Chapter 10 Development

10.1 explain how development is defined and measured. new line

1. The economic and social geography of the modern world is a patchwork of contrast.

Farmers practice shifting cultivation to grow root crops using ancient methods and hand

tools on some fields and equatorial America and an African forest. and the Great Plains

of North America, Ukraine, and eastern Australia farmers use expensive modern

machines to plow land plant seeds, and harvest grains.

2. Most people use the term developed to describe Japan and South Korea, in contrast to

Uzbekistan. the notion of the level of development originated with the Industrial

Revolution and the idea that technology can improve the lives of people.

3. most measures of development focus on one of three factors: economic well-being,

technology, production, or social welfare. beginning in the 1960s the most common way

to measure economic well-being which to use the index Economist created to compare

countries' gross national product. gross national product or GNP is a measure of the total

value of the officially recorded goods and services produced by residents of a country in a

given year. it includes goods and services made both inside and outside the country's

territory. it is therefore broader than GDP, which includes only goods and services

produced within a country during a given year.

4. Economists have increasingly turned to gross national income as a measured

development. the gni is a calculation of the monetary value of what is produced within a
 country, plus income received from Investments outside the country, minus income

payments to other countries around the world.

5. to compare gni across countries economists must standardize the data. the most common

way to standardize gni data is to divide it by the population of the country, which yields a

per capita GNI figure.

6. using gni to measure wealth has several shortcomings. first, it only includes transactions

in the formal economy, the legal economy that governments tax and water. quite a few

countries have per capita gni less than $1,000 per year a figure so low It seems

impossible that people could survive. a key component of survival in these countries is

the informal economy, the uncounted or underground economy that governments do not

tax and keep track of, including everything from a garden plot and a yard to the illegal

drug trade.

7. Gni per capita also tells us nothing about the distribution of wild across the world or

within a country. the Middle Eastern Oil countries of Kuwait and the United Arab

Emirates have a per capita gni of 31,440.39,130 respectively, both ahead of Spain and

New Zealand in 2017. however, these figures give us no hint of what portion of the

population participates in the country's economy.

8. another limitation of g&i per capita is that it only measures outputs. it does not take into

account the non-monetary costs of production, which takes a toll on the environmental

resource depletion, and pollution of air and water.

9. the limitations of gni have prompted analysts to look for alternative measures of

economic development, and ways of measuring the roles that technology production

transportation, and communication play in an economy.

10. in conventional development terms, a country with a high percentage of laborers

engaged in the production of Agriculture is less developed than one in which a high

percentage of workers are involved in high-tech industries.

11. one good measure of access to technology is access to railways, roads, airports,

telephones, radios, televisions, and so forth.

12. non-profit and non-governmental organizations and development agencies, including one

called living cities, have called the mobile phone quote on quote the Great Equalizer. yet

the evidence is mixed. in a 2014 study, the analysts of the Pew Research Center surveyed

residents of 24 middle-income countries including turkey, brazil, and many nations, and

most people are still offline.

13. another way to measure the development is to compare the size of the working-age

population with the number of older or younger people in society who are not

contributing to the country's economy.

14. the overall dependency ratio of young and old relative to the working-age population can

be divided into an older person dependency ratio and a younger person dependency ratio.

15. another way to look at dependency is to measure the percentage of young people, ages

birth to 14 relative to the working-age population.

16. in addition to access technology and dependency ratios, we can use many other statistics

to measure social welfare including literacy rates infant mortality, life expectancy,

undernourishment, percentage of family income spent on food, and are not savings per

capita.
 17. the United Nations calculates the human development index to incorporate the three

basic dimensions of human development: a healthy life, knowledge, and a decent

standard of living.

18. in 2015 the UN held a high profile Summit during which more than 150 world leaders

adopted the agenda for sustainable development.

19. sustainable development goals represent a fairly High degree of consensus about the

conditions that need to change to achieve economic development.

20. in 2018 the United Nations reported that progress had been made towards reducing

undernourishment, but the degree of progress varied by World region. reducing

undernourishment is a global goal the United Nations originally said in 2000 with this

millennium's development.

21. looking across all of the maps showing the different measures of development it is clear

that many countries come out in approximately the same position no matter which

measure is used and all the maps and statistics share one fundamental limitation: they do

not capture differences in development within countries.

10.2 describe the nature and limitations of development models.

22. Government's non-governmental organizations and international financial institutions use

a variety of development models to understand how and why countries Develop.

23. The most influential classic development model is Economist Walt Rostow's

modernization model. many theories of development grew out of the major

decolonization movements of the 1960s.

24. Rostow's model assumes that all countries follow a similar path to development or

modernization, advancing through five stages of development. in the first stage, the
 society is traditional and the dominant activity is substance farming. the social structure is

rigid and technology is slow to change. the second stage brings the preconditions of

takeoff. now leadership moves the country towards greater flexibility, openness, and

diversification. these changes in turn lead to the third stage, takeoff now the country

experiences something akin to an industrial revolution, and sustainable growth takes

hold. urbanization increases, industrialization proceeds, and technological and mass

production breakthroughs occur.

25. next, the economy enters the fourth stage, the drive to maturity Technologies diffuse,

industrial specialization occurs and international trade expands. modernization is evident

in key areas of the country and population growth slows. finally, some countries reach the

final stage in Rostow's model of high mass consumption which is marked by high

incomes and widespread production of many goods and services during this stage the

majority of workers enter the service sector of the economy.

26. another name for Rostow's model and other models derived from it is the latter of

development. visually we can see his five stages of development as wrongs on a ladder

with each country climbing the ladder one rung at a time. the major limitation of

Rostow's models it provide no larger context for development. is a climb up the ladder

largely dependent on what happens within one country or do we need to take into account

all the other countries, their place on the ladder, and how their actions and Global forces

affect an individual country's movement on the ladder the theory also misses the

particular conditions that can influence development decisions within an individual

country and no consideration of the rule that cultural or political differences might play.
27. as these questions just Rostow's model of development does not pay much attention to

the different geographical and historical circumstances that can affect what happens to

places. instead of increasing countries as individual autonomous units that simply move

through the process of development at different times and a different speech.

