Vedic pantheon.
Additionally, some of the lesser-known gods from the Rig Vedic era gained prominence. In later
Vedic times, Rudra, originally the god associated with animals, gained significance, while Vishnu
began to be seen as the preserver and guardian of settled communities, as opposed to semi-
nomadic ones. Furthermore, there was a noticeable shift towards the worship of certain objects as
symbols of divinity, marking the emergence of idolatry in later Vedic culture. As society became
more structured with distinct social classes like the brahmanas, Rajanyas or kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
and shudras, some of these groups began to venerate their specific deities. For instance, Pushan,
traditionally the god overseeing cattle, came to be regarded as the deity of the shudras, even
though in the Rig Vedic age, cattle herding was the primary occupation of the Aryans. During
this period, people continued to worship gods for similar material reasons as in earlier times, but
the method of worship underwent significant changes. While prayers were still recited, they no
longer held the predominant role in appeasing the gods. Instead, sacrifices became far more
significant and took on both public and domestic dimensions. Public sacrifices involved the
participation of the king and the entire community, often coinciding with the tribal structure in
many cases. On the other hand, private sacrifices were conducted by individuals within their own
households. This period marked the establishment of regular households among the Vedic
people. Individuals offered oblations to Agni, and each of these offerings took the form of a
specific ritual or sacrifice. These sacrifices often entailed the large-scale killing of animals and
the significant depletion of cattle wealth. Interestingly, the guest in these rituals was referred to
as "goghna," signifying someone who partook in meals involving cattle products During this
period, sacrifices were accompanied by precise formulae that the sacrificer had to enunciate

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meticulously. The person conducting the sacrifice was called the yajaman, also known as the
performer of yajna, and the success of the ritual often hinged on the magical potency of the
words spoken correctly during the ceremonies.

Numerous types of yajnas, such as Vajpeya, Rajsuya, and Aswamedha, were well-established and
widely practiced during this era. While some of the rituals conducted by the Vedic Aryans shared
similarities with those performed by Indo-European peoples, it's noteworthy that several of these
practices appear to have been developed uniquely on the Indian subcontinent. The formulation
and practice of these rituals were developed, adopted, and expanded upon by a group of priests
known as the brahmanas. These brahmanas asserted their exclusive control over priestly
knowledge and expertise. They introduced a multitude of rituals, some of which were influenced
by non-Aryan traditions. The exact reasons behind the creation and elaboration of these rituals
remain unclear, but it's possible that financial incentives played a role. Historical records suggest
that substantial offerings were made to officiating priests during ceremonies like the Rajasuya
sacrifice, with reports of as many as 240,000 cows given as "Dakshina" or gifts.

Interestingly, there were mentions of both orthodox and beef-eating brahmanas in Vedic times, as
noted by Swami Vivekananda. He even advocated the consumption of animal food for Hindus in
a modern context. In addition to cows, which were commonly given as sacrificial offerings,
donations of gold, cloth, and horses were also made. At times, priests asserted claims to
territorial holdings as Dakshina, although there is no conclusive evidence of land being granted
as a sacrificial fee during the later Vedic period. The Shatapatha Brahmana suggests that during
the Ashvamedha ritual, priests should receive the north, south, east, and west, leaving little for
the king. However, this seems more indicative of the priests' desire to accumulate property rather
than a reflection of actual land transfers to them. In reality, the transfer of significant land
holdings to priests is unlikely to have occurred. Towards the end of the Vedic period, there was a
notable backlash against priestly dominance, religious cults, and rituals, particularly in regions
like Panchalas and Videha around 600 BC. It was during this time that the Upanishads were
compiled. These philosophical texts criticized the significance of rituals and emphasized the
importance of correct belief and knowledge. They underscored the acquisition of self-knowledge

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or atman and the understanding of the relationship between atman and Brahma. Brahma emerged
as the supreme entity, comparable to the powerful kings of the period. Indeed, during this period,
some of the Kshatriya princes in Panchala and Videha regions embraced and propagated this
philosophical thinking, contributing to an environment conducive to reforming the religion,
which had been dominated by the priestly class. Their teachings and beliefs promoted stability
and integration in society. Central to their teachings was an emphasis on the unchanging,
indestructible, and immortal nature of the atman or soul. This emphasis on the constancy of the
atman served the purpose of maintaining stability, which was crucial to sustain the emerging state
power led by the Kshatriya rajas or kings. Additionally, the stress on the connection between the
individual atman and the supreme Brahma fostered loyalty to a higher authority. The later Vedic
period also witnessed significant transformations, such as the emergence of territorial kingdoms
known as Janapadas, ruled by Kshatriya leaders. Wars were no longer solely fought over cattle
but also for the acquisition of territory. Kings continually sought to expand their dominions by
conquering neighboring territories, marking a shift towards territorial expansion and
consolidation of power.

