Basic Hydraulic Instructor Handout

Unit 2: Hydraulic Fundamentals
UNIT 2
Hydraulic Fundamentals -
Hydraulic Principles
Upon completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of the basic hydraulic principles.
Introduction
Hydraulic systems are extremely important to the operation of heavy
equipment. Basic hydraulic principles are used when designing
hydraulic implement systems, steering systems, brake systems and
power train systems. An understanding of the basic hydraulic
principles must be accomplished before continuing into machine
systems.
NOTES
Hydraulic Principles
Lesson 1: Hydraulic Principles
BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES
Introduction
We all know that hydraulic principles are demonstrated when using a
liquid under controlled pressure to do work. There are laws that
state the action of liquids under conditions of changing flows and
increasing and decreasing pressures. The student must be able to
state and understand these laws to become successful as a heavy
equipment technician.
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, the student will be able to:
1. State why liquid is use in hydraulic systems.

2. Identify Pascal's Law as applied to hydraulic principles.
3. State the characteristics of oil flow through an orifice.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of the basic hydraulic
principles.
Unit 2 2-1-6 Hydraulic Fundamentals
Lesson 1
Force = Pressure x Area

F
Pressure = Force ÷ Area
Area = Force ÷ Pressure

P A
Fig. 2.1.5 Pascal's Law
A simple formula allows us to determine the Force, the Pressure, and

the Area when two of the three are known. Understanding these
terms are necessary to understand the fundamentals of hydraulics.
Force is the push or pull acting upon a body. Force is usually
expressed in pounds (lbs.). Force is equal to the pressure times the
area (F = P x A).
Pressure is the force of a fluid per unit area, usually expressed in
pounds per square inch (psi).
Area is a measurement of surface space. The area is calculated in
square inches. Sometime the surface area is referred to as effective
area. The effective area is the total surface that is used to create a
force in the desired direction.
The surface area of a circle is calculated with the formula:
Area = Pi (3.14) times radius-squared
If the radius of the circle is 2 inches, Fig. 2.1.4,
A = Pi x r square
A = 3.14 x (2" x 2")
A = 12.5 sq. in.
With the knowledge of the surface area, it is possible to determine

how much system pressure it will take to lift a given weight.
Pressure is the force per unit and is expressed in pounds per square
inch (psi).
If a force of 500 pounds was acting upon an area of 12.5 sq. in., the
pressure created would be 40 psi.
The pressure is calculated with the formula:
Pressure = Force divided by Area
P = 500 lbs./12.5 sq. in.
P = 40 psi
Lesson 1
Using a Liquid
There are several advantages for using a liquid.
1. Liquids conforms to the shape of the container.

2. Liquids are practically incompressible.
3. Liquids apply pressure in all directions.
Fig. 2.1.1 Liquid Containers
Liquids Conform to Shape

Liquids will conform to the shape of any container. Liquids will also
flow in any direction through lines and hoses of various sizes and
shapes.
50 lbs.
WEIGHT
FORCE
LIQUID
Fig. 2.1.2 Liquid Under Pressure
Practically Incompressible
A liquid is practically incompressible. When a substance is

compressed, it takes up less space. A liquid occupies the same
amount of space or volume even when under pressure. The space or
volume that any substance occupies is called "displacement."
Lesson 1
50 lbs.
WEIGHT
FORCE
GAS
Fig. 2.1.3 Gas is Compressible
Gas is compressible
Gas is compressible. When gas is compressed, it takes up less space
and itÕs displacement becomes less. The space previously occupied
by the gas may be occupied by another object. Therefore, a liquid is
best suited for the hydraulic system because it continually occupies
the same volume or displacement.
1130 lbs
500 lbs
FORCE
FORCE
40 psi
3 in. radius 2 in. radius
Fig. 2.1.4 Hydraulics Doing Work
Hydraulics Doing Work

According to PascalÕs Law, "Pressure exerted on a confined liquid is
transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force
on all equal areas." Therefore, a force exerted on any part of an
enclosed hydraulic oil system transmits equal pressure in all
directions throughout the system.
In the above example, a 500 pound force acting upon a piston with a
2 in. radius creates a pressure of approximately 40 pounds per square
inch (psi) in a confined liquid. The same 40 psi acting upon a piston
with a 3 in. radius supports a 1130 pound weight.
At this time, perform Lab 2.1.1
Lesson 1
Solving for the large piston we find:
Pressure x Area = Force

40 x (3x3) x 3.14 = Force.
40 x 28.26 = 1130 lbs.
?
FROM
PUMP
? ?
? 100 lbs
50 lbs
FORCE
FORCE
FORCE
FORCE
5 sq. in. 1 sq. in. 3 sq. in. ?
Fig. 2.1.6 Mechanical Advantage
Mechanical Advantage
Figure 2.1.6 demonstrates how liquid in a hydraulic system provides a
mechanical advantage.
Since all cylinders are connected, all areas must be filled before the
system pressurizes.
Use the hydraulic formula and calculate the items in question.
Cylinders are counted from left to right.
When calculating the pressure in the system, we use the two known
values of the second cylinder from the left. The formula used is
"pressure equals force divided by area."
Pressure = Force Pressure = 50 lbs Pressure = 50 psi
Area 1 sq. in.
Now that we know the pressure in the system, we can calculate the
force of the load for cylinders one and three and the piston area for
container four.
Calculate cylinders one and three loads using the formula, force
equals pressure times area (Force = Pressure x Area).
Calculate cylinder four piston area using the formula, area equals
force divided by pressure (Area = Force / Pressure).
The correct answers are: cylinder one load is 250 lbs, cylinder
three load is 150 lbs and cylinder four piston area is 2 sq. in.
Lesson 1
60 60
0 120 0 120
FLOW
1 GPM
Fig. 2.1.7 No Restriction
ORIFICE EFFECT
When discussing hydraulics, it is a common practice to use the term
"pump pressure." However, the pump does not produce pressure.
The pump produces flow. When flow is restricted, pressure is
produced.
In Figures 2.1.7 and 2.1.8, the pump flow through the pipe is 1 gpm.
In Figure 2.1.7, there is no restriction to the flow through the pipe.
Therefore, the pressure reading is zero for both gauges.
60 60
30 90
0 120 0 120
FLOW
1 GPM
Fig. 2.1.8 Orifice Offers Restriction
Orifice Offers Restriction

An orifice offers a restriction to the pump flow. When oil flows
through an orifice, pressure is produced on the upstream side of the
orifice.
In figure 2.1.8, there is an orifice in the pipe between the two gauges.
The gauge up stream of the orifice shows that a pressure of 207 kPa
(30 psi) is needed to send a flow of 1 gpm through the orifice. There
is no restriction to flow after the orifice. The gauge down stream of
the orifice shows 0 pressure.
Lesson 1
60 60
30 90 30 90
0 120 0 120
FROM
PUMP
60 60
30 90 30 90
0 120 0 120
FROM
PUMP
Fig. 2.1.9 Blocked Flow
Oil Flow to Tank Blocked

When the end of either pipe is plugged, oil flow to the tank is
blocked.
The positive displacement pump continues pumping at 1 gpm and
fills the pipe. When the pipe is filled, the resistance to any additional
flow into the pipe produces pressure. The pressure reaction is the
same as PascalÕs Law which states that "pressure exerted on a
confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts
with equal force on all equal areas." The two gauge readings are the
same.
The pressure will increase until the pump flow is diverted from the
pipe to another circuit or to the tank. This is usually done with a
relief valve.
If total pump flow was not diverted from the pipe, pressure in the
pipe would continue to rise and cause an eruption of the circuit.
Lesson 1
60 60 60
30 90 30 90 30 90
PSI PSI
PSI
0 120 0 120 0 120
FLOW
1 GPM
60 60 60
30 90 30 90 30 90
PSI PSI PSI

0 120 0 120 0 120
FLOW
1 GPM
207 kPa (30 psi) 207 kPa (30 psi) 207 kPa (30 psi)
Fig. 2.1.10 Restrictions in Series
Restrictions In Series
There are two basic types of circuits, series and parallel.
In Fig. 2.1.10, a pressure of 620 kPa (90 psi) is required to send 1
gpm through either circuit.
Orifices or relief valves in series in a hydraulic circuit offer a
resistance that is similar to resistors in series in an electrical circuit in
that the oil must flow through each resistance. The total resistance
equals to the sum of each individual resistance.
At this time, perform Lab 2-1-3
CIRCUIT
ONE
207 kPa (30 PSI)
CIRCUIT
TWO
414 kPa (60 PSI)
FROM
PUMP
CIRCUIT
THREE
620 kPa (90 PSI)
Fig. 2.1.11 Restrictions In Parallel
Restrictions In Parallel
In a system with parallel circuits, pump oil follows the path of least
resistances. In figure 2.1.11, the pump supplies oil to three parallel
circuits. Circuit three has the lowest priority and circuit one has the
highest priority.
Lesson 1
When the pump oil flow fills the passage to the left of the three
valves, pump oil pressure increases to 207 kPa (30 psi). The pump
oil pressure opens the valve to circuit one and oil flows into the
circuit. When circuit one is filled, the pump oil pressure begins to
increase. The pump oil pressure increases to 414 kPa (60 psi) and
opens the valve to circuit two. The pump oil pressure can not
continue to increase until circuit two is filled. The pump oil pressure
must exceed 620 kPa (90 psi) to open the valve to circuit three.
There must be a system relief valve in one of the circuits or at the

pump to limit the maximum pressure in the system.