28. Roscoe's model also LED 9 people to think of the world as divided into two basic

economic realms: developed and less developed. these countries move from the second to

the first category and return to developing.

29. roster's model is still influential despite its limitations even calling higher-income

countries industrialized and saying that low-income countries need to industrialize

implies stages of development.

30. development happens in context for you to understand why some countries are poor and

others are wealthy, we need to consider the role played by geographical context: the

spatial organization, character, and history of a place in its interactions with the broader

world.

31. historically ideas about government economics diffused from Europe through the world

as a result of colonialism, global trade, and the rise of capitalism. the Industrial

Revolution is colonialism made colonies dependent on colonizers

32. the continuation of colonial relationships after formal colonialism ends is called

neo-colonialism. the term draws attention to the continuing ability of former Colonial

powers to control economies of lower-income dependent countries'

33. development Scholars have produced several alternative theories to explain the barriers

to development under neocolonialism these theories are called structuralist theories. a

structuralist theory holds the difficulty to change large scale economic Arrangement
 shape what is possible for a country's development and fundamental ways. the world

economy has a set of structural circumstances that make it very difficult for lower-income

countries to improve their economic situation.

34. Structuralists have developed a major body of development theory called dependency

theory, which holds that the political and economic relationships between countries and

regions of the world control and limit the economic development possibilities of

lower-income areas.

35. Dependency Theory is based on the idea that economic Prosperity is difficult to achieve

in regions and countries that have traditionally been dominated by external Powers

because a dependency relationship continues after independence.

36. other types of dependency are important as well. although the United States did not

colonize Central and South America, several countries in that region now recognize that

their economy is dependent on the United States and explicitly link their economy to the

US dollar.

37. for the people of El Salvador, dollarization made sense because the economy of El

Salvador depends on the economy of the United States. over 1.42 million Salvadorians

live in the United States and in 2016 they sent 4.6 billion dollars in remittances to El

Salvador. this is because of the flow of El Salvadorian money in many transactions.

38. Lake modernization theory and Dependency Theory are based on generalizations about

economic change that do not pay much attention to geographical differences in culture,

politics, and society. that every country is in the same situation at the same time, so

countries cannot all follow the same development path, as modernization Theory would

have it.
39. development models - even Dependency Theory - tend to underplay geographical,

historical, and political context. in reaction to that tendency some geographers have

embraced the development theory we have already encountered. Emmanuel Wallerstein's

World systems theory this Theory incorporates attention to the role that space and time

play power in relationships that exist in the world economy.

40. Wallerstein divided the world into a three-tier structure: the division helps explain the

interconnections among places in the global economy.

41. core regions are those in which core processes are grouped. core regions have achieved

high levels of economic prosperity and are dominant players in the world economy.

42. The semi-periphery exhibits both core and peripheral processes, with semi-peripheral

places serving as a buffer between the core and the periphery in the world economy.

43. dividing the world into core semi-peripheries and peripheries might seem to do little

more than replace developing developed and underdeveloped with a new set of terms. but

the core purpose is different from the modernization model because it holds it not all

places can be equally wealthy in a capitalist world economy

44. geographer Peter J Taylor uses the analogy of a school of tadpoles to demonstrate these

ideas. he envisions different places in the world as tadpoles and explains that not all

tadpoles can survive to develop into.

45. another benefit of water change three structure three-tier structure is that it focuses on

how good is produced instead of what is produced.

46. generating wealth is not something determined by what is produced it depends on how

something is produced.
 47. another reason why some geographers are drawn to World systems theory is its potential

applicability at multiple scales.

10.3 explain major influences on development

48. regardless of which development theory you find the most persuasive most of the

theories except the structures shape the world economy. these structures help to sustain

the concentration of power and core States and entrench poverty in the peripheral states.]

49. the concentration of wealth and power in the global economic core that resulted from

colonialism in early industrialization put the economy in those places in the driver's seat.

increasingly powerful corporations developed with a global reach - transnational

corporations - that could shape patterns of development through their investment

strategies.

50. manufacturing oriented transnational corporations also influence the development

through good the global spanning production networks they establish. in earlier times

what Timbuktu had to offer was the ability to coordinate and facilitate trade based on a

geographic site where the Niger River turned North at the edge of the Sahara desert.

sambuca was a break of bulk location, where Goods traded on one motor transportation

camel, were transported to another motor transport, boat.

51. today span the globe and break of bulk locations are only my main nose along the train.

52. several countries in the global economic core offered Aid to lower-income countries.

53. foreign aid can catalyze development as was dramatically Illustrated when the United

States pumped 12 billion dollars into Western Europe after World War 2 the devastated

region get back on its feet.

54. development assistance May begin to stop problems in the receiving country from

impacting the donor country. for example,e donor company may give Aid to stabilize a

neighboring country with the hope of stopping or slowing the flow of migrants into the

donor country.

55. the interest of donor countries are the prime drivers in developmental Aid, and donor

countries may make decisions that harm recipient countries. for example if a donor

country shifts food or clothing regularly, the study supply of goods from the donor

country will undermine the domestic production. Agriculture and textile Industries in the

receiving country with fewer customers in less incentive for production.

56. International financial institutions create the assumptions, guidelines, policies, and

structures for development.

57. the United States and Europe are the dominant donors and influencers of the World Bank

and IMF.

58. Countries receiving loans were generally able to repay them until the world economy

took a downward turn in the 1970s period the price of all Rose and by the early 1980s

commodity prices dropped.

59. the World Bank and the international monetary fund stepped into lending more money to

help borrower countries out of the third-world debt crisis. these loans came with the

conditions. borrow countries had to agree to implement economic and governmental

reforms come including privatizing government entities, opening themselves to foreign

trade, reducing tariffs, and encouraging foreign direct investment. these are no structural

adjustment loans. by the early 1990s the set of policies with associated with what came to

be known as the Washington consensus.

60. opponents of the Washington consensus argue that such policies support and protect core

country economies at the expense of peripheral and semi-up peripheral economies.

countries had limited options to reject structural adjustment loans because the cost of

servicing debt often exceeded the revenues from the export of goods and services.

