I N T E R NAT I O NA L

DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2397.2007.00530.x J O U R NA L O F
Int J Soc Welfare 2008: 17: 216–224 SOCIAL WELFARE
ISSN 1369-6866

Factors affecting the development

Original
KOUKOULI
FACTORS
International
IJSW
Blackwell
Oxford,
©
1369-6866
XXX Articles
2007 The
UKAFFECTING
ET AL. of
Publishing
Author(s),
Journal THE DEVELOPMENT
Ltd
Journal
Social Welfare OF SOCIAL
compilation © Blackwell WORK IN
Publishing LtdGREECE
and the International Journal of Social Welfare

of social work and its

professionalisation process:
the case of Greece
Koukouli S, Papadaki E, Philalithis A. Factors affecting the Sofia Koukouli1, Eleni Papadaki1,
development of social work and its professionalisation Anastas Philalithis2
process: the case of Greece
Int J Soc Welfare 2008: 17: 216–224 © 2007 The Author(s), 1 Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Greece
Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the 2 University of Crete, Greece
International Journal of Social Welfare.

This article discusses some of the factors that have shaped

the development of social work in Greece and analyses its
present level of professionalisation. There were four main
factors: (i) the familialist-statist social care model in which
social work operates in Greece; (ii) reluctant state support
related to a complex set of specific political, social and
economic conditions; (iii) the pressure of new needs in recent Key words: social work, Greece, Southern Europe, social care
years as a result of the aging population, family changes and services, professionalisation
increasing numbers of immigrants; and (iv) the European Dr Sofia Koukouli, Assistant Professor of Social Policy,
Union’s financial support and regulatory role in various social Department of Social Work, Technological Educational Institute
policy sectors. The present status of the profession indicates of Crete, Heraklion, Crete 71004, POB 1939, Greece
a satisfactory protection of professional rights, a slow but E-mail: koukouli@seyp.teiher.gr
steady improvement in the educational process, but also
limited occupational control. Accepted for publication June 6, 2007

Over the last 20 years, in most European countries, significance of social work and the central role the
unemployment resulting from the instability of the profession can play in the resolution of social problems
labour market combined with the continuous effort by are generally recognised, its development and current
social insurance systems to restrict expenses has pushed status differ considerably from country to country.
many social groups into social exclusion and poverty. As the main body of social workers is mostly
At the same time, the informal networks cannot or are absorbed by the state and specifically by positions in
unwilling to provide long-term steady financial support the public system of social assistance, social work is
and care to their members, as the increasing participation frequently considered to be a ‘by-product’ of the welfare
of women in the labour market and changes in family regime, shaped more or less by the regime’s main
and household structures have considerably restricted characteristics and influenced more specifically by the
the traditional role of the modern family. Therefore, the degree of development of social assistance. However, a
burden of dependency is being gradually transferred to cluster analysis, based exclusively on the type of welfare
the public systems of social assistance, the sector of regime and social care systems, produces a homo-
social policy that allocates means-tested cash benefits genisation of countries, which underestimates the role of
and services in kind to beneficiaries who have already other contextual factors in the shaping of social work
fallen below a certain minimum living standard or and/or the inner dynamics of the profession itself. As
are at risk of falling below that standard (Ditch & social workers provide very particular services of both
Oldfield, 1999; Gough, Bradshaw & Ditch, 1997; a personal and a social character, their work is also
Matsaganis, 2000). shaped and directly influenced by a certain social context
In such a context, with increasing social problems and is regulated by social values and norms that differ
and continuous challenges for the welfare states, ‘social between countries (Bähle, 2002; Munday & Ely, 1996).
professionals’, i.e. professionals involved in the delivery The present study intends to fill the gap in the literature
of social care services and particularly social workers, regarding the factors that influence the development and
who remain the nucleus of this group, are growing in shape of social work in different socio-economic and
importance (Banks, 1999; Lyons, 2003). Although the political environments and provide a thorough analysis

© 2007 The Author(s)

Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the International Journal of Social Welfare.
216 Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA
 Factors affecting the development of social work in Greece
of those factors. The Greek context is used as a case
study. This work may also contribute to the comparative
literature concerning social care models at European
level and their qualitative characteristics. Specifically,
the aims of the article are twofold: (i) to investigate
the factors that have affected the development of the
profession of social work in Greece, as related to the
particularities of the political, social and economic
context within which social workers operate; and
(ii) to identify and discuss the specific traits of its
current professional status, describing its degree of
professionalisation.
The article contains three main parts. The first part
presents a theoretical framework of the factors
contributing to the development and shaping of social
work. The second part analyses the landmarks in the
development of social work and personal social services
in Greece in relation to political, economic and social
changes over the years. The third section explores the
current level of professionalisation of social work in
Greece based on the two main professionalisation
theories presented in the first part.
A theoretical framework of the factors contributing to
the development of the social work profession
Although social work is a profession based on the
acceptance of some common principles, values and
methods of practice in different countries, its development
and degree of professionalisation are not the same
everywhere. The status of the profession today reflects
country-specific historical pathways, a specific insti-
tutional framework and political decisions regarding
social policy. To explain these differences, one must
first explain how professionalism can be achieved.
There are two theoretical approaches to identify the
factors that define the professional status of an occupation
and determine its development: the attributes or traits
approach and the power approach (Weiss, Spiro, Sherer
& Korin-Langer, 2004). According to the representatives
of the attributes approach, there are a number of
inherent, essential traits that characterise a profession
and differentiate it from other professions and
occupations. These traits are: an orientation toward
providing a needed service or commodity, which stresses
the social contribution of the profession; a systematic
body of theory that directs the skills of practice and
prolonged training in a body of specialised knowledge;
a ‘user’–professional relationship based on professional
judgment and competence; the regulation and control
of its own membership, practice, education and perform-
ance standards; and the existence of an enforceable code
of ethics and a culture of values, norms and symbols that
guide the profession (Goode, 1957; Greenwood, 1957).
The second theoretical framework, the power
approach, criticises the traits theory and regards
© 2007 The Author(s)
Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the International Journal of Social Welfare
professionalisation as a dynamic historical process in
which occupations struggle for autonomy, power and
control in the attempt to delineate their boundaries
and gain monopoly in the provision of services
(Freidson, 1970a, 1970b; Lowe, Zimmerman & Reid,
1989). Gaining a dominant position in the occupational
hierarchy is not only attributable to the possession
of certain inherent attributes, but also results from a
more composite process where various factors interact,
such as the type of welfare state, the organisational
structures within which social workers operate, their
relationship to the state and the political, social and
economic environment, new emerging social needs or
supranational changes that have an impact at the
national level.
First, social work in each country is directly linked to
the model of welfare and social care services developed
in that country. In the models of social care acknowledged
by Abrahamson (1999), broadly reflecting the four
models of social care outlined by Anttonen and Sipilä
(1996), differences exist in the spectrum of services
supplied, the mode of funding, the organisation and the
delivery.
The modern welfare state (or social democratic policy)
associated with the Scandinavian countries is charac-
terised by wide provision of good quality social
services, publicly funded and locally organised. In most
cases, social services are delivered by local communities
with a significant degree of financial independence from
the central state (Kvist, 2003). As prevention is considered
to be more important than therapeutic interventions,
social services are less stigmatised in Scandinavia than
in other European countries. In that context, social
workers are well educated, including university and
postgraduate studies, have many work opportunities
and enjoy a high social standing (Lymbery, Charles,
Christopherson & Eadie, 2000).
The institutional welfare state (or corporatist social
policy), linked in particular to Germany, puts emphasis
on labour market solutions to social issues, providing
social protection mainly through public insurance funds
that reward work performance and status. Those outside
the labour market are likely to be dependent on local
charity. Within this welfare model, social assistance
schemes and the profession of social work are highly
diversified due to different historical pathways and
cultural traditions (Bähle, 2002; Belardi, 2002; Gough
et al., 1997; Lambers, 2002).
In the residual welfare state (or liberal social policy)
associated in recent years with the UK, the state is a
safety net and a regulator rather than a primary provider.
The English system has been characterised, since the
1990s, by the contracting out of public social services
to the for-profit or not-for-profit sectors (Bähle, 2002).