Hydraulic Tank
Lesson 1: Hydraulic Tank
Basic Hydraulic Systems

• Hydraulic Tank
• Hydraulic Fluids
• HydraulicPumps and Motors
• Pressure Control Valves
• Directional Control Valves
• Flow Control Valves
• Cylinders
Introduction
When construction machines and equipment are in the design stage,
considerable thought is given to the type, size and location of the
hydraulic oil tank. Once the machine or equipment is in operation,
the hydraulic tank functions as a storage place for the hydraulic oil, a
device to remove heat from the oil and a seperator to remove air
from the oil. This unit will discuss some of the characteristics of the
hydraulic tank.
Objectives
1. Identify the common components of the hydraulic tank and

state the component function.
2. State the characteristics of the vented and the pressurized
hydraulic tank.
Pressurized Tank
The two main types of hydraulic tanks are pressurized and vented
(unpressurized).
The pressurized tank is completely sealed. Atmospheric pressure
does not effect the pressure in the tank. However, when the oil is
sent through the system, it absorbs heat and expands. The expanding
oil compresses the air in the tank. The compressed air forces the oil
out of the tank and into the system.
The vacuum relief valve serves two purposes. It prevents a vacuum
and limits the maximum pressure in the tank.
The vacuum relief valve prevents a vacuum by opening and allowing
air to enter the tank when the tank pressure drops to 3.45 kPa (.5 psi).
When pressure in the tank reaches the vacuum relief valve pressure
setting, the valve opens and vents compressed air to the atmosphere.
The vacuum relief valve pressure setting may vary from 70 kPa (10
psi) to 207 kPa (30 psi).
Other tank components are:
Filler screen - keeps large contaminants from entering the tank when
the fill cap is removed.
Filler tube - allows the tank to be filled to the correct level, but not
over filled.
Baffles - prevents the return oil from flowing directly to the tank
outlet, allowing time for bubbles in the return oil to rise to the top.
Also, prevents the oil from sloshing which helps reduce forming of
the oil.
Ecology Drain - used to prevent accidental spills when removing
water and sediment from the tank.
Return screen - prevents larger particles from entering the tank, but
does not provide fine filtering,
VENTED TANK
Saybolt Viscosimeter
The most common tool of measuring viscosity is the Saybolt
Viscosimeter (Figure 3.2.2). The Saybolt Viscosimeter was invented
by and named after George Saybolt.
The Saybolt Viscosimeter unit of measurement is the Saybolt
Universal Second (SUS). In the original viscosimeter a container of
fluid was heated to a specific temperature. When the temperature
was reached, a stopcock (orifice) was opened and the fluid flowed out
of the container and into a 60 ml. flask. A stopwatch was used to
measure the time it took to fill the flask. The viscosity was recorded
as the number of seconds the flask took to fill at a given temperature.
If a fluid, when heated to a temperature of 75¡F, took 115 seconds to
fill the flask, it's viscosity was 115 SUS @ 75¡F. If the same fluid
was heated to 100¡F and took 90 seconds to fill the flask, it's
viscosity would be 90 SUS @ 100¡F.
Viscosity Index
Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of a fluid's change in thickness with
respect to changes in temperature. If a fluid's consistency remains
relatively the same over varying temperatures, the fluid has a high
VI. If a fluid becomes thick at low temperatures and very thin at
high temperatures,the fluid has a low VI. In most hydraulic systems,
fluids with a high VI is desirable over fluids with a low VI.
Petroleum Oil
All petroleum oil becomes thin as the temperature goes up and
thickens as the temperature goes down. If the viscosity is too low,
there may be excessive leakage past seals and from joints. If the
viscosity is too high, sluggish operation may be the results and extra
power is needed to push the oil through the system. Viscosity of
petroleum oil is expressed by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) numbers: 5W, 10W, 20W, 30W, 40W, etc. The lower the
Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pumps and Motors

• Hydraulic Tank
• Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
• Cylinders
Fig. 3.3.0
Introduction
Pumps and motors are similar in construction but different in
operational characteristics. Therefore, most of the material in this
lesson will concentrate on the nomenclature and operation of pumps.
Objectives
1. State the differences between non-positive and positive
displacement pumps;
2. State the differences between fixed displacement and variable
displacement pumps;
3. State the operation of different types of pumps;
4. State the similarity and differences between pumps and
motors; and
5. State how pumps are rated.
Lesson 3
HOUSING
DRIVE GEAR
OUTLET OIL INLET OIL
IDLER GEAR
Fig. 3.3.1 Gear Pump
Hydraulic Pump
The hydraulic pump transfers mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. It is a device that takes energy from one source (i.e. engine,
electric motor, etc.) and transfers that energy into a hydraulic form.
The pump takes oil from a storage container (i.e. tank) and pushes it
into a hydraulic system as flow.
All pumps produce oil flow in the same way. A vacuum is created at
the pump inlet. The higher atmospheric pressure pushes the oil
through the inlet passage and into the pump inlet chambers. The
pump gears carry the oil to the pump outlet chamber. The volume of
the chamber decreases as the chamber approaches the outlet. This
decrease in chamber size pushes the oil out the outlet.
Pumps produce only the flow (i.e. gallons per minute, liters per
minute, cubic centimeters per revolution, etc.) used in the hydraulic
system. Pumps DO NOT produce or cause "pressure". Pressure is
caused by the resistance to the flow. Resistance can be caused by
flow through hoses, orifices, fittings, cylinders, motors, or anything
in the system that hinders free flow to the tank.
Pumps can be classified into two types: Non-positive displacement
and positive displacement.
Lesson 3
HOUSING
DRIVE GEAR
PUMP OIL TANK OIL
IDLER GEAR
Fig. 3.3.2 Gear Motor

Hydraulic Motor
The hydraulic motor transfers hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy. It uses the oil flow being pushed into the hydraulic system by
a pump and transfers it into a rotary motion to drive another device
(i.e. final drives, differential, transmission, wheel, fan, another pump,
etc.).
Lesson 3
OUTLET INLET PORT

PORT
ROTOR
CAM
RING
VANES
Fig. 3.3.14 Vane Pump Operation
Vane Pump Operation

When the rotor rotates around the inside of the cam ring, the vanes
slide in and out of the rotor slots to maintain the seal against the cam
ring. As the vanes move out of the slotted rotor, the volume between
the vanes changes. An increase in the distance between the cam ring
and the rotor causes an increase in the volume. The increase in
volume creates a slight vacuum that allows the inlet oil to be pushed
into the space between the vanes by atmospheric or tank pressure. As
the rotor continues to rotate, a decrease in the distance between the
ring and the rotor causes a decrease in the volume. The oil is pushed
out of that segment of the rotor into the outlet passage of the pump.
1 2
Fig. 3.3.15 Balanced Vane Pump

Balanced Vane Pump
The balanced vane pump has an elliptical shaped cam ring. This
shape results in the distance between the rotor and the cam ring
increasing and decreasing twice for each revolution. The two inlets
(1) and two outlets (2) opposite each other balance the forces against
the rotor. This design does not require large bearings and housings to
support the rotating parts. The maximum operating pressure for vane
pumps is 4000 psi. Vane pumps used in mobile hydraulics have a
maximum operating pressure of 3300 psi, or less.
Lesson 3
Fig. 3.3.12 Vane Pressurization

Vanes
The vanes are initially held against the cam ring by centrifugal force
created by the rotation of the rotor. As flow increases, the resultant
pressure that builds from the resistance to that flow is directed into
passages in the rotor beneath the vanes (1). This pressurized oil
beneath the vanes keep the vane tips pushed against the cam ring to
form a seal. To prevent the vanes from being pushed too hard against
the cam ring, the vanes are beveled back (arrow) to permit a balancing
pressure across the outer end.
Pressur
Pressure e
PRESSURIZED FLEX PLATES
Fig. 3.3.13 Pressurized Flex Plates

Flex Plates
The same pressurized oil is also directed between the flex plates and
the support plates to seal the sides of the rotor and the end of the
vanes. The size of the seal area between the flex plate and the support
plates is what controls the force that pushes the flex plates against the
sides of the rotor and the end of the vanes. The kidney shaped seals
must be installed in the support plates with the rounded o-ring side
into the pocket and the flat plastic side against the flex plate.
Lesson 3
OUTLET
PORT INLET PORT
RING
ROTOR
VANES
Fig. 3.3.16 Variable Vane Pump
Variable Vane Pump

Variable output vane pumps are controlled by shifting a round ring
back and forth in relation to the rotor centerline. Variable output
vane pumps are seldom, if ever, used in mobile hydraulic
applications.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: At this time, perform Lab 3.3.2
1 2
3
5 6
Fig. 3.3.17 Common Parts