61. structural adjustment loans were part of a larger trend toward neoliberalism in the late

20th century. neoliberalism is a variant of the neoclassical economic idea that

government intervention in the Market is both inefficient and undesirable.

62. high debt obligations and related neoliberal reforms contributed to the political crisis in

Argentina at the end of 2001 and the beginning of 2002.

63. by 2005 internal economic growth and aid from Venezuela put Argentina position to

work out a complex debt restructuring plan that pulled the country back from the brink.

64. in recent years the World Bank in IMF has backed away from some of its more

controversial Landing practices - showing a greater concern for the social environmental

implications of development funds.

65. shine is development funding is appealing to many countries because they see the loans

as having no strings attached to hyphen lungs that require governments to follow

structural adjustments.

66. well, the Chinese development loans come without strings attached in terms of having to

change government operations, they come with some serious financial and political

consequences when the bars become trapped and dead and cannot repay the loans. each

investment in China's belt and Road initiative benefits Chinese Financial lenders, Chinese

development companies, Chinese infrastructure, and construction companies come, and

 even Chinese workers who are transported temporarily to work on major Construction

projects.

67. when from the Belton Road initiative or Bri projects, the government of trying to step in

and takes ownership.

68. Well Chinese loans do not have official strings constraining governments, Chinese

investors have worked to influence election outcomes and borrower countries. in Sri

Lanka Chinese financial institutions contributed at least 7.6 million to one candidate.

69. Chinese Bri project, the global influence of Chinese Banks, and Chinese development

organizations are changing the impacts of development financing.

70. Across the global periphery, as much as half the population is 15 years old or younger,

making the supply of adult taxpaying laborers low relative to the number of dependents.

71. peripheral countries have little access to public sewage systems, clean drinking water,

and Healthcare making Economic Development all the more difficult.

72. lack of access to education is also a major problem in the periphery. however several

children in the periphery are enrolled in primary school, and both boys and girls have

seen an increase in education since 2000, thanks to governmental efforts to extend

education.

73. governments have used Innovative policies to promote education, including Financial

incentives for families to enroll and send their children to school. historically children

would drop out of primary school or have low attendance so they can help their families

by working in farms and factories or providing child or Elderly Care at home.

74. Brazilian family conditional cash transfer program is a particular success. it began in the

1990s and former president Lula de Silva expanded the scope of the program in 2003.
75. is held up as a model for economic development, as it gives people with low income the

ability to choose how to spend their financial assistance instead of living within the

constraints of separate programs designed to address different aspects of poverty.

76. South Africa's conditional cash transfer program has led to an increase in the number of

children receiving primary education.

77. lack of education for girls made worse by the Assumption that girls should only leave

their homes and communities

78. political corruption and instability can greatly impede economic development. peripheral

countries, a wide divide often exists between the very wealthy and the poorest of the

poor. in Kenya for example the wealthiest Point 1% have more wealth in the bottom

99.9%.

79. many countries in the periphery and say periphery have struggled to establish and

maintain democracies in the wake of decolonization.

80. looking International

81. and Mis of

82. as conditions worsened in subsequent years the Mugabe government faced increasing

resistance to potential Challenger Morgan sparkly emerged in 2008, but members of his

opposition party were killed by the Challenger harassed.

83. the Zimbabwe case shows that in low-income countries, compromised leaders can stay in

power for decades. circumstances and timing need to work together to allow the new

government to come to power

84. econ whether

85. in their efforts to attract new industries, many governments in the periphery of Time for

free and set up special manufacturing export zones called export processing zones or

special economic zones. an example of these is the Michael Adora zones in Mexico

which are mainly cited directly across the border from the United States and the Special

economic zones of China are located near the major ports.

86. the maquiladora program started in 1965 when the Mexican Government designated the

region of northern Mexico as a Michaela door district.

87. Mexican material plants produce goods such as electronic, and electrical appliances,

automobiles, and furniture.

88. in 1992 United States, Mexico, and Canada established the North American Free Trade

Agreement or NAFTA, which prompted further industrialization of the Border

89. In

90. in peripheral countries agriculture typically focuses on personal consumption and

production for a larger-scale agriculture conglomerate.

91. a turn to commercial agriculture can have multiple economic social and ecological

effects. most traditional Farmers work small fragmented plots of land and what they

produced does not generate much income.

92. the introduction of large-scale commercial agriculture into this Mexican makes it more

difficult for small farmers to compete in the cell of their products.

93. the ecological effects of the latter tendency can be severe. soil erosion is commonplace

in many peripheral areas. severe solar erosion and places with drier climates around

desert results in extreme degradation of the land and spread the desert into these lands

otherwise desertification.
94. desertification is hit Africa harder than any of the other continents. in sub-Saharan Africa

over the last 50 years more than 270,000 square miles of farming grazing land have

become desert

95. all development strategies have pros and cons, as is well illustrated by the case of

tourism. peripheral Island countries in the Caribbean region and Oceania have become

leading destinations familiar tours from Richard States

96. the developing tourism, the host country must make substantial Investments and

infrastructure, including airports, cruise ports, roads, and communication systems.

high-end hotels, swimming pools, and man-made waterfalls are typically owned by large

multinational corporations, not locals

97. who tour the income communities have

98. and many instances tourism Fosters a demonstration effect among the locals and

encourages them to behave in ways that may please or interest the visitors, but that is

viewed negatively by the local community

99. a flood of affluent tours may be appealing to the government of a lower income country

whose Elite have a financial stake in the hotels where they can share the pleasures of the

wealthy.

100. Over Alliance and tourism can also leave a common vulnerable if shifting economic

circumstances causes a sharp decline in the number of tours or natural disasters

101. during you and

102. whatever form tourism takes the associated cultural landscape is frequently a study

and a harsh contrast.

10.4 evaluate how political and Economic Institutions influence uneven

development Within states.

