# Atomic Structure

Atomic Terms : -

→ Nuclide : Various
species of atoms in
general
-
.

→ Nucleons : -
Sub - atomic
particles in the nucleus
of an

atom ,
i e
- .

protons and neutrons

Isotopes Atoms element with the same atomic

of
→ : -

an

no . but different mass number .

→ Mass Number CA) : -

Sum of the no .

of protons and neutrons

total
i e
-
.
. the no .

of nucleons .

→ Atomic Number 12) : The no .

of protons in the nucleus

subtracted
This
from
atom A,
of an when
.
,

the of neutrons
gives no .
.

Isobars Atoms the but

having
:
same mars
-

→ , no .

different atomic numbers ¥32 and 1832

Eg
.

→ Isotones : -

Atoms
having the same no ,

of neutrons
but
"
different no .
of protons or mass number .

Eg
.

E .
.
:O .
n
.

→
Isoelectronic
species : -

Atoms molecules or ions

having
of electrons
Eg
-

the same no , . Na , co , CN

→ Nuclear Isomers : -

Atoms with the same atomic

but
and mass numbers
different radioactive
properties
( ) and Uranium
Eg .

(
Uranium x
hrs
)
half life
in min 2

half
G. of
 IF Atomic models

Thomsonb Model : -

TT Thomson in 1904
proposed that there was
-

, ,
-

an
equal and
opposite positive charge enveloping the
electrons in a matrix . This model is called the
plum -

pudding model
after typesurrounded
a
of
Victorian dessert in
which bits of plums were by matrix
of
pudding -

-0
-0 -0 - election
①
positive sphere
-

Model :
Rutherford 'semitted -

radioactive substance shown

L -

particles by were

to be
dipositise Helium ions( Hett) having a mass
of
4 units and a units of positive change .

Rutherford allowed a narrow

of d beam -

to
particles fall on a
very
thin
gold foil of thickness
the older af and determined the
of 0.0004 cm

subsequent path of particles

these with the
help of
zinc sulphide fluorescent
a screen .
→ observation e-
→

Majority of
the a-
particles pass straight through the

gold strip with little or

deflection
no .

→ Some A-
particles are
deflected from their path and

diverge
Very few A-
particles deflected backwards
through
→
are

than 90
angles greater
.

Conclusions : -

→ The
fact that most
of the A-
particles passed
straight through the
is
metal
foil indicates the most

part of the atom empty

→ The
fact that
few A-
particles are
deflected
at

large angles indicates the presencesuch of heavy

a

positively charge body i

for large
-
e
,

deflections to d-
particles must have
occur come

closer to or collided with massive

positively charged a

body
The
.

hare
fact that in so , ooo
deflected at
→ one

1800 backwards indicates that volume occupied

is
by
this
heavy positively charged body
volume veryatom
small
in
comparison to total of the .
# Characteristics ware
of a : -

A is
wave a sort
oftravels
disturbance which
originates from some

vibrating of source and outward as a continuous

troughs Every
and
sequence alternating crests
characteristics
. ware

has
fire important ,
namely ,
wavelength CA ,

GD Cc) EJ and
frequency velocity
, , ware no .

amplitude Ca )
crest Crest

IX
→

← d→
Trough Tough

( x) : distance between two

wavelengthcrests The
neighbouring
-

is known
troughs or as
wavelength . It Hs
denoted by d and expressed is in cm ,
m, nanometers
( Inm = 10-9 ) Armstrong CL a'
m =
so
- "
m
)

Frequency ( ): The is the

frequency of
v a ware no
-

times
of medium
a ware
passes through a
given point) in a
in one second .
It is denoted
by ulna and
es expressed in
cycles per second ( cps) or
herty Cnd
Lng = 2
Cps .

The
frequency of a ware is
inversely proportional to
its ware
length G) .

vdyy or v
I
-
-
 The dtstance the in
Velocity by
: -
travelled ware one

second called and

B its
velocity .
It is denoted by c

is
expressed in cm sect
ud d
c- or -

Yu
-

( t)
number It is
defined number
ofexpressed
ware : -

as

It is denoted and
wavelengths
l
per con .

by it is
in cm
-

J
Yy
it
or
I
= =

Amplitude : It -

is the
height of the crest or
depth
of the tough of a ware and is denoted
by Ca ) .
It
determines the
intensity or
brightness of the beam
of
light
.