Piston Pumps
Most piston pumps and motors have similar or common parts and use
the same nomenclature. The pump parts in Figure 3.3.17 are the head
(1), the housing (2), the shaft (3), the pistons (4), the port plate (5),
the barrel (6) and the swashplate (7).
The two designs of piston pumps are the axial piston pump and the
radial piston pump. Both pumps are highly efficient, positive
displacement pumps. However, the output of some pumps are fixed
and the output of some pumps are variable.
Lesson 3
FIXED DISPLACEMENT VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT

EXHAUST EXHAUST
SWASH
PLATE SLIPPER PISTON CONTROL LEVER SWASH
PLATE
DRIVE
SHAFT
RETAINING BARREL
PLATE ASSEMBLY INTAKE INTAKE
Fig. 3.3.18 Common Parts
Axial Piston Pumps and Motors

The fixed displacement axial piston pumps and motors are built in a
straight housing or in an angled housing. The basic operation of
piston pumps and motors are the same.
Stright Housing Axial Piston Pumps and motors
Figure 3.3.18 shows an illustration of the positive displacement fixed
output axial piston pump and the positive displacement variable
output axial piston pump. In most publications the fact that both
pumps are positive displacement is considered to be understood and
the pumps are refered to as fixed displacement pumps and variable
displacement pumps.
In the fixed displacement axial piston pumps, the pistons move
backward and forward in a line that is near parallel to the centerline
of the shaft.
In the straight housing piston pump shown in the left illustration of
Figure 3.3.18, the pistons are held against a fixed, wedge-shaped
swashplate. The angle of the swashplate controls the distance the
pistons move in and out of the barrel chambers. The larger the angle
of the wedge-shaped swashplate, the greater the distance of piston
movement and the greater the pump output per revolution.
In the variable displacement axial piston pump, either the swashplate
or the barrel and port plate may pivot back and forth to change its
angle to the shaft. The changing angle causes the output flow to vary
between the minimum and maximum settings although the shaft
speed is held constant.
On either pump, when a piston moves backward, oil flows through
the intake and displaces the piston. As the pump rotates, the piston
moves forward, the oil is pushed out through the exhaust and into the
system.
Most piston pumps used on mobile equipment are axial piston pumps.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: Use piston pump demonstrator to show
how oil enters and discharges from the barrel assembly.
Lesson 3
RETAINING PLATE LINK

PISTON
PORT PLATE
HEAD
SHAFT
CASE BARREL
FLUSHING VALVE
(INSIDE HEAD)
Fig. 3.3.19 Angled Housing Axial Piston Motor
Angled Housing Axial Piston Pump

In the angled housing piston pump shown in Figure 3.3.19, the
pistons are connected to the input shaft by piston links or spherical
piston ends that fit into sockets in a plate. The plate is an integral
part of the shaft. The angle of the housing to the shaft centerline
controls the distance the pistons move in and out of the barrel
chambers. The larger the angle of the housing, the greater the pump
output per revolution.
The output flow of a fixed displacement piston pump can only be
changed by changing the input shaft speed.
Straight and Angle Housing Piston Motors
In the straight housing fixed displacement piston motor, the angle of
the wedge-shaped swashplate determines the speed of the motor
output shaft.
In the angle housing fixed displacement piston motor, the angle of the
housing to the shaft centerline determines the speed of the motor
output shaft.
In both motors, the output shaft speed can only be changed by
changing the input flow to the motor.
Lesson 3
INNER OUTER
GEAR GEAR
Fig. 3.3.22
Conjugate Curve Pump

The conjugate curve pump (Figure 3.3.22) is also called a
GEROTORTM pump. The inner and outer members rotate within the
pump housing. Pumping is achieved by the way the lobes on the
inner and the outer member contact each other during rotation. As
the inner and outer members rotate, the inner member walks around
inside the outside member. The inlet and outlet ports are located on
the end covers of the housing. The fluid entering through the inlet is
carried around to the outlet and squeezed out when the lobes mesh.
A modified conjugate curve pump is used in many steering systems
hand metering unit (HMU). When used in the HMU, the outer gear
is stationary and only the inner gear rotates.
MONO-DIRECTIONAL MONO-DIRECTIONAL
PUMP PUMP
BI-DIRECTIONAL BI-DIRECTIONAL
PUMP PUMP
RESOLVER MINIMUM ANGLE
MINIMUM ANGLE
STOP ADJUSTMENT SCREW
SERVO PISTON
TRAVEL
MOTOR
SWASHPLATE BARREL PARK BRAKE

MONO-DIRECTIONAL MONO-DIRECTIONAL
MOTOR MOTOR
BI-DIRECTIONAL BI-DIRECTIONAL
MOTOR MOTOR
Pressure Control Valves
Lesson 4: Pressure Control Valves

• Hydraulic Tank
• Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
• Cylinders
Introduction
Pressure Control Valves are used to control the pressure in a circuit
or in a system. The valve function will remain the same although the
design may change. Examples of pressure control valves include
relief valves, sequence valves, pressure reducing valves, pressure
differential valves and unloading valves.
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson the student will:
1. List the four most common pressure control valves.

2. State the functions of the relief valve, sequence valve,
pressure reducing valve and the pressure differential valve.
3. Identify the ISO symbol for the four most common pressure
control valves.
Lesson 4
Relief Valves
Hydraulic systems are designed to operate within a certain pressure
range. Exceeding this range can damage the system components or
become dangerous to personnel. The relief valve maintains the
pressure within the designed limit by opening and allowing excessive
oil to flow either to another circuit or back to the tank.
Fig. 3.4.1 Cracking Pressure
Simple Pressure Relief Valve, Cracking Pressure

Figure 3.4.1 shows a simple relief valve in the "cracking pressure"
position.
The simple relief valve (also called direct acting relief valve) is kept
closed by spring force. The spring tension is set to the "relief
pressure" setting. However, the relief pressure setting is not the
pressure at which the valve first begins to open.
When a condition develops that causes a resistance to the normal oil
flow in the circuit, excessive oil flow causes the oil pressure to
increase. The increasing oil pressure is sensed at the relief valve.
When the force of the increasing oil pressure overcomes the force of
the relief valve spring, the valve moves against the spring and begins
to open. The pressure required to begin valve opening is called the
"cracking pressure." The valve opens just enough to allow excess oil
to flow through the valve.
Lesson 4
PILOT VALVE
SPRING
PILOT VALVE
UNLOADING
VALVE SPRING
UNLOADING
VALVE
TO
UNLOADING TANK
VALVE ORIFICE
TO
PUMP FLOW SYSTEM
Fig. 3.4.3 System Oil Flow
Pilot Operated Relief Valve, CLOSE Position

The pilot operated relief valve (Figure 3.4.3) is often used in systems
that require a large volume of oil and a small differential between the
cracking pressure and the full flow pressure.
In the pilot operated relief valve, a pilot valve (simple relief valve) is
used to control the unloading valve (main valve).
The pilot valve is much smaller and does not handle large volume oil
flow. Therefore, the spring in the pilot valve is much smaller
allowing more precise pressure control. The difference between the
pilot valve cracking pressure and maximum pressure is held to a
minimum.
The unloading valve is large enough to handle the complete pump
flow at the designed maximum relief pressure. The unloading valve
uses the system oil pressure to keep the valve closed. Therefore, the
unloading valve spring does not need to be strong and heavy. This
allows the unloading valve to have a more precise opening pressure.
The system oil flows into the relief valve housing, through the
unloading valve orifice and fills the unloading valve spring chamber.
The oil in the unloading valve spring chamber comes in contact with
a small area of the pilot valve. This allows the pilot valve to use a
small spring to control a high pressure. When the oil pressure
increases in the system, the same pressure is in the unloading valve
spring chamber. Therefore, the oil pressure is the same on both sides
of the unloading valve. The combined force of the system oil
pressure in the unloading valve spring chamber and the spring force
on the top of the unloading valve is greater than the force of the
system oil pressure against the bottom of the valve. The combined
force in the spring chamber keeps the unloading valve closed.
Lesson 4
PILOT VALVE PILOT VALVE

SPRING ORIFICE
PILOT
VALVE
UNLOADING
UNLOADING VALVE ORIFICE
VALVE SPRING
UNLOADING
VALVE
TO
TANK
PUMP TO
FLOW SYSTEM
Fig. 3.4.4 Pilot Valve Open
Pilot Operated Relief Valve, OPEN Position

When the system oil pressure exceeds the pilot valve spring setting
(Figure 3.4.4), the pilot valve opens. The open pilot valve allows the
oil in the unloading valve spring chamber to flow to the tank. The
pilot valve opening (orifice) is larger than the unloading valve orifice.
Therefore, oil flows pass the pilot valve much faster than through the
unloading valve orifice. This allows the pressure to decrease in the
unloading valve spring chamber. The force of the higher system oil
pressure moves the unloading valve against the spring. The excessive
pump oil flows through the throttling holes in the unloading valve to
the tank. The throttling holes allow the unloading valve to dump the
volume of oil necessary to maintain the desired relief pressure.
Lesson 4
FROM TO
PUMP TANK
Fig. 3.4.5 Relief Valve ISO Symbol
Relief Valve ISO Symbol CLOSED