103. Poverty is not confined to the periphery. core countries have regions and peoples that

are marked poorly than others. on the Pine Ridge Indian reservation in the northern Great

Plains of the United States, unemployment hovers at 80% common American Indians on

the reservation live in poverty, with a per capita income of under $8,000.

104. Regional contrast in income is a reminder that per capita Giani does not capture

important aspects of economic development.

105. the contrast between rich and poor areas is not simply the result of differences in the

economic endowment of places government policy affects development patterns as well.

Government influences the geography of wealth through tariffs trade agreements taxation

Arrangements land ownership rules environmental regulations and more.

106. consider the case of the ninth ward in New Orleans which was devastated by

Hurricane Katrina in 2005. natural disaster. but the flooding of that part of New Orleans

was also a consequence of the government decision that was made decades ago to build

levees and settle in flood-prone areas

107. every government policy has a geographic expression coming being that there are

some reasons favored where others are not considering the contr and in land Farm in last.

the improving or improving or improving or maintaining when improving or maintaining

milk production.

108. In parts of rural Apple Last year, by contrast, Hard Scrabble farming is the norm.

farmers have limited education, and there's little mechanization. in short life in some of
 the lowest-income parts of rural Appalachia is a world apart from life on a modern dairy

farm in Wisconsin.

109. government policy can also help reduce uneven development.

110. returning to a consideration of commodity change can also help us understand the

role of the government's plan of uneven development - both within and between the

states.

111. the t-shirts are then shipped to the United States for sale. and an attempt to protect

the t-shirts produce in America with higher labor costs from those producing China, the

United States government has established quotas and how many items from various

clothing categories can be important in the United States from China.

112. the point is that low quota laws, like other policies made by governments as well as

International financial institutions such as the World Trade Organization in the

international labor organization commonly, affect whether and how regions can produce

organize and exchange goods on the international market

113. In many countries of the global economic program, the capital cities are by far the

largest and most economically influential cities in the state.

114. a couple of examples of this are Nigeria moving its capital from Lagos along the

coast to its ethically neutral territory in the center of the state, or Molly which moved its

capital from Zumba to Lilongwe.

115. corporations can also make cities focal points of development by concentrating

corporate activity in a particular place. often corporations build up cities near the

resources they are extracting or near manufacturing centers they have built.
116. when up

117. one of the greatest development challenges is creating development opportunities

outside islands of development.

118. NGOs are not run by state or local governments rather NGOs operate independently

and the term is usually reserved for entities that operate as non-profits.

119. some oper they a and

120. one type of angio program that is found some success in less prosperous countries is

the microcredit program. the idea behind the microcredit program is to give loans to

people with low income, particularly women to encourage the development of small

businesses.

121. providing microcredit to women ngos altered the gender balance in a region giving

more fiscal power to women.

122. microcredit programs have been less successful in places with high mortality rates

from diseases such as aids. if the bar was unable to work the family has medical and

funeral bills and the borrower is much more likely to default on a micro-credit loan.
Chapter 12 industry and services

12.1 describe the Hearth and diffusion of the Industrial Revolution

1. Manufacturing began long before the industrial revolution. and cottage industries,

families in a community who work together out of their homes, each creating component

of a finished good or making the good itself. for example in a small town in England, a

few families would receive a shipment of wool from a merchant and then prepare for the

war and pass it on to the families who would spin it into yarn.

2. in the 1700s as global trade grew and faster ships came into use, gold, iron, silver, and

Brass Goods were produced in college Industries in India when demanded wherever they

could be bought. India's textiles were made of individual spinning wheels and

handlooms, they were considered the best in the world. they were so finally made that

British textile makers rioted in 1721 demanding legislative protection against imports

was om India. China and Japan trade-funded substantial cottage industries long before the

industrial revolution.

3. the transition from college Industries to the Industrial Revolution happen as European

sought to generate greater profit by producing larger quantities of goods and high

demand. they look for ways to take advantage of economies of skill - increasing the

number of goods produced to decrease the average cost of production for each item.

4. European manufacturing operations from textile makers of Flanders and Britain to iron

swatches of origin grew during the 1700s. however, your products could not match the

price or quality of those in other parts of the world. European companies work to gain
 control of overseas industries. for example, the Dutch and British East India companies

targeted local Industries and Indonesian India respectively, and the 1700s and 1800s.

5. but the Dutch and British companies were privately owned and operated companies.

each company recruited established returns of soldiers to help them take control of

production in Southeast and South Asia.

6. the first steps in industrialization occurred in the mid-1700s in Northern England, where

cotton from America and India was shipped to the port of Liverpool. textile factories in

the British midlands, south of manchester, took advantage of rivers flowing downhill

from the pennies to power cotton spending machines.

7. wealth was brought to Europe through trade-funded improvements such as the Spang

Jenny and the steam engine. James won't improve the steam engine by creating separate

Chambers to house the Steam and by perfecting the Pistons that are driven by Steam

pressure.

8. a pre-industrial revolution in ironworking enabled iron to be used in many inventions of

the Industrial revolution. invented by Iron Ricker Abram Darby there was a way to smelt

iron by using Coke and iron ore in a large Blast Furnace and smashing air in.

9. during the early Industrial Revolution before the railroad connected industrial sites and

reduce the transportation cost of coal, manufacturing have to be located close to coal

fields. in Britain densely populated and heavily urbanized industrial regions developed

near coal fields. the two largest centers of British industry were an ironworking region in

the Midlands where Birmingham is located and I textile production region in the

northwest or Liverpool and Manchester developed is important cities.

10. the steam engine helped concentrate even more industrial production in the British

Midlands and Northwest industrialists use the steam engine to pump water out of coal

mines, making it possible for coworkers to reach deeper coal scenes in the textile industry

the steam engine powered spinning wheels that's one over 100 Schools of better at the

time and power dozens of looms and Factory all at once.

11. the first commercial Railway connected manchester, the Center of textile manufacturing,

along 35 miles of track to the port of Liverpool in 1830.

12. the real Network expanded thousands of miles in iron and then steel tracks were laid.

railroads made it possible to move laundry qualities of products faster over land.