Electromagnetic spectrum : The

arrangement of the various
-

types of electromagnetic radiation in order of increasing

is known
or
decreasing wavelengths or
frequencies as

electromagnetic spectrum .

# Atomic
spectrum : -

← is
continuous line
spectra .

Spectra
 Continuous spectra : light from any source
-
when white
such as sun or bulb is
analyzed by passing through
a
pnesm ,
it
splits up into seven
different wide
bands violet to red ( like rainbow)
of
colour
from .

These colour are so continuous that each

of them
merges
into the next Hence the
spectrum is called
.

as continuous spectrum .

spectra : when an electric discharge is passed

line -

through a gas at low pressure light is emitted If .

thees
light
is resolved a it is
by spectroscope ,

Isolated obtained
found that some coloured lines are

on a
photographicThisplate separated from each other
line
by dark
spaces .

spectrum is called spectrum .

# Planck b Quantum
Theory : -

when black heated it emits thermal

a
body is ,

To
radiations different wavelengths frequency
or
of
.

explain Planck
these radiations , Max
put forward
known Planck b Quantum
a
theory as
theory The .

main
point of Quantum theory are : .

energy discontinuously
Substances radiate absorb or

in the
form of
small
epackets
bundles or
of energy .

smallest called Duantem

The
packet of energyis is .
In
of light known photon
case the
quantum as .
→ The
energy of a
quantum is
directly proportional
to the the radiation Edu Coe )
E hu
frequency of
-

. -

where u is the
of radiation and his
Planck b constant frequency value
having the 6.626×10
Heng
-

Sec of 6.626 X 10-34 J Sec

-

whole
A
body radiate absorb in
→ or
can
hu , ahu ,
energy
no -

multiples of a quantum Shu nhu where

- - -
.

positive
'
the
integer
'
n is .

to
→
Neils Bohr used thees
theory explain the
structure
of atom .

Bohr 's Atomic Model : -

Bohr developed a model

for hydrogen atom and

hydrogen
like one -
electron species ( hydrogenic species) .

He applied quantum in
considering the
totheory
electron bound the nucleus
energy
of an .

# Important Postulates : -

→ An atom consists nucleus situated at

of a dense the

centre with the electron

revolving around it in circular
without
orbits
attraction between
emitting
the
any energy
nucleus and
The
force of
electron Is
-

an

equal to the
centrifugal circular
force af the
moving electron .

of the
finite no .

of orbits around the

revoke
nucleus , an electron can
only in those orbits
whose
angular momentum ( mur) is an
integral multiple
h/2t
of factor
 ( mur
ashy )
-
-

where , m =
mass
of the electron
electron
v =
of
velocity in the
n = orbit no .
which election is
present
orbit
F- radius
of the

→ As is orbit it
long as an electron
revolving in an

neither loses Hence, these orbits are

gains
nor
energy .

Each is
called
stationary States
stationary
.
state
associated with and it
a
definite levels amount
of energy
also known the
is as
energy greater .
The

distance
of
the
energy
level
from the nucleus the ,

is the with it The

more
energy associated different
energy
.

levels are numbered as 1,2 , 3,4 (from nucleus onwards)

M K Lim , N
,
etc

Ordinarily an election continues to more in a

particular
stationary
state without
losing energy
Ground
. Such a stable
state of the atom is called as state or

normal state

electron it
If energy is
supplied to may jump
an ,

( excite) instantaneously from lower

energy Crays) to
higher energy level ( say 2. 3,4 etc) by absorbing
state
one more
or
quanta of energy This of
. new

electron is called excited state The

quantum af
as .
of energy absorbed is
equal to the difference in
energies
the two concerned levels Since the excited state
of
.

is less stable atom will lose its and come

,
energy
back to the
ground state .

Energy absorbed or released in an electron

jump CDE )
,

is
given by @ E -
Ea E,
=hv)
-

[ --kz]
-

oulombic
force

k=y¥¥↳ ( where Eo B
permittivity of free space)
9×109
' 2
K = Nm c-
-2
value of ( esu )
'
c. G. s units , K
In .
-
2
dyne cm

The
centrifugal force acting on the electron to
mf
since the electrostatic
force balances the
centrifugal force ,

the stable electron orbit

for
.