The relief valve ISO graphic symbol in Figure 3.4.5 can represent
either a simple relief valve or a pilot operated relief valve. The ISO
symbol is the same for all relief valves.
The above relief valve ISO symbol shows a single valve envelope in
the CLOSED position. The system pressure is sensed through the
pilot line at the top of the envelope and works to move the valve
(arrow) against the spring. During normal operations, the pump flow
is blocked at the closed valve.
FROM TO
PUMP TANK
Fig. 3.4.6 Relief Valve ISO Symbol Open to Flow
Relief Valve ISO Symbol OPEN

The relief valve ISO symbol in Figure 3.4.6 shows a single valve
envelope in the OPEN position.
When the force of the system oil pressure overcomes the spring force,
the arrow moves down (valve opens) and connects the oil line from
the pump with the oil line to the tank. The pump oil flows through
the valve to the tank.
Lesson 4
Pressure Reducing Valve

The pressure reducing valve allows two circuits of different pressures
to be supplied by the same pump. The maximum supply oil pressure
is controlled by the system relief valve. The pressure reducing valve
controls the maximum pressure in the controlled oil circuit.
DRAIN SUPPLY DRAIN PISTON

OIL
VALVE VALVE CONTROLLED PISTON

SHIMS SPRING SPOOL OIL CIRCUIT CHAMBER
Fig. 3.4.11 Pressure Reducing Valve
Pump Start-up
Figure 3.4.11 shows the pressure reducing valve in the normally open
position.
At pump start-up, the valve spring force holds the valve spool and the
piston to the right. The supply oil flows around the pressure reducing
valve spool to the controlled oil circuit (downstream side of the
valve). The supply oil also flows through the oil passage to the
piston chamber at the right of the valve spool. Any change in the
controlled oil circuit pressure is sensed in the piston chamber. At
pump start-up, the supply oil pressure and the controlled oil pressure
are the same.
Lesson 4
FROM TO CONTROLLED
PUMP OIL CIRCUIT
Fig. 3.4.13 Pressure Reducing Valve ISO Symbol
Pressure Reducing Valve ISO Symbol

Figure 3.4.13 shows the ISO symbol for the pressure reducing valve.
The ISO symbol uses a single envelope to represent the infinite
positioning or metering capability of the pressure reducing valve.
The pump oil flows through the NORMALLY OPEN valve to the
controlled oil circuit. The controlled oil circuit pressure is sensed
through the pilot line and moves the valve (arrow) against the spring.
When controlled oil circuit pressure overcomes the spring force, the
valve shifts downward and restricts the oil flow to the controlled oil
circuit. The upstream pressure may continue to increase. However,
the downstream pressure will not increase beyond the pressure
reducing valve setting.
When the controlled oil circuit pressure decreases, the spring force
will shift the arrow upward to the open position. The valve
constantly meters the oil flow to maintain the controlled oil circuit
pressure.
Lesson 4
INLET OUTLET
Fig. 3.4.16 Pressure Differential Valve ISO Symbol
Pressure Differential Valve ISO Symbol

The pressure differential valve ISO symbol (Figure 3.4.16) is a
combination of the pressure relief valve symbol and the pressure
reducing valve symbol.
The pressure from the inlet side is sensed by the valve and works
against the spring force as in the pressure relief valve. The outlet
pressure is sensed by the valve and works with the spring force. The
difference between the inlet and outlet pressures is always equal to
the valve spool spring force pressure regardless of changes in
pressure at the inlet port. Example, a spring force pressure of 345
kPa (50 psi) will produce a pressure differential between the inlet and
outlet pressure of 345 kPa (50 psi).
The spring is changed to meet any required change in the differential
pressure. Normally, shims are not used to change the pressure
requirements.
Lesson 4
Pump Start-up
Figure 3.4.14 shows a pressure differential valve. The pressure
differential valve maintains a specified difference in pressure between
two circuits.
At pump start-up and whenever the pressure in the primary circuit is
less than 345 kPa (50 psi), the spring force holds the valve spool to
the right. The oil flow is blocked to the secondary circuit. Any
change in the primary circuit pressure is sensed at the valve spool.
Lesson 5
Directional Control Valve

The directional control valve is use to direct the supply oil to the
actuator in a hydraulic system.
The valve body is drilled, honed and sometime the bore is heat treated.
The inlet and outlet ports are drilled and threaded. The valve spool is
machined from high grade steel. Some valve spools are heat treated,
ground to size and polished. Other valve spools are chrome plated,
ground to size and polished. The valve body and valve spool are then
mated in assembly to the design specifications. When assembled, the
valve spool is the only part that moves.
VALVE BODY
SPOOL GROOVE
VALVE BORE SPOOL LANDS
Fig. 3.5.1 Valve Spool
Valve Spool
The valve spool (Figure 3.5.1) consist of lands and groves. The spool
lands block the oil flow through the valve body. The spool groves
allow oil to flow around the spool and through the valve body.
The position of the spool when not activated is called the "normal"
position.
When an "open center" valve is in the normal position, the supply oil
flows through the valve and back to the tank. When a "close center"
valve is in the normal position, the supply oil is blocked by the valve
spool.
Lesson 5
FROM FROM
CYLINDER FROM CYLINDER
HEAD END PUMP ROD END
VALVE VALVE
SPOOL BODY
LOAD
CHECK
VALVE TO
TO
TANK
TANK
TO TANK
Fig. 3.5.2 Directional Control Valve in HOLD
Open Center Directional Control Valve in HOLD Position

Figure 3.5.2 shows a cutaway diagram of a typical open center
directional control valve in the HOLD position.
In the HOLD position, the pump oil flows into the valve body,
around the valve spool and returns to the tank. The pump oil also
flows to the load check valve. The passage behind the load check is
filled with blocked oil. The blocked oil and the load check valve
spring keep the load check valve closed. The valve spool also blocks
the oil in the line to the rod end and the head end of the cylinder.
FROM FROM
VALVE VALVE
SPOOL BODY
LOAD
CHECK
VALVE
TO TO
TANK TANK
TO TANK
Fig. 3.5.3 Directional Control Valve RAISED
Open Center Directional Control Valve in RAISE Position

Figure 3.5.3, shows the valve spool at the instant the spool is moved
to the RAISE position.
When the valve spool is moved to the RAISE position, the valve
spool blocks the pump oil flow to the tank. However, pump oil flow
is open to the load check valve. The valve spool also connects the
cylinder head end to the oil behind the load check valve and the
cylinder rod end to the tank passage. The load check valve prevents .
Lesson 5
the oil in the head end of the cylinder from flowing into the
pump oil passage. The blocked pump oil flow causes an
increase in the oil pressure
FROM FROM
VALVE VALVE
SPOOL BODY
LOAD
CHECK
VALVE
TO TO
TANK TANK
TO TANK
Fig. 3.5.4 Raise Position
Open Center Directional Control Valve, RAISE Position

In Figure 3.5.4, the increase in pump oil pressure overcomes the
pressure behind the load check valve (unseats the load check valve).
The pump oil flows pass the load check valve and around the valve
spool to the head end of the cylinder.
The oil in the rod end of the cylinder flows pass the valve spool to
the tank.
ONE TWO THREE

POSITION POSITION POSITION
Fig. 3.5.5 ISO Symbols
Directional Control Valve ISO Symbols

Basic Envelope
The basic valve ISO symbol in Figure 3.5.5 consists of one or more
basic envelopes. The number of envelopes used represents the
number of positions that the valve can be shifted.
Lesson 5
TWO-WAY THREE-WAY FOUR-WAY SIX-WAY
Fig. 3.5.6 Valve Port
Valve Port
Shown in Figure 3.5.6 are the valve ports for attaching working lines.
A valve with two ports is commonly referred to as a two-way valve.
This is not to be confused with a two-position valve shown in Figure
3.5.5. Valves may have as many positions and ports as needed.
However, most valve positions are in the range of one to three and
valve ports in the range of two to six.
FLOW IN FLOW IN PARALLEL CROSS FLOW

ONE EITHER FLOW FLOW BLOCKED
DIRECTION DIRECTION
Fig. 3.5.7 Flow Path
Flow Path
In Figure 3.5.7, the lines and arrows inside the envelopes are used
basically to represent the flow paths and directions between ports.
Lesson 5
A B
CLOSED CENTER
P T
A B
TANDEM CENTER
(CATERPILLAR P T
OPEN CENTER)
A B
OPEN CENTER
P T
Fig. 3.5.8 Three Position Valve
Three Position Valve