Financial limits and performance targets over the last
decade have made social workers less autonomous as
217
Koukouli et al.
their practice has been subjected to increasing managerial
control (Lymbery, 2001).
The ‘rudimentary’ welfare model, also called the
‘Latin-rim’ model, represented by the group of Southern
European countries, is considered by some to be a
separate model, and by others as a rather immature
variation of the corporatist welfare model (Ferrera,
1996; Katrougalos, 1996). A common characteristic in
all these countries is that the development of social
care services, like that of the social work profession,
has been fragmented, retarded and modest (Ferrera,
1996; Katrougalos, 1996). A major reason was the
significant traditional role of the family in the provision
of welfare services, which historically functioned as
an effective safety net for children, the unemployed,
the disabled and the elderly (Flaquer, 2000). It is not
accidental that these countries did not have general
programmes of social assistance until very recently,
in contrast to other European countries (Matsaganis,
Ferrera, Capucha & Moreno, 2003), nor an explicit
family policy (Flaquer, 2000). Additionally, all of them
have a mix of social service providers, as is the case
everywhere, but public agencies and religious
organisations predominate (Bähle, 2002).
In addition to the model of social welfare, the
particular organisational structures within which social
workers operate, and their degree of dependence on
the state, have also shaped the development and
professionalisation process of social work in different
countries. According to Johnson (1972), social work is
‘a state-mediated profession’, i.e. the state intervenes
in the relationship between practitioner and service
user and, as a result, social workers have limited
autonomy in professional decision making and limited
occupational control. Therefore, the way the state
chooses to interpret its mediating role is also a very
important factor.
Furthermore, the performance of the economy
interconnected with the context of political and
ideological factors have affected the profession of
social work in various ways. For example, the financial
crisis of the 1970s in England, combined with the
election in 1979 of a Conservative government with a
neo-liberalist ideology, which is traditionally hostile to
state welfare, led to serious cut-backs in public
expenditure and the social budget and introduced
managerialism in social work practice (Lymbery, 2001).
Other factors affecting the development and social
status of the profession are demographic shifts and
societal changes. The rising percentage of older people
in the population, high unemployment and poverty rates
and the changing role of the family constitute new
challenges for welfare systems and constantly test the
ability of social work to address those issues. The
emergence of new social movements and civic groups
in the 1990s, such as the disabled and other minority
218 Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the International Journal of Social Welfare
groups, and their demands for more participatory and
less bureaucratic forms of provision, significantly
contested the ability of public welfare services and
social work to respond effectively to the needs of these
groups (Wolch, 1990).
Thus, context and contextual changes have had
significant implications for the profile of social work
in different societies. The current form of social work
in Greece has resulted from the profession’s inner
characteristics and its dynamic interaction with the
environment in which it has operated through the years.
The following section will describe the evolutionary
process of the profession and social care services in
Greece and discuss some of the factors that have shaped
their interrelated course.
Stages of development of social work and social care
services in Greece
In Greece, one of the countries with a southern
European type regime regarding social work, the model
of social care services was traditionally based on a
familialist-statist pattern for dealing with social
problems. The role of the state in social care was
limited and social services have developed at a slow
rate. Welfare services were considered for many years
to be the last resort for the most deprived, and
frequently took the form of ad hoc measures to address
crisis situations, for which reason the system was
residual, stigmatising and very centralised (Petmesidou,
2006). In that context, informal networks and especially
the family have always played a central role in covering
needs, but support and services for the families
themselves were always insufficient. In face of the
state’s deficiencies, a complex set of family values and
family solidarity has contributed to the reproduction of
the familialist pattern of the model over the years
(Flaquer, 2000). Although social work was affected by
these general traits of the welfare model, the study of
the development of the profession in parallel with the
social services in Greece also reveals a continuous
interplay between political, social, ideological and
economic factors (Table 1).
The Greek state intervened more actively in social
affairs during the 1920s and 1930s, mainly in the
sectors of social insurance and public health (Liakos,
1993). Rapid economic growth, the inflow of 1.5
million ethnic-Greek refugees from Asia Minor in
1922, and the rising consciousness of the working class
led to the introduction of these preliminary social
policy measures. Statutory personal social services
were developed mostly to address crisis situations, and
it was the family that compensated for the state’s
deficiencies. In that context, the first school of social
work, founded in 1937, operated for only two years
(Dedoussi, Gregory, Georgoussi & Kyriopoulos, 2004).
© 2007 The Author(s)
Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the International Journal of Social Welfare
© 2007 The Author(s)