MRI =

KIEL -
CD
'
v2 k Ze
or =
-

②
my

According to Bohs 's

postulate of angular momentum
hate
quantization ,
we

fur nahe )
-
-
 ✓ =
rib
2. a- Mr

n' ht ③
"
V =

¥
-

Ca ) CD
Equating and
k2e2
my =mh24#Tm2r2
Solving for r we
get r=n2h2Un-2mk2e2
where n =
I , 2,3 - - - -
A

A:
rn 0.529
xn{_
=

kinetic Yz
'
the election
energy of mu
=

Potential
energy -k2
=

Kqed
Total Yu
'
Cy )
energy
= mu -

from Ci ) know that

egn ,
we

mid = KII
jr
'
Ya =k2I
'

. . Mv
20

Substituting this in
equation (4)
Total
energy (E)
=

kf KEI
-
=

-kf÷
Substituting for r,
gives
us

E =2a'm22eYkL where n =/ , 2,3

n2h2

E-
kx2÷ atom
-

21.8×10
erg per
= -

10-19
21.8 X
×
2£ J
per
atom
-

2£ atom
13.6 x ev
per
= -

( 23kcal
-

Levi = 3.83 X IO

Lev 1.602 X 10-12

erg
=

Lev = 2.602 X 10-19-5)

E Kcal / mole ( 2cal 418 'D
n2÷
=
-

313.6 x =

calculation of velocity
: -

we know that
Mur = nh I Vinh
27 2A m2

by substituting for r we
get
✓ =
2ak2e2
Th
where and
except n 2 all are constants
 U 2^18×108 cmlsec
In
=
.

Het
Eg : The
velocity of election in the second orbit
of
-

will be : -

(A) 106 m/s

2.18 X (B) 1.09×106 m/s
(c) 4.36×106 m/s (D) None of these
correct
"
Sot =
Vn =

Vong
Hence , ft ) is .

Atom
Hydrogen : -

÷=u=R(÷ Fa )
-

where , T =
ware number
a = ware
length 109678
R= Rydberg constant ( cm
"
)
and values
n , na hare
integral as
follows .

Eg when
find
: -
the
wavelength
electron in the of
a
spectral line produced
4th
H atoms
jumps from
an -

lent to 2nd level

son :
÷ Rn
⇐ ID
-

- -
-

⇐
109678 '
D= b-
f-
-

=
-
cm cm

3×109678

= 4863 Ao
# Quantum Numbers : -

Quantum numbers
may
be
defined as a set
of four
numbers with the
help of which we can
getatomcomplete
about electrons
information all
address
the
the
in
election i.e
an

location ,
It .

tells us the
of .

energy ,
the
type of orbital
occupied and orientation
that orbital
of .

→
Principal Quantum Number Cn ) : -
It tells the main shell
which electron resides the distance
in the ,
approximate
electron the nucleus and
from energy of
the
of election It also tells the maximum
that
particular .

'
no .

of electrons that a shell can accommodate is an ,

where n is the
principal quantum no .

Shell K L M N

Principal quantum no .cn ) 2 2 3 4

Maximum no .

of electrons 2 8 18 32

Azimuthal Angular momentumor

quantum note ) : -

Thees represents the of subs hells present in the

no .

math shell These orbits shell will

be denoted
subsidiary
.

1,213,4
within
d. f
0, Thees tells or s,
a

as
p
.
. - - -
, - - - .

subshells
the
shape of the .
The orbital
angular
of the electron res It) or
momentum
given as
ya ,
 Eth
for a
particular value
of
'
n' (where h ;h
For value values
a
given
to
of n
of possible e
vary
from 0 n I
-

The number cm ) : An electron due to

magnetic quantum
around the
-

nucleus
its
angular motion
generates
to
an

electric
field This electric .

field
is
expected produce
a
magnetic
the
field Under the
electrons
influence of
.