Figure 3.5.8 shows three ISO symbols of the three position valve. In
the three position valve, the center position is the NEUTRAL or
HOLD position. When the valve is not doing work, the valve is
placed in the HOLD position.
Depending on the design of the spool, the center position serves
several purposes.
The ISO symbol at the top represents a closed center valve. When in
the HOLD position, the close center spool blocks all oil flow.
The ISO symbol in the middle represents a tandem center valve.
When in the HOLD position, the tandem center valve blocks oil flow
at A and B but connects the pump to the tank.
The ISO symbol on the bottom represents an open center valve.
When in the HOLD position, the open center valve connects all ports
to the tank.
Lesson 5
TO
TANK
LOWER
CHECK
VALVE TO CYLINDER ROD END
TO CYLINDER HEAD EN
FROM TO TANK
PUMP
RAISE
MANUAL CONTROL
Fig. 3.5.9 Six Way Valve
Three Position, Six Way, Open Center, Manual Controlled Valve
Figure 3.5.9, shows a three position, six way, open center, manual
controlled valve in the HOLD position. The pump oil flows around
the valve spool to the tank. The oil in the cylinder is blocked at the
control valve spool.
PILOT OIL
TO
TANK
LOWER
CHECK
VALVE TO CYLINDER ROD END
TO CYLINDER HEAD END
FROM TO TANK
PUMP
RAISE
PILOT CONTROL
PILOT OIL
Fig. 3.5.10 Six Way Valve
Six Way Valve
Three Position, Six Way, Close Center, Pilot Controlled Valve
Figure 3.5.10 shows a three position, six way, close center, pilot
controlled valve. In the HOLD position, all oil flow is blocked at the
control valve spool.
Lesson 5
SOLENOID MANUAL PUSHBUTTON PEDAL

ACTUATOR ACTUATOR ACTUATOR ACTUATOR
SPRING PUSH-PULL LEVER AIR OIL

ACTUATOR ACTUATOR ACTUATOR ACTUATOR
MECHANICAL DETENTED
ACTUATOR ACTUATOR
Fig. 3.5.11 Directional Control Valve Actuator
Directional Control Valve Actuator

Figure 3.5.11 shows the ISO symbols for various directional control
valve actuator.
ROD END TO TANK ROD END TO TANK
PORT PORT PORT PORT

VALVE VALVE
CHANNELS
BODY BODY
CHANNELS
PLUG PLUG
PORT PORT
PORT PORT
FROM PUMP HEAD END
FROM PUMP HEAD END
Fig. 3.5.12 Rotary Valve
Rotary Valve
The rotary valve (Figure 3.5.12) consists of a round plug with
passages or channels. The channels in the plug connect with the ports
in the valve body. Instead of shifting to the right or to the left, the
valve rotates.
In the diagram on the left, the valve connects the pump to the rod end
of the cylinder. The oil in head end flows to the tank. When the
valve is rotated 90 degrees, the pump is connected to the head end
and the oil in the rod end flows to the tank.
The rotary valve shown is a four-way valve. However, rotary valves
may also be two-way or three-way. The rotary valve is used in low
pressure operations.
Lesson 5
TO FROM
IMPLEMENT IMPLEMENT
FROM TO
PUMP PUMP
Fig. 3.5.13 Check Valve
Check Valve
The purpose of a check valve is to readily permit oil flow in one
direction, but prevent (check) oil flow in the opposite direction. The
check valve is sometimes called a "one way" check valve.
Most check valves consist of a spring and a tapered seat valve as in
Figure 3.5.13 above. However, a round ball is sometimes used
instead of the tapered seat valve. In some circuits, the check valve
may be free floating (has no spring).
In the valve on the left, when the pump oil pressure overcomes the
oil pressure in back of the check valve plus the check valve slight
spring force, the check valve opens and allows the oil to flow to the
implement.
In the valve on the right, when the pressure of the pump oil is less
than the oil pressure in the implement, the check valve closes and
prevents implement oil flow back through the valve.
Lesson 5
Pilot Operated Check Valve

The pilot operated check valve differs from the simple check valve in
that the pilot operated check valve allows oil flow through the valve
in the reverse direction.
PILOT VALVE PILOT ROD TO
OIL CHAMBER VALVE CYLINDER
PILOT
OIL
CHECK VALVE
FROM CONTROL
VALVE
Fig. 3.5.14 Forward Flow
Forward Flow
Figure 3.5.14 shows a pilot operated check valve. The pilot operated
check valve consist of a check valve, a pilot valve and a rod. The
pilot operated check valve allows free flow from the control valve to
the cylinder.
FROM
PILOT VALVE PILOT ROD CYLINDER
OIL CHAMBER VALVE
PILOT
OIL
CHECK VALVE
TO CONTROL
VALVE
Fig. 3.5.15 Flow Blocked
Flow Blocked
When oil flow from the control valve cease, the check valve seats as
shown on the right of Figure 3.5.15. The oil flow from the cylinder
to the control valve is blocked at the check valve.
The pilot operated check valve is most often used in operations where
load drift is a problem. The pilot operated check valve allows load
drift to be held to a very close tolerance.
Lesson 5
FROM
PILOT VALVE PILOT ROD CYLINDER
OIL CHAMBER VALVE
PILOT
OIL
TO CONTROL CHECK VALVE

VALVE
Fig. 3.5.16 Reverse Flow
Reverse Flow
The valve in Figure 3.5.16, shows oil flow from the cylinder to the
control valve.
When flow is required, pilot oil is sent to the pilot valve oil chamber.
Pilot oil pressure moves the pilot valve and rod to the right and
unseats the check valve. The cylinder oil flows through the check
valve to the control valve and then to the tank.
The pressure ratio between the load pressure and the pilot pressure is
designed into the valve. The valve used on the Explorer training unit
has a pressure ratio of 3:1. The pressure needed to open the check
valve is equal to one-third of the load pressure. A load pressure of
4134 kPa (600 psi) requires a pilot pressure of 1378 kPa (200 psi) to
open the check valve.
Lesson 5
A B
CHECK VALVE (OPEN) CHECK VALVE (CLOSED)
PILOT
CIRCUIT 1 CIRCUIT 2
C
D
CIRCUIT 3
PILOT OPERATED
SHUTTLE VALVE CHECK VALVE
(RESOLVER VALVE)
Fig. 3.5.17 Check Valve ISO Symbols
Check Valve ISO Symbols

In Figure 3.5.17, symbols A and B represents the simple check valve
in the OPEN and CLOSE positions.
Symbol C represent the shuttle valve. The shuttle (resolver) valve
allows two separate circuits to supply oil to a third circuit while
keeping the two separate circuits isolated from each other.
Symbol D represents the pilot operated check valve.
Lesson 5
FROM TO
CYLINDER CYLINDERS
TANK OIL TANK OIL
Fig. 3.5.18 Make-up Valve
Make-up Valve
The make-up valve in Figure 3.5.18, looks similar to the check valve.
The makeup valve is normally positioned in the circuit between the
implement and the tank. During normal operations, the pump or
cylinder oil fills the area behind the make-up valve. The pressure in
the cylinder keeps the valve CLOSED. When the cylinder pressure is
approximately 14 kPa (2 psi) lower than the tank pressure, the make-
up valve will OPEN. The tank oil bypasses the pump and flows
directly through the make-up valve to the cylinder.
The make-up valve is used to prevent cavitation. For example, when
a loader bucket is RAISED and the operator moves the control to the
FULLY LOWER position, the gravitational force on the bucket is
transmitted through the cylinder piston to the return oil. The
increased pressure on the return oil increases the flow from the
cylinder. When the cylinder piston displaces the return oil faster than
the pump can send oil to displace the piston, a vacuum is formed in
the cylinder and lines. A vacuum can cause the cylinder and lines to
cavitate. When the pressure in the cylinder and lines decreases to 14
kPa (2 psi) less than tank pressure, the make-up valve opens and
allows tank oil to flow through the make-up valve to the lines and
cylinder. This procedure prevents cavitation in the cylinder and lines.
Makeup Valve ISO Symbol
The operation (function) of the make-up valve and the check valve is
the same. Therefore, the ISO symbol for the make-up valve is the
same as the ISO symbol for the check valve.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: At this time, perform Lab 3.5.2 and Lab
3.5.3
Lesson 5
SOLENOID ACTUATED CONTROL VALVES

Solenoid Actuator
In a solenoid actuator, an electro-magnetic field moves an armature
which moves a push pin. The push pin moves the valve spool.
The two most popular solenoid actuators are the air gap and the wet
armature.
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
FIELD
COVER
MANUAL
OVERRIDE
PUSH
PIN
COIL ARMATURE
Fig. 3.5.19 Air Gap Solenoid
Air Gap Solenoid

An air gap solenoid is shown in Figure 3.5.19. When the coil is
energized, an electro-magnetic field is created. Such a field develops
whenever electricity flows through a wire. When the wire is straight,
the field is relatively weak. When the wire is wound into a coil, the
electro-magnetic field becomes much stronger. The field takes a
circular shape around the coil. The higher the number of turns in the
coil, the stronger the field.
When the flow of electricity through the coil remains constant, the
electro-magnetic field acts very much like the field of a permanent
bar magnet. The electro-magnetic field attracts the armature. The
armature moves a push pin and the push pin moves the valve spool in
the control valve.
The air gap solenoid is protected by a cover. The air gap solenoid
also has a "manual override" feature. The manual override allows the
valve to be activated when the solenoid is defective or disabled. A
small metal pin is located in the cover. The pin is positioned directly
in line with the armature. When the pin is pushed into the cover, the
pin mechanically moves the armature. The armature moves the push
pin which shifts the spool.
PUSH PIN TUBE
HYDRAULIC
MANUAL
FLUID
OVERRIDE
FRAME COIL ARMATURE