The famous Mahabharata war, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, is attributed to
this period. The predominantly pastoral society of early Vedic times had become agricultural.
The tribal pastoralists came to be transformed into farmers who could maintain their chief with
frequent tributes. Chiefs, called Raja or Janapadin, grew at the expense of the tribal peasantry,
and handsomely rewarded the priests who supported their patrons against the common people
called the Vaishyas. The shudras were still a small serving order. The tribal society broke up into
a varna-divided society, but varna distinctions could not be carried too far. Despite the support of
the brahmanas, the Rajanyas or the kshatriyas could not establish a mature state system. A state
cannot be set up without a regular taxation system and a standing army. The entire administrative
structure, including the army, depends upon taxes, but the existing mode of agriculture did not
provide scope for regular taxes and tributes.7

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4. ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATION:

 ECONOMY
1. Use of Iron
Iron played significant role in the later Vedic age in ancient India, which is
generally considered to be from around 1000 BCE to 500 BCE. The use of iron
during this period had a profound impact on various aspects of society and culture.
Iron tools and implements, such as plows, axes, and sickles, revolutionized
agriculture. Iron plows were particularly important as they could cut through hard
soil more efficiently than their bronze or stone counterparts. This led to increased
agricultural productivity and the ability to cultivate more land, which contributed
to economic growth and surplus food production. The availability of iron
facilitated the development of various crafts and industries. Blacksmiths, in
particular, played a crucial role in producing iron tools, we and decorative items
This led to the growth of metallurgy as a specialized skill, and ironworking

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 became a significant trade in ancient India. The use of iron in weaponry was a
major advancement in the later Vedic age. Iron swords, spears, and armor were
superior to their bronze or copper counterparts. This gave an advantage to those
who possessed iron weapons in battles and conflicts. Iron tools were used in the
construction of carts, wheels, and other means of transportation. This made it
easier to move goods and people, contributing to increased trade and connectivity
between different regions.
Around 1000 BC the use of iron found in Gandhara area which is parts of
contemporary Pakistan and Afghanistan. However, in nearly 700 BC it uses
discovered upper Gangetic Basin as axe mainly to clear forests. It later spread in
UP and Videha (Parts of Nepal and Northern Bihar). In that time Iron was called as
‘Shyama’ or ‘Krishna Ayas’. In summary the use of iron in the later Vedic age had
a profound impact on agriculture, craftsmanship, military technology,
urbanization, transportation, art, culture, and even social structures. It marked a
significant technological and societal transition in ancient India, contributing to the
growth and development of various aspects of civilization.

2. Agriculture
The chief means of livelihood was Agriculture in Later Vedic Society as compared
to Pastoral and cattle rearing of Early Vedic Society. Although agriculture was
primitive at that time because of non-availability of bullocks due to sacrifices but
it was most prevalent. Even there are instances of King and Princes using plough.
Balram, the brother of Krishna, called as ‘Haldhara’ meaning holder of plough.
According to Ramayana, King Janak also used to do ploughing, and during this act
only he found Sita who married to Lord Ram. Gautam Buddha depicted as
ploughing in a sculpture in Bodhgaya. After passage of time this work was
assigned to lower castes and upper varnas were prohibited to do this.
The people produced barley mainly in previous time, but in Later Vedic Age wheat
and rice became chief crops. The use of rice was also done in Vedic rituals.

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 The Vedic texts provide insights into various agricultural practices and rituals
associated with farming. These texts also mention the importance of seasons and
weather patterns in agriculture, emphasizing the need for timely
sowing and harvesting.
3. Arts and Crafts
The later Vedic age saw the flourishing of several art forms and crafts, reflecting
the evolving society and religious practices of the time. Here are some key aspects
of art and craft in the later Vedic age. Metalworking continued to be an important
craft during this period. Artisans crafted various objects, including jewelry,
utensils, and religious items, using materials such as gold, silver, copper, and
bronze. These items often featured intricate designs and were used for both
utilitarian and ritualistic purposes. Pottery was another significant craft during the
later Vedic age. Pottery was used for cooking, storage, and various other purposes.
The pottery from this period is known for its simplicity and functionality, with
plain and undecorated designs being common. The four main types of painted
pottery were- Painted Grey Ware (PGW), Red Ware, Black-and-Red Ware, Black
slipped Ware.9
Weaving and textile production were essential crafts during this period. People
produced fabrics from materials such as cotton and wool. These textiles were used
for clothing, as well as for religious and ceremonial purposes. Weaving mainly
confined to women.

4. Settlements
The term ‘Janapada’ firstly used in Later Vedic Age. The Society started forming
its tribal states into ‘Janpadas’. The term ‘Rastra’ also originated this time only.
The increased agricultural productivity and the growth of crafts and industries
facilitated urbanization. As communities grew and became more prosperous, they

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 developed into towns and cities, fostering trade and cultural exchange. The term
‘Nagara’ used in Later Vedic text but only faint beginnings appear toward end of
Later Vedic Age.