subs hell
external
magnetic
field in certain
themselves of
orient
'

a can
,

preferred regions of space around the

orbitals The
nucleus called
determines the
magnetic quantum the
.
no .

electron
of subsfsryfesed
hell The values
orientations
no -

of
allowed
in
present a .

depends on the value

of 1 ,
the
angular momentum
values
quantum no .
im can assume all
integral
between d
including zero
to te can be . Thus m

values associated
O , t2
for 1=2 Total of m
-

,
.

with a
particular value of lies given by 21+2
The spin Quantum Numbered : .
Just like earth which
not revolves around the sun but also about
only spins
revolves
its own axis , an electron in an atom not
only
around the nucleus but also about its
spins own

awes .
Since an electron can spin either in clockwise
direction anticlockwise
or in direction ,
therefore ,
for any
particularhatevaluetwoof values
magnetici.e quantum .no .

, spin quantum
no .
can Hts and ,
.
-

Yz or these
are
represented by two arrows
pointing in the
opposite
directions i e T and I when electron to a
goes
,
-
. .
an

vacant orbital , it can hate a clockwise or anticlockwise

spin i.e .
Hk or -42 .

This
quantum no .

helps to
explain the
magnetic properties of the substances .

Eg
has value
: -

If what
the
principal quantum
values
no . n a
of
3,
'
are
permitted of
the
quantum
?
'

and
' '
numbers l m

Cn ) has
If Principal quantum(e)
Sorin the value
no -

af 3,
three values
subsidary
will also have
quantum no .

Cm)
i -

e .
0,2 and 2 and
magnetic quantum number
9 values in all
' '
will hate and
they
n ,
i.e .
3 i.e
. are

designated as under : -

n =3 1=0 m -
-

OCS )
l -
-

I m = -
2 ( p)
m =
O
m =
+I

b- 2 m = -
2. Cd )
m = -

m =
O

M
-
t 2

m
=
t2
 Eg
In orbital election
: -
which
values
the will reside
if it has
the
following
(1) b- I
n =3 O
of quantum ,
m -
numbers .

Cii ) n
-
- 4 , 1=0 , m
-
-
O
"
Sol i C ) 1=2 Pz orbital
for subs hell and m
for
- O
p
-

Hence , electron will residue in 3Pa orbital .

(a) b- 0 S subs hell Hence electron will residue in 4's orbital

for
. .

Eg the
the numbers
: - write all
orbitals
quantum for
i)
following
3dzz Cii ) 3s
.

Ciii ) up,

Sof ! - d) n =3 , 1=2 ,
m=O , s =
12/2
Ci ) n =3 , 1=0, m -
O
,
s - I 1/2
( iii) n =
4,1=2 ,
m = -

2 or +2 , s - I 212

# Pauli 's Exclusion Principle : -

According to this
principle , an orbital can contain a
electrons
two and these
maximum no .

of electrons two
must be
of opposite spin .

Two electrons in orbital be

represented by
an can
Tt or IT
# and orbitals
Shapes size of : -

An
region of space
orbital is the around the
nucleus
electron
within
of
which the
probability
is
finding
maximumof (90-9506)
an
The
given energyelectron cloud) .

shape of this ( the shape

orbital region
It is
gives
determined
of
the
basically
b while the
.

by the

azimuthal quantum orientation

no .
,
of
orbital depends on the
magnetic quantum no . Cm) .

÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷: ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷:÷ i÷ ÷ :÷ ÷ a.÷ ÷ : ÷i ÷ ÷ ÷¥
Is 2s .

orbitals
→ S : The
probability of finding
the electron
- -

keep decreasing
is maximum near the nucleus and on

as

is
the deestance
from
between
the nucleus increases There
two successive s orbitals
.

vacant
space
-

known as radial node . But there is no radial

node orbital is
starting
Is it
for since
from the
nucleus .
Y
T

****¥#**¥¥#
ce##¥¥#foE¥¥ ⇐¥Es7Radial
as
nucleus
¥##
za ##¥¥hs node
 ( l =D :
probability
orbitals The the
p af finding
- -

electron lobes
p
is maximum in two on the
opposite
-

of
sides
µ
the nucleus .