Lesson 5
A B
P
T
T A P B
Fig. 3.5.21 Two Position 4-Way Directional Control
Solenoid Controlled, Spring Offset, Pilot Operated, Two Position,

4-way Directional Control Valve
Figure 3.5.21, shows a Solenoid Controlled, Spring Offset, Pilot
Operated, Two Position, 4-way Directional Control Valve.
The solenoid controlled, spring offset, pilot operated, two position,
directional control valve is not frequently equipped with two
solenoids. The second solenoid is considered an unnecessary
expense and an additional solenoid to worry about in the system.
The solenoid is used to shift the pilot valve spool. The pilot valve
spool is returned to its original position by a spring. When a system
is designed for large oil flow, a large directional valve is required. A
substantial force is needed to shift the large valve spool. The
solenoid needed to generate that amount of force would be quite
large. In valves of this type, a small solenoid controlled pilot valve is
positioned on top of the larger main valve spool. When shifting is
required, pressurized oil flows from the small solenoid controlled
pilot valve to either side of the larger valve spool.
Lesson 5
Solenoid Failure
Most solenoid actuator failures occur when valves are stuck. The
stuck valve spool prevents the armature from closing properly. The
most likely cause of a stuck valve spool is contamination.
Contaminant such as silt, metal chips, and other particles may
become lodged between the spool and bore causing the spool to stick.
Also, oxidized oil particles can create a gooey varnish which clogs
the clearance between the spool and bore walls and cause the spool to
stick to the bore. Silt, metal chips, and other contaminating particles
can be removed by installing a filter. The varnish build-up can be
removed by washing the valve in lacquer thinner. The proper oil and
filter change intervals can help to eliminate most of this type
problems.
When the valve is stuck and the solenoid is energized, the solenoid
coil receives a constant high flow of current that generates excessive
heat. The solenoid is not designed to dissipate the excessive heat and
the coil burns out. Overheating problems most often occur during
periods of high ambient (environmental) temperatures, or system low
voltage.
Problems with solenoid failure due to high ambient temperatures may
be controlled by increasing the air flow across the solenoid. The
temperature of the hydraulic oil can be lowered to allow more heat to
be drawn from the solenoid through the hydraulic system.
Sometimes, a different valve design may be required when operating
during very hot weather. Some arrangement must be made to allow
the system to operate at a lower temperature.
When the voltage to the coil is too low, the electro-magnetic field is
not sufficiently strong to attract the armature. Just as when the spool
is stuck, the current continues flowing through the coil. The constant
flow of current generates the excessive heat.
Other factors also affect the proper operation and life expectancy of
the solenoid actuator. The solenoid actuator may fail when cycled
excessively, when short-circuited, or when operated with an incorrect
electrical supply (wrong frequency, wrong voltage).
Lesson 5
A B
P T
Fig. 3.5.23 Two Position, 4-way Valve
Spring Offset, Solenoid Controlled, Two Position, 4-Way Valve

In the ISO symbol in Figure 3.5.23, the spring offset directional
control valves is shown in its normal position. The pump oil flows to
A and the oil in B flows to the tank.
When the solenoid is energized, the solenoid moves the valve against
the spring. The pump oil then flows to B and the oil in A flows to the
tank.
A B
P T
Fig. 3.5.24 Three Position, 4-way Valve
Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated, Spring Centered,

Three Position, 4-Way, Closed-Centered Valve
In the ISO symbol in Figure 3.5.24, the solenoid controlled pilot

operated, spring centered, three position, 4-way, closed-centered
valve is shown in its normal position. All four ways are blocked at
the valve. When the solenoid on the right is energized, the pump oil
flows to B and the oil in A flows to the tank. When the solenoid on
the left is energized, the pump oil flows to A and the oil in B flows to
the tank.
Orifice
An orifice is a small opening in the oil flow path. Flow through an
orifice is affected by several factors. Three of the most common are:
1. The temperature of the oil.
2. The size of the orifice.
3. The pressure differential across the orifice.
Temperature
The oil viscosity changes with changes in temperature. Viscosity is a
measurement of the oil's resistance to flow at a specific temperature.
Hydraulic oil becomes thinner and flows more readily as the
temperature increases.
Orifice Size
The size of the orifice controls the flow rate through the orifice. A
common example is a hole in a garden hose. A small pin hole will
leak in the form of a drip or a fine spray. A larger hole will leak in
the form of a stream. The hole, whether small or ill leak , meters a flow
Lesson 6
VALVE STEM
VALVE
BODY
UNRESTRICTED
FLOW
VALVE TIP
RESTRICTED
FLOW
VALVE SEAT
Fig. 3.6.2 Variable Orifice
Variable Orifice
Figure 3.6.2 shows a variable orifice in the form of a needle valve.
In the needle valve, the size of the orifice is changed by the
positioning of the valve tip in relation to the valve seat.
The oil flow through the needle valve must make a 90° turn and pass
between the valve tip and the valve seat. The needle valve is one of
the most frequently used variable orifices.
When the valve stem is turned counter-clockwise, the orifice becomes
larger and the flow increases through the valve.
When the valve stem is turned clockwise, the orifice becomes smaller
and the flow decreases through the valve.
Lesson 6
The schematic in Figures 3.6.3 and 3.6.4 consist of a positive

displacement pump, a relief valve and a variable orifice. The relief
valve is set at 3445 kPa (500 psi) and limits maximum pressure in
the system. The orifice may be adjusted to any flow between zero
and 5 gpm.
3445 kPa
(500 psi)
5 gpm 4 gpm
3445 kPa
(500 psi)
1 gpm
Fig. 3.6.3 Variable Orifice 4 gpm
In figure 3.6.3, the variable orifice allows a flow of 4 gpm through

the orifice at a pressure of 3445 kPa (500 psi). Any increase in flow
through the orifice requires a pressure greater than 3445 kPa (500
psi). When the pressure exceeds 3445 kPa (500 psi), the relief valve
opens and the excessive oil (1 gpm) flows through the relief valve.
Lesson 6
3445 kPa
(500 psi)
5 gpm 1 gpm
3445 kPa
(500 psi)
4 gpm
Fig. 3.6.4 Variable Orifice 1 gpm
In figure 3.6.4, the variable orifice allows a flow of 1 gpm through

the orifice at a pressure of 3445 kPa (500 psi). Any increase in flow
through the orifice requires a pressure greater than 3445 kPa (500
psi). When the pressure exceeds 3445 kPa (500 psi), the relief valve
opens and the excessive oil (4 gpm) flows through the relief valve.
TOO TOO
T H PASTE T H PASTE
A B
Fig. 3.6.5 Pressure Differential
Pressure Differential
Flow through an orifice is affected by the pressure differential across
the orifice. The greater the pressure differential across the orifice, the
greater the flow through the orifice.
In figure 3.6.5, pressure differential is illustrated using the two tubes
of tooth paste. When the tube of toothpaste is gently squeezed as in
A, the pressure difference between the inside of the tube and the
outside of the tube is small. Therefore, only a small amount of tooth
paste is forced out.
When the tube is squeezed with greater force as in B, the pressure
difference between the inside of the tube and the outside of the tube
increases and a larger amount of toothpaste is forced out.
Lesson 6
5 gpm NO
LOAD
3445 kPa 0 kPa

(500 psi) (0 psi)
3445 kPa 0 gpm 5 gpm

(500 psi)
Fig. 3.6.6 Non-Compensated Flow Control Valve
Non-Compensated Flow Control Valve

The schematic in Figure 3.6.6 consists of a positive displacement
pump, a relief valve, a cylinder, a non-compensated flow control
valve, two pressure gauges and a three position, four way, tandem
centered, lever operated directional control valve.
The non-compensated flow control valve consists of a variable orifice
and a check valve. When oil flows into the cylinder head end, the
check valve seats. The variable orifice controls oil flow into the head
end. When oil flows out of the cylinder head end, the check valve
opens, the oil follows the path of least resistance and flows
unrestricted through the check valve.
In a non-compensated flow control circuit, any change in the pressure
differential across the orifice will produce a corresponding change in
the flow through the orifice.
The relief valve is set at 3445 kPa (500 psi). The orifice is adjusted
to a flow of 5 gpm at 3445 kPa (500 psi) with no load on the
cylinder. The pressure differential across the orifice is
3445 kPa (500 psi). Total pump oil flows through the orifice to the
cylinder.
Lesson 6
5 gpm
LOAD
3445 kPa 1378 kPa

(500 psi) (200 psi)
3445 kPa 2 gpm 3 gpm

(500 psi)
Fig. 3.6.7 Load and Pressure Increases
Load Increase
In Figure 3.6.7, the cylinder load is increased. The cylinder pressure
required to overcome the resistance of the load is 1378 kPa (200 psi).
The 1378 kPa (200 psi) is subtracted from the available 3445 kPa
(500 psi) upstream of the orifice. This reduces the pressure
differential across the orifice to 2067 kPa (300 psi). The2067 kPa
(300 psi) causes the flow through the orifice to decrease to 3 gpm.
Any attempt to increase the flow through the orifice will cause the
system pressure to increase above the relief valve maximum setting
of 3445 kPa (500 psi). The remaining 2 gpm causes the system
pressure to increase above 3445 kPa (500 psi). The relief valve opens
and 2 gpm flows across the relief valve to the tank.
A decrease in the flow through the orifice causes a corresponding
decrease in the speed of the cylinder.
Lesson 6
Compensated Flow Control Circuits