13. with the development of the railroad and the steamship, Great Britain extended its

economic advantages over the rest of the world. British investors in Business Leaders

held a near Monopoly over many products. the British had perfected coal smelting, cast

iron and the steam engine, and the steam locomotive. these systems set by Britain during

the Industrial Revolution became institutionalized and helped entrench the British and

economic power.

14. in the early 1800s, the Innovations of Britain's industrial revolution diffuse into

Mainland Europe. once there is the same set of locational criteria for the Industrials

applied. so she needs to be close to resources and connected to water ports.

15. a belt of major Coal Fields extends from west to east throughout Mainland Europe across

northern France and Southern Belgium the Netherlands, the German valleys, Western

bohemian, and Celestia in Poland.

16. when Industries developed in one area, economic growth had a spillover effect on the

port cities to which they were linked by river, canal, or rail. one of the largest industrial

centers in Continental Europe was there were valleys of Germany.

17. Rotterdam grew to be the most important part of Europe. over the last 200 years, the

Dutch have radically altered the poor, expanding it from the mouth of the Rhine Delta

West to the coast of the north sea. as production Transportation Innovations to cold water

than both new factories to accommodate them.

18. in the 1980s Rotterdam saw an opportunity to connect the port with the interior of

Continental Europe by railroad. even today Rotterdam continues to expand to meet the

changing Global situation and economy.

19. once the river is well established in Great Britain and the content of Europe common

companies would locate manufacturing plants away from coal and iron ore and in or

close to major cities such as London and Paris. this is because they could get cheap labor

and not pay as much for transportation due to the train being efficient.

20. but by choosing a site in London a Manufacturing Company could put itself at the heart

of Britain's Global Network of influence.

21. Paris was already Continental Europe's greatest city, but like London, it did not have any

coal or iron deposits in its immediate vicinity. however when a railroad system was added

to the existing network of roads and Waterworks for manufactured products for miles per

hour.

22. London and Paris became and remain important industrial centers because of their

commercial and political connections with the rest of the world.

23. Western Europe's early industrialization gave an enormous economic Head Start known

as a first mover advantage. this means that he who moves first gets first.

24. when industrialization begin to diffuse from Europe to the Americas and Asia secondary

Hertz of industrialization developed in eastern North America, Western Russia, and

Ukraine. the primary industrial regions established in the 1950s were close to Coal comes

in the major energy source and we're connected by water or realize their ports. these

regions were targets of heavy investment bringing prosperity to the regions and great

wealth to the investors.

25. by the beginning of the 20th century, there was only one serious rivalry year. if the

territory was settled predominantly by Europeans and particularly close to Britain which

provided links to the capital and innovations that fueled industrialization there in North

America.

26. Industries developed along the Great Lakes where Goods can be moved in and out of

industrial centers by canals, rivers, and lakes. this area also had a large supply of coal so

there is no threat of any cold shortage as the US had the largest coal reserves in the world

at the time.

27. the Saint Petersburg region is one of Russia's oldest manufacturing centers. sorry, Peter

the Great planned and built the city to serve both as Russia's capital and the city's

Industrial core. Astro World War 1 the newly formed Soviet Union Annex Ukraine took

control of its agricultural lands, rich resource, and Industrial potential especially the full

rich don't last region.

28. during the 1700s and much of the 1800s, Japan's government chose to be economically

isolated from most of the world economy. Japan open its economy through a change in
 government policy in 1868. soon after the Industrial Revolution if he's japan. Japan

encourage young men to study sciences and universities abroad so they could take their

knowledge back to Japan and create Industries with limited natural resources. early

Japanese industrialization focused heavily on the military sector.

29. early Japanese Industrialization focused heavily on the military sector. in the late 1800s

and early 1900s, Japan use a modernized military to colonize Korea, Taiwan, and

portions of Mainland china. these places provided resources for Japan's further

industrialization and imperialization and expansion

12.2 Explain how and why the geography of industrial production has

changed

30. so far globalization has helped us understand many humans Geographic developments,

including local and popular cultures.

31. globalization includes the processes that are increasing interactions deepening

relationships and hiding heightening interdependence across country borders. it is also the

outcomes of these processes, which are unevenly distributed and look different from

place to place. globalization transportation and communication technologies. help

establish global trade routes in the first way of colonialism. the invention of the

steamship common diffusion of railroads and the diffusion of the telephone were quick

and Global traits that created the context for the second wave of colonialism. major

technological developments that expanded or were invented after World War ii, including

jet airplanes container ships telephones, and the internet for globalization.

32. the manufacturing 20th century begin with early Innovations in the production process.

the most notable of which was the assembly line pioneered by Henry Ford
33. Fortis production also gave a rise to political economic and financial Arrangements that

supported mass production by corporations. global manufacturing operated under Bretton

Woods Financial order, a series of agreements made at the 1994 conference in Bretton

woods, new Hampshire. countries who signed Breton Accords agreed to Peg the value of

their currency to the US dollar, which is pegged to gold.

34. The 1900s were marked by a surge in both production and consumption. workers found

employment on an assembly line. Ford paid his workers a good wage, and drugs of job

Seekers migrated to the Detroit area to work in the automobile industry. Ford's goal was

to mass-produce Goods at a price point where his workers could afford to purchase them.

35. Forge River Ridge plant in Dearborn Michigan use vertical integration of production

common during the Fordist era. vertical integration is basically like buying all of your

raw materials and having all of your factories and understanding every little piece and

owning every single part of every single raw material and everything that you use.

36. Following the Ford Escape sample, the industry moves towards sites with available labor,

resources, developed infrastructure, and proximity, you consumers. furniture making

shifted from Boston in 1875 to Cincinnati by 1890 and then to Michigan in 1910. it also

took off in North Carolina.

37. the North Carolina Furniture example illustrates some of the local locational influences

on industry. at first, to develop of generalizations about location influences gave rise to

classical location Economist Alfred marshall. Marshall argued the similar industry Center

cluster in an area he called this agglomeration.

38. Marshall explained why Industries clustered together, and German economic geographer

Alfred Weber explained where Industries would cluster. in the location of Industries in
 1909, Weber examined the factors that pull industry into specific locations. his least cost

theory focuses on the Factory owner's desire to minimize three categories of costs.