Table 1. Landmark dates of the development of social services and social work in Greece (1930s–present).

Periods Major historical Social insurance Health Social services Social work
and political events

1930s Creation of the IKA First school of social work (1937)

1940s Nazi occupation (1940–45)
Civil War (1946–49)
1950s
1960s Dictatorship (1967–1974)
1970s Reinstitution of
democracy (1974)
insurance fund (L.6298/1934)
Unemployment insurance (1954)
Family allowances (1959)
Creation of the OGA
insurance fund (L.4169/1961)
First serious attempt for an integrated
and decentralised health system
(LD 2592/1953)
Health centres in the rural areas
Mandatory one-year term of medical
graduates in rural health centres
(LD 67/68)
Allowance for the blind (1951)
Allowances for ‘unprotected’
children (1960)
Allowances for large families (1972)
Private schools of social work
Posts in child welfare programmes
(1950)
Posts in hospitals (1956)
Foundation of SKLE
Legal recognition of SW
(L.4018/1959)
State regulation of social work
practice (RD 690/1961)
Prolongation of social work studies
to 3 years after secondary education
(RD 542/1963)
First public schools of social
work: KATEE (1973)

Factors affecting the development of social work in Greece

1980s Greece becomes Establishment of the National
member of the EC (1981) Health System (L.1397/1983)
Organisation of primary health care
Reform of mental health services
➪Deinstitutionalisation of mental patients
1990s Modernisation of mental health
services (L.2716/1999)
2000➪ Unification of health services at
the regional level (L.2889/2001)
Unification of health and social
services at the regional level
(L.3106/2003)
Return to a more fragmented system
(L.3329/2005)
Open Centres for the Elderly
(municipal authorities)
‘Help at Home’ (local authorities)
Social Welfare departments under
prefectural authorities (PD 2218/1994)
National System for Social Care
(L.2646/1998)
Unification of health and social
services at the regional level
(L.3106/2003)
Upgrading of public schools
of social work: TEIs (1984)
Professional rights of social
work better defined (PD 50/1989)
School of Social Administration
at the University of Thrace (1996)
with two options after the first
two common years: Social Policy
and Social Work.
TEIs become part of higher
education, the other part being
the universities (L.2916/2001)