In a compensated flow control circuit, the pressure differential across
the orifice is not affected by a change in the load. The constant
pressure differential across the orifice will produce a constant flow
through the orifice.
ORIFICE
FROM TO
PUMP SYSTEM
DUMP SPRING
VALVE TO TANK
Fig. 3.6.9 By-pass Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve
By-pass Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve

Figure 3.6.9, shows a illustration of a by-pass type pressure
compensated flow control valve. The by-pass type pressure
compensated flow control valve automatically adjusts to flow and
load changes.
Flow Change
The amount of flow through the valve depends on the size of the
orifice. Any change in oil flow through the orifice creates a change
in pressure on the upstream side of the orifice. The same pressure
change acts against the dump valve and spring.
When the pump flow is within the design flow of the orifice, the
force of the upstream oil pressure acting on the dump valve is less
than the combined force of the downstream oil pressure and the
spring. The dump valve remains closed and all of the pump oil flows
through the orifice.
When the pump flow is more than the design flow of the orifice, the
force of the upstream oil pressure acting on the dump valve is greater
than the combined force of the downstream oil pressure and the
spring. The dump valve opens and the excess oil flows through the
dump valve to the tank.
Lesson 6
5 gpm NO
LOAD
2067 kPa 0 kPa

(300 psi) (0 psi)
5856 kPa
(850 psi) 3 gpm
2 gpm
Fig. 3.6.10 By-pass Pressure Compensated Flow Control
No Load Pressure
Figure 3.6.10 shows the by-pass pressure compensated flow control
valve in a simple lifting circuit.
When the control valve is moved to the RAISE position, pump oil is
directed to the flow control valve. The flow control valve requires a
pressure differential of 1378 kPa (300 psi) to send 3 gpm through the
orifice. To send more than 3 gpm through the orifice, requires an
increase in the pressure differential. An increase in the pressure
differential of more than 1378 kPa (300 psi) opens the dump valve.
The excessive oil flows through the dump valve to the tank.
5 gpm INCREASED
LOAD
3445 kPa 1378 kPa

(500 psi) (200 psi)
5856 kPa
(850 psi) 3 gpm
2 gpm
Fig. 3.6.11 By-pass Pressure Compensated Flow Control
Load Pressure Increases

When the load pressure increases, the pressure increases at the orifice
and in the dump valve spring chamber.
The increase in pressure at the orifice lowers the pressure differential
across the orifice and attempts to reduce the oil flow through the
orifice. However, at the same instance, the pressure is increased in
the dump valve spring chamber. The additional pressure closes the
dump valve and blocks oil flow to the tank. The blocked oil causes
GAUGE 1 GAUGE 2
4134 kPa (600 psi) 1378 kPa (200 psi)
GAUGE 3
0 kPa (0 psi)
COMPENSATOR NEEDLE
SPOOL ORIFICE 1 VALVE
SUPPLY
OIL CONTROLLED
OIL FLOW (2 gpm)
BIAS SPRING ORIFICE 2

1378 kPa (200 psi)
Restrictor Type Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve

Figure 3.6.13, shows an illustration of a restrictor type pressure
compensated flow control valve. The controlled oil flow is set by
adjusting the needle valve.
The compensator spool and bias spring work like a pressure reducing
valve. The supply oil pressure is reduced to the pressure that sends
the correct oil flow pass the needle valve.
When the system is off, the spring moves the compensator spool
to the left.
At start up, the compensator spool is open to full oil flow and
pressure. When the oil flow becomes greater than the setting of the
needle valve, the needle valve restricts oil flow and causes the oil
pressure to increase as shown on gauge 2. The increase in oil
pressure is also sensed on the left side of the compensator spool.
When the force of the pressure on the left side of the compensator
spool overcomes the force of the spring, the compensator spool
moves to the right.
Although the supply pressure may continue to increase as shown on
gauge 1, orifice 1 reduces the oil pressure at the needle valve to the
force of the spring. The controlled oil flow pressure is 0 kPa (0 psi),
the pressure differential across the needle valve is 1378 kPa (200 psi)
which equals the force of the spring.
The needle valve is adjusted to allow 2 gpm through orifice 2 when
the pressure differential across the needle valve is 1378 kPa (200 psi).
Lesson 6
the pressure on the pump side of the orifice to increase. The pressure
increases until the pressure differential across the orifice reaches
1378 kPa (300 psi). A pressure differential of 1378 kPa (300 psi)
sends 3 gpm through the orifice and 2 gpm across the dump valve.
This allows the flow control valve to respond instantly to any
increases or decreases in the load pressure.
METERED FLOW METERED FLOW
FROM FROM
PUMP PUMP
EXCESS OIL
Fig. 3.6.12 Bypass Pressure Compensated Flow Control
Combine Orifice and Dump Valve

The more common type of flow control valve is shown in Figure
3.6.12. This valve combines the action of the orifice and dump valve
in one moving part. The pressure compensating operation is the same
as the by-pass pressure compensated flow control valve.
The graphic on the left shows flow through the valve that is either at
the flow rating or less than the flow rating of the valve.
The graphic on the right shows that flow is beginning to exceed the
flow rating of the valve, the pressure differential resulting from the
flow across the orifice becomes great enough to begin compressing
the spring and start dumping the excess oil as shown.
If the flow through the valve increases, the action of the orifice will
cause the spring to compress still more, and more flow will be
dumped. The controlled (metered) flow remains fairly constant as
flow to the valve increases or decreases.
Lesson 6
GAUGE 1 GAUGE 2
4134 kPa (600 psi) 2756 kPa (400 psi)
GAUGE 3
1378 kPa (200 psi)
COMPENSATOR ORIFICE 1 NEEDLE

SPOOL VALVE
SUPPLY
OIL CONTROLLED
OIL FLOW (2 gpm)
BIAS SPRING ORIFICE 2

1378 kPa (200 psi)
Fig. 3.6.14 Controlled Oil Pressure
Controlled Oil Pressure

In Figure 3.6.14, the controlled oil pressure is 1378 kPa (200 psi) as
shown on gauge 3. The oil pressure in the valve spring chamber is
also 1378 kPa (200 psi). The force of the spring chamber oil pressure
is added to the force of the spring. The combined forces move the
compensator spool to the left. When the compensator spool moves to
the left, orifice 1 opens. Orifice 1 allows the oil pressure to increase
at the upstream side of the needle valve.
The increase in oil pressure is also sensed on the left side of the
compensator spool. The increase in pressure moves the compensator
spool to the right against the combined force of the spring and
controlled oil pressure. The compensator spool moves to a new
position that allows 2756 kPa (400 psi) through orifice 1. The
increase in gauge 2 pressure to 2756 kPa (400 psi) on the upstream
side of the needle valve maintains a pressure differential of 1378 kPa
(200 psi) across the needle valve (gauge 2 minus gauge 3).
The pressure differential of 1378 kPa (200 psi) across the needle
valve sends 2 gpm through orifice 2.
The pressure compensated flow control valves offer more precise
cylinder speed control than non-pressure compensated valves. The
pressure compensated valves automatically adjust to keep the flow
rate constant as load conditions vary.
The pressure compensated valves are usually installed when cylinder
operating loads are 6890 kPa (1000 psi) and over.
Lesson 6
ORIFICE
TO
LIFT/LOWER POPPET
CONTROL VALVE
VALVE
SPRING
FROM
CYLINDER
ROD END
FROM
LIFT/LOWER
CONTROL
VALVE
TO CYLINDER
HEAD END
Fig. 3.6.15 Quick Drop Valve
Quick Drop Valve "Blade Drop Mode"

Figure 3.6.15, show an illustration of a quick drop valve. The quick
drop valve is commonly installed on the dozer lift cylinder. When
activated, the quick drop valve allows the dozer blade to rapidly drop
to the ground.
When the dozer blade is raised and the operator moves the lift/lower
control to the BLADE DROP position, the lift/lower control valve
allows the lift cylinder rod end oil to flow to the tank. The
gravitational forces acting on the dozer blade pulls the rod out of the
cylinder and causes the piston to move independent of the force of
the pump oil pressure. This action greatly increases the oil flow
through the quick drop valve orifice and creates a vacuum in the head
end of the lift cylinder. The increase in oil flow through the orifice
causes the pressure up stream of the orifice to increase. The
increased oil pressure opens the poppet valve. The open poppet valve
connects the passage from the cylinder rod end to the passage to the
cylinder head end. The oil from the rod end of the cylinder flows
through the open poppet valve, joins the oil from the control valve
and flows to the head end of the cylinder.
A small amount of oil flows through the orifice to the lift/lower
control valve and to the tank.
When the blade strikes the ground, the movement of the rod out of
the cylinder cease. This causes a rapid decrease in the oil flow
through the orifice. The pressure caused by flow through the orifice
decreases and the spring closes the poppet valve. All oil flow to the
head end, now comes from the lift/lower control valve.
Lesson 6
ORIFICE
FROM
LIFT/LOWER POPPET
CONTROL VALVE
VALVE
SPRING
TO
CYLINDER
ROD END
TO
LIFT/LOWER
CONTROL
VALVE
FROM CYLINDER
HEAD END
Fig. 3.6.16 Quick Drop Valve
Quick Drop Valve "Blade RAISE Mode"