sx fry pad
£

→ d- orbitals
(1--2) : . For d -
orbitals ,
1=2 ,
Hence ma - 2,

Sid orbitals have

Thus there
They orbitals
-1,0 ,
ti ,
t2 . are .

relatively complex geometry Out .

ofin
the
fire ,

the three ( day dyz dax) project

, ,
between the
day
"
axes
along
and the other two da and ,
lie
the ants .

nz ax

fda '

& dx y ' '

-
M

Dough -
nut
shape or clover
leaf shape
Baby soothes
shape
 X x y

¥4
^

88
dxy
n
¥ dxz dyz

An
Eg : . electron has a
spin quantum
It cannot
no .

tf
and
alan
a

magnetic quantum no . -
I .

occupy
(9) d orbital (b) f orbital
Cc )
p orbital (d) s orbital

Sdn : -

foe s orbital m=O . Hence , (d) is correct .

It Rules Electrons in various Orbitals :

for filling of
.

Aufbau Principle Thees principle states that the

: -

electrons
to the various orbitals
are added one
by one in order
their with the orbital
of increasing energy starting
lowest
of Is energy Ys
.

Yd 65 , Yf Sd Gp Sf
,
as
,2p 35,3ps
, , 3d , Up ,
sis , , Sp , , , , ,

Gd ,
Fp - -
- - - -
-
.
 Is

2. s -

Lp
L

3s
3p 3d
L

Ys
<
④ ⑨
h
If

sis
'

k Sip 5d

Gs
L Gp

Is
L

# Hund 's Rule of Maximum

Multiplicityelectrons
: .

Thees rule deals with the in the

)
filling
orbitals of of the
equal (
energy degenerate
same sub
shell (p d ,
and to this rule
FJ .

According ,
"
Electron and f orbitals
pairing in
p ,
d cannot occur

until each orbital subs hell contains

af given
one
a

electron each or is
singly occupied !
# Electronic
Electronic
configuration isof Elements : .

distribution electrons
configuration the
of
shells subs hells and Orbitals
into
different of
,
an

atom .
keeping in view the above mentioned rules , electronic
orbital
configuration of any
can be
simply represented by
the notation .

No .

of lectures in the
tubs hell
X
n e

principal symbol of subs hell or

quantum no .
orbitals (s , p d. f)
,

Eg ( atomic write the electronic

configuration of Nitrogen
:

no .
=
7)
Is
'
as
'
2ps
sore .
7th He tell

Exceptional configurations : -

stability of Half filled and

Completely filled orbitals : -

Cee has 29
Is
'
electrons Its
252ps 353ps
electronic .

453dg
expected configuration is
But election lower Us
shift of
a
from energy one

orbital to
higher energy 3d orbital will make the
distribution of electron symmetrical and hence will impart
more
stability .

Cee B
Thus ,
the electronic
configuration"
of
2ps 353ps 4S 3d
' '
Is 25

fully filled and

half filled orbitals are more stable
Eg : -
which of the
following metals has the highest value?
of exchange energy required for exchange stabilization
(a) Mn Cb ) Cr
Ce ) Cee Cd ) 2n

Sol ! Cee has d- subs hell Hence (C) is correct

full filled
- .
.

He Dual character ( Particle and character

of
Ware

matter and Radiation ) : -

light has dual nature ( ware t

particle)
de -

Broglie Equation : -

The wavelength of the ware associated with

any
material
particle was calculated by analogy with
photon .

( acc
theory)
E hu Ci ) to Planck 's
the
quantum
-
-
- .

E ma (2) ( acc to Einstein 's

equation)
-
-
-
.

'
hv = me

but u = CA
me
heh
=

(a) f- Hmc
 "
to
The above
eg
is
applicable material
particle if ,

the mass and

velocity of photon replaced by is the
and
mass
velocity like
of material
particle Thus for any .
,

material election
particle .

D=
X -
-

hlmv or
hyp where mu -
p
is the momentum
of
the
particle .