Notes: Included in the columns are relative laws, royal decrees (RD) or presidential decrees (PD).
IKA, the first compulsory insurance scheme for employees in the private sector; OGA, the social insurance fund for farmers; SKLE, the Greek Association of Social Workers; KATEE, Centres of Higher
Technological Education; TEI, Technological Educational Institute.
219
Koukouli et al.
The post-war years and the period after the Civil War
(1946–1949) stressed the need for further development
of social services. Social legislation was minimal,
however, and the few fragmented measures focused on
the institutional care of unprotected children and the
problem of poverty. To tackle the problem of poverty,
‘Directorates of Social Welfare’ were created by the
Ministry of Health and Welfare at the prefectural level,
mainly to administer cash benefits for certain vulnerable
groups (Matsaganis, 2004; Petmesidou, 1991, 2006).
Although social work was legally recognised at the
end of the 1950s, the organisation of the education of
social workers was left to the for-profit sector. Many
private schools were established between 1945 and
1960, some of them of religious character and most of
them influenced by the principles of American social
work (Dedoussi et al., 2004). During the 1960s, the
state undertook a more regulatory role regarding the
practice of social workers and the duration of their
education in the private sector schools.
Social work in Greece was born in a very complex
historical and social context. The post-civil war period
generated a profoundly divided society composed of
two opposing parts: the conservatives, the ‘victors’ of
the war; and the left, which was politically and socially
excluded until 1974 (Katrougalos, 1996). As social
cohesion was undermined for many years, the con-
servative and centrists governments of the post-war
period were reluctant to reinforce the social professions,
especially those that could encourage collective action.
For example, social work education and practice focused
for many years on the clinical model, and community
social work only became part of the curriculum as late
as 1962 (Papadaki, 2005; Zaimakis, 2002).
During the years of the Greek dictatorship (1967–
1974), the state implemented some selective social policy
measures favouring specific groups and widening the
gap between social strata even further (Sotiropoulos,
1999). During this period, the first public schools of
social work were established, in 1973, in Patras and
Crete within the Centres of Higher Technological Edu-
cation (KATEE) and offered post-secondary education.
The interest of the dictatorship in creating schools of
social work may be explained in part by the efforts of
the junta to propagate a more humane profile (Sotiro-
poulos, 1999). For nearly a decade, social work education
was provided by both KATEE and the old private
schools.
The reinstitution of Parliamentary democracy led to
the protection of social rights through the Constitution
of 1975, ‘a cautious increase of social expenditure
until the beginning of the 1980s’ (Katrougalos, 1996:
52), and Greece’s accession to the European Community
(1981). Progressively, a supranational field of policy
regulation emerged, significantly affecting policy
objectives and priorities.
220 Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the International Journal of Social Welfare
During the next decade, considered to be the main
period of development of the Greek welfare state, new
and innovative policies were introduced in various
sectors of social policy, either as part of the socialist
government’s political agenda or in order to follow the
European Community’s directives. Thus, a comprehensive
and unified public ‘National Health System’ (ESY) was
established in 1983, while a reform in mental health
services followed in 1984, promoting deinstitution-
alisation and open care for the mentally ill at the
community level (Madianos, Tsiantis & Zacharakis,
1999). Another important change was the creation of
the state-financed Open Care Centres for the Elderly
(KAPI), operated by the municipalities and staffed by
an interdisciplinary team of social workers, health
visitors, occupational therapists, physical therapists and
family assistants.
Most of these policies also had a significant impact
on the social work profession. As in most of health and
social care services, the social worker constitutes an
indispensable member of the interdisciplinary team;
it was thus imperative to progressively modernise the
existing schools of social work. After 1984, social work
education was provided exclusively by the public
system and the upgraded Technological Educational
Institutes (TEIs), which replaced the old KATEE.
During the 1990s, the effort to reduce expenditure
in order to join the Economic and Monetary Union
restrained the growth in social expenditure and social
benefits. Moreover, domiciliary care services were intro-
duced in 1996 through the ‘Home Help’ programmes
providing nursing care at home and implemented jointly
by a number of municipalities and the KAPI.
In parallel, several efforts were undertaken to create
a more decentralised and unified system of social
services. First, the law on the ‘Development of a
National System of Social Care’ in 1998 attempted to
unify the fragmented welfare services, and the reform
of 2003 aimed at an integrated system of health and
social care services at the regional level. Each Regional
Health and Welfare Authority (PESYP) was assigned
the responsibility for their direct managerial and
administrative control. However, in 2005 the newly
elected right-wing government brought back the old
fragmented system consisting of independent legal
entities and restricted the PESYP (now called DYPE)
to the role of coordinator.
During the 1990s, the pressure exerted by the EU for
social reform and the new emerging needs – e.g. an
aging population, the inflow of immigrants, rising
percentages of working women, changes in the family
structure, rapidly increasing unemployment – further
consolidated the profession of social work (Table 1).
The professional rights of social workers were better
defined, there was now a procedure for granting and
withdrawing licenses and a code of ethics and regulations
© 2007 The Author(s)
 Factors affecting the development of social work in Greece