39. the first is most important at the time was transportation. Webber suggested that it's the

least expensive to bring raw materials to the point of production and distribute the

finished product or Transportation costs are the lowest. the friction of distance is the

increase in time and cost that comes with increased distance over which Commodities

must travel with a heavy raw material ship thousands of thousands of miles to a factory,

the friction distance increases. the friction of distance prompted manufacturers to locate

their plants close to Raw materials.

40. The second cost of labor. higher labor costs tend to reduce the margin of profit, so a

factory farther away from raw materials and markets can do better if cheap labor

compensates for added transport costs.

41. the third factor in Weber's model was similar to Marshall's theory of localization and

Weber described the advantages of agglomeration. when many companies that produce

the same or similar Goods question one area, as with Furniture Manufacturing in North

Carolina they can share talents, services, and facilities. for example, all furniture

companies need access to lumber, textiles, courts, and skilled employees. my clustering

together in the High Point region, the furniture manufacturers also share infrastructure

improvements and other improvements. moreover, they all have access to accountants

and lawyers in the area who specialize in contacts and trades. in 2012 local governments

in the high point region invested in a system of wireless internet access. now the 75,000

furniture buyers who go to High Point twice a year he's a wireless system on the iPads
 and tablets as they sealed deals. finally, agglomeration can make the location more

attractive by potentially overcoming the higher transportation costs.

42. considering these three factors together Transportation labor and localization are

acceleration, Weber determined that the least cost location for a manufacturing plant

could be determined by a location triangle.

43. Weber's theory of location which is written over a century ago accounted mostly for the

cost of Transportation which was the largest cost back then, but now thanks to technology

such as better engines better infrastructure, and better tires we can cut Transportation

costs a good amount so now it accounts for only about 5% or less at the cost of most

Goods.

44. efficient Transportation Systems enable manufacturers to buy raw materials from distant

sources and distribute finished products to Consumers and distant locations. since World

War II major developments and transportation have improved Intermodal connections,

places where two or more modes of transportation meet including air, road, royal, and

s*** to ease the flow of goods and reduce the cost of transportation.

45. The high volume of resources in goods shipped around the globe over the past few

decades did not have happened that the invention of the container system. goods are now

packed in standard-size containers that are picked up by specialized mechanical cranes at

Intermodal connections and placed on ships. at the next destination, they removed

semi-trailer trucks, barges, or railroad cars. this system has lowered costs due to the

standardization of the system

46. The containership has dramatically changed the economic geography of the world since

the first one sailed in 1956. before containers, a ship would arrive at the Port with various
 odds such as crates and boxes. hundreds of workers would flock to the doctor to unload

the goods by hand. with containerization, ports have now relatively flu few employees

who operate high-tech cranes moving standard-size containers from ship to dock or

doctorship with precision.

47. 90% of long-distance carbo is now shipped in containers. with a volume excess of 2,250

cubic feet, a standard container can accommodate Goods with millions of dollars. steel

containers are structurally sound and can be stacked and moved from truck to rail to ship

without worrying about how Fragile the contents of the containers are.

48. the largest of today's container shifts are enormous pythons more than four American

football fields long and over 60 yards wide. most container ships are designed to fit

through the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal, the latter of which is widened in 2016 to

accommodate all but the largest of the new container ships.

49. containerization has even changed the map of Port cities. ports have become Intermodal

hubs and Port Authorities and managers are constantly expanding and improving their

infrastructure and system to attract more cargo. a portion of solely attract cargo, as the

cruise ship in the background of one of the pictures demonstrates.

50. The largest of today's container ships are enormous - more than four American football

fields long in over 60 yards wide. through both Panama and the Suez canal.

51. Container ships have changed the layout and size of many ports. ports are just San

Francisco has declined because their peers are not well suited to loading and unloading

containers. what others have booms such as nearby Oakland which is capitalized on a

container friendly Port retrofit that made it one of the more important shipping centers

along the west coast.

52. Belgian geographer Jacques show me where I studied how containerization has increased

trade to Belgium and the Netherlands and looked at some broke Seaport systems.

53. Ford's production was based on both mass production and mass consumption. money

flowed through the world economy as consumers brought goods and manufactured in

large-scale complexes. As the global economy became more integrated and transportation

costs decrease, the advantages of concentrating production in low-scale complexes

declined as a result in the latter of the third 20th century many Enterprises begin moving

toward a post-fort of the flexible production model.

54. in the post for this model, production processes are driven by customer demand, and the

components of goods are made in different places throughout the globe and then brought

together for assembly. the term flexible production is used because friends can pick up

and choose among many suppliers and production strategies all over the world then they

can quickly shift where they manufacture Samuel their products in response to

adjustments and production costs or consumer demand.

55. capitalism persists as an economic system not only because people consume, but also

because producers create and respond to consumer demand. companies adapt to changing

consumer preferences. do the process of commodification, goods that were not previously

bought Thomas sold, and traded in monetary value and are bought and sold and traded on

the market.

56. the production of goods changes over time. for example, the production of Television

moves through four stages introduction, growth maturity, and decline. commercial

production of a television set again after World War II a variety of small and

medium-sized friends in Europe, Asia common North America or involved in production

 at the stage. friends in the US including Zenith dominant producers until the 1970s. the

cost of manufacturing televisions was high and the introductory stages because the

company had invested a great deal and developed the technology, but had not sold

enough units to lower the cost. During the 1970s and '80s television production hit the

growth stage when a dramatic shift occurred. a small number of large Asian producers -

particularly Japan - seized a much larger percentage of the market and a few European

terms increase their position as well.

57. during the 1970s major firms moved manufacturers of components and assembly of

televisions out of their home countries.

58. in the maturity stage few manufacturers continue to make small changes to the product

and invested in marketing to secure their Market share.

59. in the decline stage, if your countries were demanding the product. in response to

manufacturers begin shifting to research and development of new Goods or production of

other higher demand goods.