Relation kinetic
# Between
Energy and
wavelength : -

K - E (E) = Ya mu
'

v
tame 4=1
-

MV

X -
he
12 E. m

Derivation
of
to
Angular Momentum
from de
Broglie Egf :

electron revolves around

-

According Bohr's model the ,

orbits Ace to
the nucleus in circular .
. de
Broglie
is
concept , the electron not
only a
particle but has
also
completely
character the to in
If the
a ware .
ware

phase , the
circumference of orbit must be
equal to
an
integral multiple of ware
length (d)
Therefore Lar nd
-
-

,
 Bautm? : .hn/mvmaa-
&
No n'
2ft =n2g÷=2Amvrh
'

of wares =
.

electron and radius

where ,
v and r are the
velocity of
of that
particular Bohr orbit
Thus second
,
the
af revolutions
no .

per tenant
Eg :

16 E
An e- , a
proton and an
alpha particle
whats the
hare k E -

af
, UE and E
respectively .

?
qualitative
order of their
Broglie wavelengths
(b) de
G) de >
xp > da > dp -
-
da
⑨ Idp L des da Cd ) da she
p

(B) is
'

SH = A Hence , correct .

-
T
2M K E -

Distinction between nature

the ware
particle of
a
-

subatomic
photon and the
particle -

ware nature
of a

particle : -

photon sub Atomic

-
particle

① Energy - hu
Energy -
- Yzma

@
wavelength g- Wavelength hmu
-
-
=
 electron
Eg what is the de
Broglie wavelength of
: -
-

5eV ?
having K E - .

of
Sol 's -42mV '
.
K E
-
. =

v
f 2k
-
-

Now , d
hmu
-
-

16.62×10-3-412
he
KE -
M
=

n 2×5×1.6×10
-

19×9.1×10-31

=
5.486×10-10 m

Heisenberg 's uncertainty Principle : -

Thees Principle States : .

to the
It
and
is
impossible measure
simultaneously position
momentum
of a small microscopic moving particle
"
with absolute
accuracymeasure certainty tfthese
or i -

e . an

attempt is made to
any one
of two
becomes less
quantities with
higher accuracy ,
the other
accurate

Dx .

Ap 2h14 a- Ax -

change in
position
Ap in momentum
change
-
Eg : what is the
uncertainty in the
position of a ball
-

and
of mass
20g
which is
moving with
?
a
velocity
Mls with 002%
uncertainty
100 O
of
-

'
Sof : -

Dx x Dv =h_
4am
Now Dv =
100×0-0022 = 0-002 m/s
too
DX = 6.626×10-342 =
0-0289 m

4×3.14×9.1×10 31×0-002
-

# Photoelectric effect :
-

observed
Sir IT . Thomson ,
that when a
light of
the metal
certain
frequency strikes
surface of
a

electrons are
ejected from the metal This.

phenomenon
and electrons
is known as photoelectric effect the
ejected
are called photoelectrons .

A
few metals , which are
havingunder
low
ionization
energy
like cesium , show this effect the action

of action
visible light but
many
more show it under the

of more
energetic ultraviolet
light
.
 Ethan
"

Battery

Ammeter

Electrons come out as soon as the

light ( of
energy) strikes There is
sufficient the metal
surface
. a

minimum called threshold ( critical)

frequency ,
the or

frequency varies with just ejection

which
,
can cause the .
This
the metal the
frequency
nature
of the .

higher the
frequency of the light ,
the more
energy
hare Blue in faster
the
photoelectrons .

light results electrons

than red
light
.

two → wonkfunction
Of
metal
 hu -
- huo t k E .
.

'
hv =
huo tyamv
42 MV
'
= hu -
huo
where , v -
-

frequency of
the incident light
threshold
frequency
↳ =

huo is the threshold (or) the work

function
D= huo
energy
( minimum energy of
denoted the
by electron photon to
liberate metal and
for particular
.
It is constant
is
atoms
also
.
equal to the
ionization potential of gaseous
→ The kinetic
energy of
the photoelectrons increases

linearly with the

frequency of
incident
light .

K E
-
.

of n

photoelectrons

→ v

Eg the sodium is Predict

work 2. seu whether
function of
: -

65A Ao is
wavelength suitable
for a
photoelectron
ejection or not .
Sor : -

Energy af incident light =

has =

6.62×10.34×3×1086500
X IO
-
to

-
19
=3 -
058 X 10 J
=
I g
.
e v

which is lower than work

function . Hence no
ejection
will take
place .