 Administration
1. Political Organization
The type of government in Later Vedic Age was Monarchy. Monarchy was usually
hereditary but there are occasional preferences of King being selected. But this
selection was confined only to royal family. The organization of larger Kingdoms
increased the power of King and give the permanent authority and sovereignty in
terms of title. The King influence also increased due to rituals. The Yajnas related
to powers were Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya. There were also fights for
territory and it could be even within the clan. The example we get from
Mahabharata about war between Pandavas and Kauravas.
Samrat, Adhiraj, Rajadhiraj were terms evolved related to king and his powers. It
is said that Samrat can be made only by defeating or trucing with all kings. There
couldn’t be two Samrat at a time. For example, when Yudhisthira decided to do
rajsuya to became Samrat, he killed Jarasandh earlier through Bhim.
The concept of assemblies differs in Later Vedic Age that of from Early Vedic Age.
The ‘Vidhata’ completely disappeared in Later Vedic Age. The two assemblies
‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ was present at that time. ‘Sabha’ was assembly of elders and
attendance of King was necessary in it. It’s head called as ‘Sabhapati’. The
‘Samiti’ was assembly of common people and it was like lower house. It’s head
called as ‘Isana’ or ‘Pati’. Attendance of King also necessary here.
The King administer criminal justice and delegate his powers to a rural official
‘Rajanya’.

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 2. Various Administrational Posts
The ‘Purohit’ was counsellor of King. He performed rituals as well as gives
advices to kings. The Brahmanas also claimed exemption from taxes. The main
burden of taxes was on farmers and agriculturists.
The ‘Suta’ was charioteer of King. He also used to entertain the King with stories
and epic poetry. Sanjay used to narrate the story of Mahabharata to Dhritrashtra.
There were also accorded the name of Sarathi and also do the work of driving
chariots in wars. We have examples from Mahabharata, Krishna being the sarathi
of Arjun and Shalya, King of Madra, sarathi of Karn. So sometimes in war even
Kings and Princes used to be charioteer.
‘Senani’ was the term accorded to commander of army. ‘Gramini’ was given the
charge of local administration.
‘Sthapati’ used to look after native tribe. ‘Satapati’ was term for person in charge
of hundred villages. At lowest unit, village officials called as ‘Adhikrita’.
There was existence of regular revenue administration. Tho important tax
collectors and officials were mentioned. ‘Bhagaduha’ was the collector of taxes,
and ‘Sangrahitri’ was name accorded to treasurer.
‘Akshavapa’ is name mentioned for superintendent of dices. The name of dice
game was given ‘Chausar’.

5. SOCIETY AND GOTRA SYSTEM:

 Social structure - Varna system

1. Western View – It says that Dasyus were original inhabitants of India and they are
the forefathers of Sudras. When Aryans conquered India, they enslaved the
Dasyus who were dark in color (Varna). This view rejected as it gave only 2
divisions. But there was existence of 4 divisions. According to Veda, opposition

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 between Aryans and Dasyus was not due to their color but difference in their cult.
Aryans believed in nature worship whereas Dasyus believed in fertility cult.
2. Brahminical View – It states that origin of Varna mention in many legends and this
is reason for differentiation in philosophical literature. The Purush Sukta is
described as one of most famous legends. Purush or Ideal man said to have
produced Brahmans from mouth, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishya from thighs and
Shudra from feet. According to Chandogya Upanishad, a person born as Brahman
and Shudra depends on Karma in past birth or Purvajanm. Whereas Mahabharata’s
‘Shanti Parv’ states that a man attains superior Varna by his acts and deeds and he
can attain liberation (Moksha).

The Varna system in the period corresponds to 4-fold divisions

i. Brahmans – They acquired highest position in society. Their work was to teach mainly to
Brahmans and Kshatriyas about Dharmas and Nitis. Even they give war training to them
as mentioned in Mahabharata about Parshuram, Dronacharya, etc. They also played major
roles in policy formation in form of royal priests or Rajgurus. They get many benefits like
relaxation from taxes and punishment. In later Vedic society they conducted rituals and
sacrifices for their clients and for them also. It also seen that there were conflict between
Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.
ii. Kshatriya – This class also called as ‘Rajanya’. They were ruling and fighter class. They
use to rule over a certain defined territory and fight for it’s security. They were 2 nd highest
class of people. Kings and Provincial heads came from this category.
iii. Vaishya – They were traders, businessmen and merchants of society. They use to do
trades and runs their shops and workplaces. They used to be wealthy class of society.
They also worked as farmers, cattle-breeders, artisans, etc.
iv. Sudra – They were lowest class of people according to their work. They were providers of
main workforce for society. They use to serve as Servants, guard, sweepers and various
works of society.