60. the various Innovations described above have led to the increasingly globalized

landscape of production. tracing the production of conventional television sets throughout

the world over time how see how this happened and how it giving us rise to the Global

division of labor also called the new international division of labor, which refers to the

late 12th-century tendency for production facilities to be concentrated in the global

economy periphery and semi-proof to take advantage of lower labor costs.

61. geographically the term time-space compression, coined by geographer David Harvey

captures the dramatic changes taking place in the contemporary Global economy. this is

the idea that developments in communication Transportation technologies have

 accelerated the speed at which things happen so that the distance between places has

become less significant. Harvey argues that modern capitalism has so accelerated the

pace of life in the relationship between places that the world seems to collapse inward

upon us.

62. when the world was less interconnected most goods were produced not just close to raw

materials but also close to consumers. that the major industrial belt in the United States

was in the northeast, both because there is readily available coal and other raw materials

and because most of the population was there. this is changed with Justin Time delivery.

rather than keeping a large inventory of components or products companies keep just

what they need for short-term production and new partnership to them quickly when

needed

63. information Technologies and shipping coupled with the global division of labor make it

possible for companies to move production from one site to another. the movements are

based on the new place's cost advantages. David Harvey called this decision process a

spatial fix. and choosing a production site, location is only one consideration distance is

neither determinate nor insignificant as a factor in production location decisions today.

64. major global economic players take advantage of low Transportation costs, favorable

governmental regulations, and expanding information technology to construct vast

economic networks in different parts of the production processes carried out in different

places from the advantages of specific locations.

65. one way to grow profits is to cut costs, and labor makes up a sizable portion of

production costs. most multinational corporations have moved labor and tons of
 manufacturing to peripheral countries that have a low cost of labor, few regulations, and

low tax rates.

66. we can use Weber's location 3 to consider the site for a factory producing lightweight

consumer goods common including textiles and shoes, during the first half of the 20th

century.

67. the most important factor for lightly consumer goods is already the supply of low-cost

labor.

68. in the shoe business, companies that made shoelaces used to locate the closest shoe

manufacturers.

69. with flexible production systems and container ships, lightweight consumer goods still

need to be located close to low-cost labor, but connectedness to an intermodal Port is

vital as well.

70. the transformation from making shoes in a few shoe towns to having them pass through

an elaborate Global Network of international manufacturing and sales did not have

overnight.

71. Nike began production in the 1960s by Contracting with an Asian form to manufacture

its shoes. in 1974 Nike set up the first domestic shoe manufacturing play and the small

town of dexter, New Hampshire just 46 miles from Lynn Massachusetts. by the end of the

year Nikes Workforce was still a modest number of Nikes employees and Oregon

concentrated on running the company expanding sales while employees who worked

directly for Nike in New Hampshire and Asia produce shoes.\

72. Nike grew to become the world's leading manufacturer of athletic shoes, with global

sales of over three 36 billion in the fiscal year of 2018 and a worldwide labor force of
 over 70,000 people in 44 countries. as its sales skyrocketed Nike established human

factoring plants in Asia and beyond. although several thousand people work today for

Nike in Beaverton not a single individual or organ is directly involved in putting a shoe

together. they work through orchestrating the production and sale of Nike products

through a network in which each node or connection Point makes some contribution. then

in turn is influenced by the niche it occupies in the network.

73. the largest producer, distributor, and seller of furniture in the world today is based in

Sweden. even your compromise founded the company in 1943 at the age of 17 come

from a born entrepreneur who sold matches from door to door in his neighborhood in

Sweden. he expanded his offerings depends, Christmas decorations, and greeting cards

during his teenage years. pens were one of the major offerings that Ikea when he founded

the company in 1943 compound first produced and sold Furniture in 1948, using wood

from sweets inside of wolves' forests. the company has expanded in product offerings and

location since focusing on producing modern and Classic Furniture at an affordable price

point.

74. I it furniture, 1 the for and where store expansion will occur

75. Ikea has 10 distribution centers scattered around the United States. opening a distribution

center in Savannah Georgia, Port Wentworth, allowed it to reduce Transportation time

and cost of distribution to its stores in Orlando Tampa, and Atlanta. the Savannah

Distribution Center also enabled Ikea to open more locations in Florida and elsewhere in

the southeast.
76. developing and controlling a large portion of its commodity chain allows Ikea to operate

at an incredibly high volume with low prices generating small profits for the company

along each step in the commodity chain, but large profits overall.

77. the system is efficient, but there is an environmental cost to building multiple facilities

and transporting items across significant distances. he is aware of these costs and so has

embraced green technologies. for example, the company has moved aggressively to adopt

renewable energy sources for the heating and cooling of its buildings. it has also worked

with the unhcr to create new more durable housing units for refugees common including

solar panels that generate enough energy to power one light and a USB charging port.

these environmental and social initiatives are examples of some Transnational

corporations seeking to demonstrate responsibility to a sometimes skeptical public.

78. a large part of business decision-making today focuses on Outsourcing and Global

sourcing on where to extend contracts to complete projects and where to have parts

produced and assembled.

79. geographers originally used to term Outsourcing to describe a company in a core country

trying to move products or services abroad. in the 1990s and into the 21st century,

Outsourcing apply taking work that would normally be done in the global economic core

moving it to the semi-periphery or periphery.

80. But Outsourcing suggests a one-way movement of economic activities from the quarter

periphery that is overly simplistic in today's globalized economy. growing connectivity

and the rise of major Chinese and Indian companies have deepened globalization.

Outsourcing becomes an umbrella term for the use of global production networks to

manufacture goods and provide services globally.

81. Outsourcing has been driven in part by the growth of Indian companies that specialize in

completing projects and fulfilling contracts by becoming experts in Outsourcing

themselves. imagine that a global company, headquartered in the United States produces

accounting software. a major regulatory change in the United States might require the

company to reprogram the software to account for the complexities of the new regulation.

the company will hire an Indian company like that or Wipro that specializes in what is

called business process outsider. the ball is done in the Indian company's court. it has to

produce a finished product by a contractually agreed-upon date to get paid, and it can do

whatever it sees fit to get the job done. in many cases the Indian company outsources the

work itself, keeping tabs on and touching the park before delivering it to the company in

the United States.