Figure 3.6.16 shows the quick drop valve when the blade is being
raised.
When the operator moves the lift/lower control to the blade RAISE
position, pump oil flows from the lift/lower control valve, through the
orifice and to the rod end of the lift cylinder. The orifice creates a
restriction to the oil flow which increases the upstream pressure. The
higher pressure oil flows through the passage to the spring chamber
behind the poppet valve. The pressurized oil assists the spring and
holds the valve closed when pressure is applied to the rod end of the
cylinder.
Oil from the head end flows through the quick drop valve and the
control valve to the tank.
Lesson 6
FIXED ORIFICE VARIABLE ORIFICE

(NEEDLE VALVE)
PRESSURE COMPENSATED PRESSURE COMPENSATED

FLOW CONTROL VALVE FLOW CONTROL VALVE
WITH BY-PASS
Fig. 3.6.17 Flow Control ISO Symbols
ISO Symbols
Figure 3.6.17, shows the ISO symbols for the basic flow control
components.
The non-pressure compensated flow control ISO symbols are the
fixed orifice and the variable orifice.
The pressure compensated flow control devices are the pressure
compensated flow control valve and the pressure compensated flow
control valve with by-pass.
The ISO symbol does not give any information on the actual physical
structure of the component.
Lesson 7
CYLINDER
BODY BORE SEAL
TANK
LOAD
HEAD END ROD END
PISTON ROD
FROM
CONTROL VALVE
Fig. 3.7.1 Single Acting Cylinder
Single Acting Cylinders

Figure 3.7.1 shows a single acting cylinder.
The tubular outer housing is the cylinder body. Inside the cylinder
body are the piston, piston seal and the rod. The bore refers to the
diameter of the piston. The head end (sometime called the blind end)
refers to the piston end of the cylinder. The rod end refers to the end
from which the rod extends and retracts.
GRAVITY
TO CONTROL
VALVE
FROM CONTROL
VALVE
EXTEND ROD RETRACT ROD
Fig. 3.7.2 Vertical Lift Gravity Return Operation
Vertical Lift Gravity Return Operation

The single acting cylinder is often used on vertical lift gravity return
operations as shown in Figure 3.7.2. The control valve directs oil to
the head end of the cylinder. The oil pressure acts upon the piston to
extend the rod and lift the load. Gravity acting on the load is used to
retract the rod and lower the load.
Lesson 7
PISTON PISTON ROD

SEAL
HEAD ROD
END END
LOAD
FROM TO
CONTROL VALVE CONTROL VALVE
Fig. 3.7.3 Double Acting Cylinders
Double Acting Cylinders

Figure 3.7.3 shows a double acting cylinder. The double acting
cylinder is the most common hydraulic actuator used today. The
double acting cylinder is used on the implement, the steering and
other systems where the cylinder is required to do work in both
directions.
Since tie rod cylinders are the most common double acting cylinder,
the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA) guidelines are used for
the standards in bore size, mounting style and overall dimensions.
This allows tie rod cylinders from different manufacturers to be
interchangeable when they have the same description. However, it
must be remembered that cylinders may be equal in size without
being equal in quality.
Lesson 7
EFFECTIVE
EFFECTIVE AREA
BORE AREA
FROM CONTROL TO CONTROL TO CONTROL FROM CONTROL

VALVE VALVE VALVE VALVE
Fig. 3.7.4 Effective Area of a Cylinder
Effective Area of a Cylinder

The bore size of the cylinder refers to the inside diameter of the
cylinder. A cylinder with a large bore size creates a larger volume
per unit of length than a cylinder with a small bore size. The large
bore size cylinder takes more oil to move the piston the same
distance than the small bore size cylinder. Therefore for a given
flow rate, a large bore size cylinder moves slower than a small bore
size cylinder.
The effective area of a cylinder is the surface area of the piston and
piston seal upon which the oil pushes. Because one end of the rod
attaches to the piston and the opposite end extends out of the
cylinder, the rod end effective area is less than the head end effective
area. The oil can not push against the area of the piston that is
covered by the rod.
The volume of oil needed to fill the rod end of the cylinder is less
than the volume of oil needed to fill the head end of the cylinder.
Therefore, the cylinder rod retracts faster than the cylinder rod
extends for a given flow rate.
Lesson 7
PISTON HEAD SEAL ROD

SEAL ('O' RING) GLAND
LOAD
ROD WIPER
SEAL SEAL
Fig. 3.7.5 Seals
Seals
Seals are used in various places throughout the cylinder as shown in
Figure 3.7.5.
The piston seal is used between the piston and the cylinder wall. The
design is such that oil pressure spreads the seal against the cylinder
wall, thus the greater the pressure the greater the sealing force.
The head end ('O' ring) seal prevents oil escaping between the rod
gland and the cylinder wall.
The rod seal is a "U" shaped or u-cup shaped seal that wipes the oil
off the rod as the rod is extended from the cylinder.
The wiper seal is fitted to the cylinder and prevents dirt or grit being
drawn into the cylinder as the cylinder rod retracts.
Seals are made of polyurethane, nitrile or viton. The material should
be verified to be compatible with the fluid used and the operating
conditions.
HEAD END
RETURN OIL
PASSAGE
HEAD END
SNUBBER
(DAMPER)
Cylinders Equipped with Snubbers (Dampers)

Figure 3.7.6 shows a cylinder equipped with snubbers (dampers).
When a moving cylinder runs into a dead end (as at the end of the
cylinder's stroke), the concussion is called "shock loading." When
cylinders are subject to shock loading, snubbers are used to minimize
the effect.
When the piston approaches full stroke, the snubber moves into the
return oil passage and restricts the return oil flow from the cylinder.
The restriction causes an increase in the return oil pressure between
the return oil passage and the piston. The increase in oil pressure
provides a "cushioning effect" which slows the piston and minimizes
the shock that occurs at full stroke.
Some cylinders may require a head end snubber, some may require a
rod end snubber, while others may require both head end and rod end
snubbers.

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Unit 2: Hydraulic Fundamentals

Upon completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

1. State why liquid is use in hydraulic systems.

Force = Pressure x Area

Area = Force ÷ Pressure

Fig. 2.1.5 Pascal's Law

A simple formula allows us to determine the Force, the Pressure, and

With the knowledge of the surface area, it is possible to determine

1. Liquids conforms to the shape of the container.

Fig. 2.1.1 Liquid Containers

Liquids Conform to Shape

Fig. 2.1.2 Liquid Under Pressure

A liquid is practically incompressible. When a substance is

Fig. 2.1.3 Gas is Compressible

3 in. radius 2 in. radius

Fig. 2.1.4 Hydraulics Doing Work

Hydraulics Doing Work

Solving for the large piston we find:

Pressure x Area = Force

5 sq. in. 1 sq. in. 3 sq. in. ?

Fig. 2.1.6 Mechanical Advantage

Fig. 2.1.7 No Restriction

Fig. 2.1.8 Orifice Offers Restriction

Orifice Offers Restriction

Fig. 2.1.9 Blocked Flow

Oil Flow to Tank Blocked

PSI PSI PSI

Fig. 2.1.10 Restrictions in Series

Fig. 2.1.11 Restrictions In Parallel

There must be a system relief valve in one of the circuits or at the

At this time, perform Lab 2.1.4

Basic Hydraulic Systems

1. Identify the common components of the hydraulic tank and

Basic Hydraulic Systems

OUTLET OIL INLET OIL

Fig. 3.3.1 Gear Pump

PUMP OIL TANK OIL

Fig. 3.3.2 Gear Motor

OUTLET INLET PORT

Fig. 3.3.14 Vane Pump Operation

Vane Pump Operation

Fig. 3.3.15 Balanced Vane Pump

Fig. 3.3.12 Vane Pressurization

PRESSURIZED FLEX PLATES

Fig. 3.3.13 Pressurized Flex Plates

Fig. 3.3.16 Variable Vane Pump

Variable Vane Pump

Fig. 3.3.17 Common Parts

FIXED DISPLACEMENT VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT

Fig. 3.3.18 Common Parts

Axial Piston Pumps and Motors

RETAINING PLATE LINK

Fig. 3.3.19 Angled Housing Axial Piston Motor

Angled Housing Axial Piston Pump

Conjugate Curve Pump

SWASHPLATE BARREL PARK BRAKE

Basic Hydraulic Systems

1. List the four most common pressure control valves.

Fig. 3.4.1 Cracking Pressure

Simple Pressure Relief Valve, Cracking Pressure

Fig. 3.4.3 System Oil Flow

Pilot Operated Relief Valve, CLOSE Position