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It's important to note that these Varnas were not rigidly fixed at birth during the later Vedic
age. Social mobility was possible, to some extent, through education and one's occupation.
However, as time progressed, the Varna system began to solidify into a more rigid and
hereditary caste system, especially during the subsequent centuries. The later caste system
had a more hierarchical structure and included numerous jatis (sub-castes) based on various
factors like occupation, region, and social practices. Slavery was recognized institution of
Later Vedic Society and goes back to Early Vedic times.

 Gotra system – The term Gotra means Cowshed i.e., a place for living of cows. However,
during the later Vedic period, the concept of Gotra evolved into a significant social
institution. In contrast to tribal endogamy (marriage within the same tribe), people began
to practice Gotra exogamy. Gotra came to signify a lineage or descent from a common
ancestor, and it became a crucial factor in regulating marriages. Marriages were not
allowed between individuals belonging to the same Gotra, emphasizing the importance of
maintaining distinct lineages. Although the term Gotra gained prominence during the
Later Vedic Age, it is also mentioned in the Rig Vedic period. In modern times, especially
among the Brahmin community, Gotra holds considerable significance and is associated
with social identity and rituals. It is presumed that during the Rig Vedic Age, the terms
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 Gotra, Vrata, and Vraja might have denoted groups of people who came together for cattle
rearing activities. In the Atharvaveda, Gotra is used to refer to a clan, and it is mentioned
for the first time in this context. Essentially, Gotra represents a social stigma and plays a
role in defining ritual and social identity. It signifies a group of people who formed a kin-
based unit, primarily for the purpose of cattle rearing, and identified themselves as
a Gotra or clan.
The Gotra system is believed to have its origins in Indo-European practices and reflects
the ancestral lineage of individuals, primarily through patrilineal descent. This system is
hereditary in nature and has been traditionally followed by various communities.

Among the Brahmans, it is common for them to believe that they are descended from a
specific rishi (sage) after whom their Gotra is named. This concept of lineage is an
integral part of their identity. Some of the Gotras mentioned in religious scriptures include
Kashyap, Vasistha, Gautam, Bharadwaj, Atri, Vishwamitra, and Jamadagni. Among others
we have Bhrigu, Vats, Agastya, Kaushik and Kaundinya. These Gotras play a significant
role in regulating marriage practices, as individuals from the same Gotra are generally not
allowed to marry each other. This restriction on intra-Gotra marriages has contributed to
the social status of the Brahmans who adhere to this system. It's worth noting that on
occasion, other social classes adopted Gotra names from Brahman families, but they did
not claim any actual descent from those sages. Instead, these Gotra names were used by
non-Brahmanical communities, likely in recognition of the ritual significance associated
with them. There are also references to punitive measures in place for those who
attempted to breach the Gotra regulations, indicating the seriousness with which this
system was upheld in certain societies.

Chandrayana Penance: If a man marriages woman of same Gotra then he had to perform this
penance. This includes severe fast for one month. He had to live separated with his wife for
Certain period of time and later the child was born then no stigma attached to child borm of this
union.

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The term Parivar and Paravara also mentioned in text and generally contains the name of Rishis
through which the family get recognition with their gotras. The smriti writers had given in detail
the functioning of 4 Ashramas: Brahmcharya, Grihasth, Vanprasth, and Sanyasa.

6. CONCLUSION:

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In essence, the later Vedic society represents a period of transition and intellectual exploration,
setting the stage for the development of classical Indian civilization and its rich religious,
philosophical, and social traditions. The society became more stratified and organized, with the
emergence of social classes like the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas, and shudras. Territorial
kingdoms, known as Janapadas, began to replace the earlier tribal organization. The later Vedic
period saw shifts in religious practices, with an increased emphasis on sacrificial rituals and the
emergence of new gods, such as Rudra and Vishnu. Philosophical thought and the Upanishads
began to question ritualism and focused on the atman (soul) and its relationship with
the supreme Brahma. There was a shift from a primarily pastoral and semi-nomadic lifestyle to
settled agriculture and the development of regular households. This transformation likely played
a role in shaping the society.
So, we have seen an evolution of society from Early Vedi Age to Later Vedic Age on various
aspects i.e., culture, social, economic and political etc.

We also seen there was an efficient administrative system during that period if we don’t compare
it with later phases. There were ministers, tax officers, military officers at that time for
functioning of society.

In conclusion, the later Vedic society represents a significant transition and transformation in
ancient Indian history.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

The following source was consulted by the researcher to complete this final draft:

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 Books
1. Sharma, R.S. India’s Ancient Past. India, History, 2005
2. Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India, History, 2003
 Websites
1. https://www.studyiq.com/articles/later-vedic-period/
2. https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/atharvaveda-samhitas/

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