82. as the BPO software example suggests, maximizing profits when producing Goods is no

longer as simple as moving from a Cool country to Periphery and taking advantage of

lower labor costs. indeed China has capitalized on the desired company should produce

Goods globally by becoming the world leader in global sourcing.

83. the Chinese Global sourcing firm you have signed up with likely has connections to

manufacturers throughout Asia Africa and the Americas. your windshield wiper

sunglasses may be stickered and made in Mexico when you receive them. your product

flies off the shelf and you order another shipment, your Chinese Global sourcing

company may ship the next order with stickers saying made in china. the global sourcing

is connected and Nimble so you do not have to be. it controls a larger part of the

commodity chain and can generate more wealth For Itself by making the lowest-cost

product decisions.
84. both move a segment of the commodity chain into another country and Place full

responsibility for that segment in the contracted company's hands. BPO typically

involves tertiary quaternary and coronary economic activity service activities etc. Global

sourcing by contrast typically concerns the secondary or manufacturing sector of the

economy. however Global sourcing also includes quite a bit of service work, because

Chinese stores same companies develop relations with the manufacturers and use their

knowledge of trade regulations, and manage the largest section of the product's complex

commodity.

85. Given the complex geographically dispersed networks that are now part of the creation of

many goods and services economic geographers increasingly argue that the commodity

changes to simplistic. instead, we should be thinking about global production networks

that Encompass a wide variety of activities arrangements, and transactions that are

involved in the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

86. ABC World News features a segment called made in America in one season of episodes

journalist knocked on the doors and challenges homeowners to get every item in their

home for the maiden sticker the news crew then helped families move all the goods not

made in America onto the streets to their family could get a sense of how much of what is

in their home is manufactured in the United States and how much is manufactured

elsewhere in the world. the ABC World News crew then according to the website took on

the challenge of trying to fill three rooms in a home with entirely 100% American-made

products.

87. Would an iPhone or airport to get to stay in the house be redesigned by ABC World

news? when you open a box with an Apple product the typed words designed by Apple in
 California greet you. analyzing the commodity chain of an iPhone shows the product is

made in several countries including Italy Taiwan Germany Japan South Korea and the

United States. the iPhone is not made solely in us, but a few products especially

technology products just solely produced in one country.

88. does the fact that the entire iPhone is not produced in the US mean the iPhone does not

benefit the US economy? the research and development that went into the iPhone and

other Innovative components took place in the United States and Great benefits flow to

us-based Apple, which employs many Americans and whose stockholders have benefited

from the product.

89. we consider how American a made-in-America product is, it is also important to think

about the social and environmental impacts of its creation and use.

90. consumption, while being an endpoint of a Global Production network, is the beginning

of approx afterlife and the afterlife impacts of a product created and designed by an

American firm can extend far beyond a country's boundaries and what happens when

people discard their old iPhones corporations such as Apple work to reduce consumer

waste by recycling iPhones and computers and offering discounts to Consumers who

recycle their old phones. nonetheless, there's a growing problem with the electronic waste

that comes from discarded iPhones and other computer products much of the waste ends

up in hazardous dumps. and many Global cities in the periphery, adults and children work

with toxic materials to cover the valuable copper wire and other components of

computers and related electronic devices made by Apple and its competitors.

91. the jobs created by the industry in one place can cause environmental damage and social

effects in another. consumption or purchasing of an item is the endpoint and a Global

 Production Network that affects places in different ways. studying the geography of these

networks sheds light on the origins and life cycles of products and helps explain how

production and consumption affect places and people that are part of the network.

12.3 explain global patterns of industrial production

92. The industrial location today influences not just by labor cost, transportation, and Market

access, but also by regulatory constraints, the changing energy picture, and access to

Skilled labor. government regulation can attract or discourage businesses. the shift from

coal to oil and more recently to nuclear power and alternative energy sources easier for

industrial production to be more especially disaggregated. the emergence of centers of

Education and Research and major cities around the world have further this trend.

93. centers of industrial production are now found all over the world many older industrial

zones have experienced industrialization, but most still show up on the modern map of

industrial production either because some older Industries have held on or because new

types of manufacturing have sprung up near the older industrial sites East Asia has

emerged as the greatest new center of industrialization of the past 50 years, with China

taking the lead after political and economic reforms when she

94. recently industrializing countries have become increasingly significant Global nodes of

production. over the past decade, manufacturing has surged in the urban core of South

and Southeast Asia in South Africa and parts of Central and South America.

95. despite the diffusion of industrial production and the shrinking of the world through

time-space compression, local influences still matter. a plan to develop an industrial

operation in two different places will play out differently because those places are not

alike.
12.4 determine how D industrialization and the rise of service Industries have

changed the economic geography of trade

96. in the global economic core, service Industries employ more workers than primary and

secondary Industries combined. the growth of the service sector reflects the changing

nature of the world economy called the increasing mechanization of production in

manufacturing Enterprises operating in the core, the growth of large multinational

corporations, and the scattering of production processes across Geographic space.

97. industrialization in the global economic core has led to wrenching cases in some places.

the so-called Rust Belt in the United States was hard hit, as were parts of northern

England in the United Kingdom and early to industrialized regions and Continental

Europe.

98. factors affecting the local location of service Industries include access to markets and the

available skilled labor. the latter has a particular influence on High-level services such as

quaternary and quinary sectors of the economy. the combination of skilled labor, tax

incentives, and infrastructure has led to the development of high-tech corridors, which are

now centers of wealth and are influential economic notes.

99. tourism has emerged as a major service industry. it is brought considerable wealth to

some areas, but it can also leave some places vulnerable to larger economic shifts or

events that discourage people from traveling. vulnerabilities exist in places dependent on

no other service Industries as well.

100. the transition from cottage industries to Industrial Revolution happened as Europeans

sought to generate greater profit by producing more goods in high demand to do this they
looked for ways to take advantage of economies of scale increasing the number of goods

being produced to decrease the average cost of producing each item