for private practice was established. Simultaneously, of professional standing. The training of future social
there was a systematic effort to upgrade the education workers takes place in public institutions of tertiary
of social workers provided by the TEIs. The duration of education: in the three social work departments of
studies was lengthened to eight semesters, the right TEIs and in the university department of Social
to attend graduate programmes was granted to TEI Administration. The duration of the studies is eight
graduates and the old curricula were modernised. Also, semesters for both categories of institutions. The training
in 1996, the School of Social Administration was curricula, the standards for admission, the number of
established at the University of Thrace. credits required for graduation and the qualifications of
The above analysis shows that the development of the academic staff are all predetermined by the state,
social work and social services in Greece was related although the schools of social work enjoy a certain
not only to the type of welfare regime, but also to the degree of autonomy, for example, regarding the contents
political affiliations of the respective governments, to of their training programme.
the performance of the economy, the pressure for Although undergraduate programmes have significantly
reforms by the EU and to upcoming social changes improved over recent years, graduate and continuing-
such as the decline of the family as a mechanism of education programmes are problematic. As the schools
care provision. of social work are not yet authorised to autonomously
organise graduate studies, advanced degrees (Masters
or PhD) related to the subject of social work are offered
The current professional status of social work
by only a few universities in the country. Also, the lack
The main issue addressed in this section is whether of an organised system of continuing education
social work in Greece has achieved a level of seriously affects the quality of the work of social
professionalism closer to that of the more established workers, undermining their ability to be constantly
professions. A combination of the traits theory and the updated. Moreover, social research in the field, which
power approach will be used as a framework for the could generate new knowledge and improve the quality
analysis that follows. of social services, has been very limited until recently
It is incontestable that social work provides personal for several reasons: a more practice-oriented approach,
social services for individuals and the community, very case overload, and the lack of motivation or the
well defined and distinct from those of other professions. reluctance of the state to invest in research in general
These services are, nowadays, more important than and in social research in particular.
ever before, and although the Greek state has been Additionally, the present system of admission to
very unwilling to acknowledge the importance of TEIs and universities often results in students attending
the profession over the years, recent demographic and disciplines they have not chosen, which produces
social changes will make this need more urgent in professionals who are unhappy in their work. A study
coming years (Table 2). conducted in the Department of Social Work of Crete
Lengthy training in a body of specialised knowledge showed that only 23 per cent of social work students
in higher institutions constitutes another basic feature had social work as their first choice and a significant
number of them said they were unwilling to search for
a job in the field after graduation (Papadaki, 2001).
Another important indicator when evaluating the
Table 2. Evolution of a number of demographic and social indicators for
Greece (1991–2001). professional status of social work is the existence of
some form of licensure limiting those who can legally
1991 2001 EU-15 (2001) define themselves as social workers. In Greece, contrary
Social expenditure 21.6 26.4d 27.3d
to other countries where non-qualified persons may
(percentage of GDP) hold social work positions (Weiss et al., 2004), the
Old-age dependency ratio 20.8 25.6 24.3 exclusive use of the title by professional social workers
Unemployment rate is legally recognised and has been protected since 1959,
Total 7.0 10.5 7.4
Men 3.9 7.3 6.4 which means that since that date the title of ‘social
Women 11.8 15.6 8.5 worker’ can be used only by individuals who have
Youth unemployment rate (<25) 22.9 29.6d 16.2d graduated from a recognised school of social work, and
Long-term unemployment that specific social work positions should be filled only
Men 2.5a 3.2 2.8
Women 7.8a 8.7 3.9 by qualified social workers.
At-risk-of poverty rate 22.0b 20.0d 24.0c However, licensure alone fails to address the critical
issue of securing a unique domain of activity for social
Notes: a 1994, b 1995, c 1999, d 2000. GDP, gross domestic product.
Source: Combination of data from the National Statistical Service of
work. Specific domains in health and social care
Greece (ESYE) 2003, Eurostat Yearbook 2002 and Eurostat, The social services are restricted to registered social workers, TEI
situation in the European Union, 2003. or university graduates. In general, both categories of

© 2007 The Author(s)

Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the International Journal of Social Welfare 221
Koukouli et al.
graduates can work in the same domains of employment,
while differences exist for some of the objectives of
their work; e.g. ‘management’ and ‘planning’ in social
services constitute an additional objective for the
university graduates. Even though one cannot claim that
other professional groups attempt systematically to
penetrate into the fields of social work, problems
regarding collaboration between social workers and
other professionals, e.g. nurses, have been identified
(Sapountzi, Kantzos, Papadimitriou & Georgiou, 2001).
Moreover, the power of social workers to secure a
level of occupational control over their activities is
restricted. As they are mostly civil servants working in
bureaucratic settings, they are usually subjected to the
administrative authority, even with respect to professional
issues, and they experience limited opportunities to act
autonomously. Their role in multidisciplinary teams is
often contested by the other members of the team, while
qualitative studies have shown that there are interventions
in social workers’ professional sphere by administrative
or organisational superiors as well as by more prestigious
professionals, such as physicians (Papadaki, 2005).
Furthermore, social workers rarely head the organisations
or agencies where they work and they generally have
limited access to the decision-making and policy-
formulation processes.
The existence of a strong professional organisation
struggling for the protection and promotion of the
professional rights of its members is also a determinant
factor contributing to professionalism (Payne, 2002;
Weiss et al., 2004). The ‘Greek Association of Social
Workers’ (SKLE) was founded in 1955, 10 years after
the emergence of the first schools of social work in the
country. Full membership in SKLE is available to
graduates of accredited social work programmes,
although membership is not a precondition for engaging
in social work practice. Although there are approximately
5,000 social workers in Greece according to SKLE’s
records (2006), a number of them are either retired or
do not practise the profession (Dedoussi et al., 2004).
As active participation is very low, the profession’s
ability to control its own membership is rather limited.
The agreement on certain ethical rules and the
acceptance of those rules in everyday practice constitute
the common ground on which social work is based. The
existent code of ethics has been in force since 1992,
and according to that decree malpractice may result in
the temporary – up to 12 months – withdrawal of a
license. Moreover, a license may be revoked permanently
if there is proof of serious malpractice problems or if a
professional has been convicted by a court of law for a
severe violation of the penal code. However, there is no
legal mechanism to enforce compliance.
Lastly, higher professional status is usually associated
with higher material or other more symbolic rewards,
such as power and prestige, and with more students
222 Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd and the International Journal of Social Welfare
being attracted to this field of study. The salaries of
those working in the public or semi-public sector are
rather low and predetermined by the unified civil
service pay scale, with very small annual increases
in salary irrespective of performance or qualifications.
The welfare organisations do not give social workers
opportunities for professional development. Managerial
positions in the social services are usually held by
members of administrative staff with many years of
working experience, not by social workers. But even
when social workers do become heads of a social work
department, they enjoy neither higher financial rewards,
nor particular authority within the organisation.
All the observations recorded above suggest that, in
the face of difficulties, the profession has gained over
the years a satisfactory protection of its professional
rights and a slow but steady improvement in its
educational process. However, it still has limited
occupational control and restricted social standing.
Conclusion
It is widely acknowledged that social work, although a
professional activity that shares common goals, meth-
odologies and values across countries, is conditioned by
and dependent upon the context in which it engages
(McDonald, Harris & Wintersteen, 2003). In the present
study, we explored the development of social work in
Greece in relation to the development of social care
services within a specific historical, economic, political
and social context.
Although a legal framework regulating professional
practice has been in force since the 1960s, it was not
until the 1970s that the state began to establish schools
of social work. First, one should not disregard the
general framework in which social work has operated.
As the Greek welfare state relied more on social
insurance and the family for the provision and coverage
of social needs, public social care services remained
poorly developed for many years, and were focused on
the protection of marginalised social groups, mainly
through the provision of means-tested cash benefits
(Matsaganis, 2000). This led, inevitably, to increased
bureaucratisation of the profession.
The lack of a systematic effort to improve the
provision of social services and the reliance on family
carers to fill the gap emphasised the need for social
work practitioners more than for highly trained social
work staff. The ambivalent position of the state toward
social work was particularly apparent in the policy
regarding the education of social workers: the education
and training of social workers was left initially to
private schools, and then for a long period (1973–1995)
was provided by KATEE or TEI, which thereby gave the
profession a more technical orientation. The qualitative
changes in social work education occurring in the 1990s
© 2007 The Author(s)
 Factors affecting the development of social work in Greece
were mostly due to the general upgrading process of
tertiary education after Greece’s accession to the
European Community.
Important historical, political, economic and social
reasons hindered the development of social work in
Greece, leading to low professionalisation levels. In the
political and social context of the post-war period,
where the notion of a united community was completely
absent, social care services and the profession of social
work developed at a slow pace (Zaimakis, 2002).
In order to attain high levels of professionalism, a
certain balance of control is needed over each of the
following: practice, planning and administration, teaching
and research (Lymbery et al., 2000). In Greece, social
workers have never really had either ideological or
technical control over their work. Their limited authority
within welfare organisations, combined with the gender
profile of the profession, has had a negative impact on
the effort of social workers to gain control over their
activities and improve their professional status (Papadaki,
2005).
The validity of the familialist-statist model is being
challenged today as it must adapt to the new conditions.
The aging population, increasing poverty rates, changes
in family structure, increased participation of women in
the labour market and/or the growing numbers of
immigrants all put a heavy strain on social care services
and stress the need for innovative policies implemented
by better-educated professionals with greater motivation,
creativity and critical thinking. Within this new setting,
it is imperative that the profession be supported more
actively by the state and by social workers themselves.
Thus, further upgrading of academic staff, the organ-
isation of postgraduate studies focused on social work,
the enactment of continuing education programmes and
the development of social research would contribute to
improving the profession and the resultant delivered
social care services.
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