AASTU

Measurement of Horizontal
Distance
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

Table of Contents
Measurement of Horizontal Distance .......................................................................................................3
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................3

2.2 Methods of Horizontal Distance Measurement ..........................................................................3

2.2.1 Direct Method ..........................................................................................................................3
2.2.2 Indirect Method ........................................................................................................................4
2.3 Principles of Chain Surveying/Taping .......................................................................................4
2.3.1. Miscellaneous Taping and Ranging Operation ...................................................................5
2.3.2. Horizontal distance measurement .......................................................................................8
2.3.2.1 Taping over Level ground .................................................................................................8
2.3.2.2 Taping along Sloping and uneven ground ........................................................................9
2.4 Corrections for Errors in Taping Measurement .........................................................................9
2.4.1 Types of errors in Taping ....................................................................................................9
Common mistakes made in tapping operation ............................................................................10
2.4.2 Corrections for systematic errors in Taping ......................................................................10
2.5. Tacheometric Surveying ..............................................................................................................16

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

Measurement of Horizontal Distance

2.1 Introduction

Distance, linear measurement, is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying. Although

frequently measured as a spatial distance (sloping distance) in three-dimensional space, inevitably it
is the horizontal equivalent which is required.
Horizontal distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to a network of control points, to
fix the position of topographic detail by offsets or polar coordinates, to set out the position of a point
in construction work, etc.
In surveying the distance between two points means a horizontal distance. When slope distances are
measured in the field, these are always reduced to the equivalent horizontal distances for
preparation of map.

Slop
e dis
tanc
e

Horizontal distance

2.2 Methods of Horizontal Distance Measurement

The basic methods of measuring distance are, at the present time, by taping or by electromagnetic
(or electro-optical) distance measurement, generally designated as EDM. For very rough
reconnaissance surveys or approximate estimates, pacing may be suitable, whilst, in the absence of
any alternative, optical methods may be used.
Generally, linear measurements can be obtained by the following methods:
Direct method
Indirect method

2.2.1 Direct Method

Measurement of horizontal distance by taping, which is a direct method, consists of applying the
known length of graduated tape directly to a line a number of times.

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

To measure a distance between two points, a tape is placed sequentially between the terminal points
of the line with a reader. The distance is read from the scale in the surface of the tape, and the
process is called taping.

2.2.2 Indirect Method

The most commonly methods used to determine distance are:
a. Pacing
b. Tachometry/ Stadia/
c. Subtence bar
d. EDM

2.3 Principles of Chain Surveying/Taping

The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as ranging out or aligning
in surveying. It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line, if the distance is greater than
one full tape lengths. The ranging out ensures that the straight distance between two points is
measured.

straight line
A B
line measured without aligning

The procedure is as follows:

- Two ranging poles are set up vertically on the two ends of the line to be measured.

A B

- The surveyor stands behind one ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters.

- The assistant holds another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance not greater than
one tape lengths.

- By looking left and right along the set up ranging poles the surveyor directs the assistant to move
the ranging pole towards the line
- The assistant has to hold the ranging pole vertically.

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

A
2-3m
B
C
side view

A
2-3m
B
C
top view

Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther one to have a good
visibility.
- Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point. If the first
intermediate point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the second one into a wrong line.

A B
C
D
second incorrect intermediate first incorrect intermediate point
point aligned into line AC

After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be checked. Therefore,
sight left and right along the line the ranging poles have to appear one after the other in the right
order that means from the nearest to the most distant one.

2.3.1. Miscellaneous Taping and Ranging Operation

In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are required for the
determination of the length of a line
TAPE: - a tape is an instrument, mostly graduated in meter, decimeter and centimeter, used for
measuring accurate lengths. Measuring tapes can be classified depending up on the manufactured
material and its lengths.
Example: Linen tape, steel tape, invar tape, synthetic tape etc.
Example: 1m, 2m, 5m, 25m, 30m, 50m, and 100m

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

i. ARROWS (Chain pins):- they are used to mark the position of the ends of the tape on the
ground.

ii. PEGS: - Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey station or the end
points of the survey line.
iii. RANGING Pole: - the process of locating a number of points on a long survey is called
ranging. Ranging rods or ranging poles are used to locate intermediate points such that
these points lie on the straight line joining the end stations. Ranging rods are normally
2m long, round wooden or metal poles, graduated into 50cm and painted red and white
for easily identification.

Wooden pegs Ranging poles

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

iv. PLUM BOBS: - They are made up of metal used for fixing range poles vertically, centering
surveying instruments, and transferring pts from tape to ground station while measuring
distance over sloping ground.

v. OPTICAL SQUARE: - it is a useful instrument often used in combination with tape surveys
for producing rectangular angles (100gon or 900).

vi. Hand levels

Permits surveyor to make low precision horizontal sightings
Equipped with tubular bubbles and cross wires that can be viewed together

vii. Clinometers – hand level with attached protractor like

Abney hand level

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

viii. Tension handler

For precise work, used to apply correct tension

2.3.2. Horizontal distance measurement

To measure a distance between two points, a tape is placed sequentially between the terminal
points of the line with a reader.
The distance is read from the scale in the surface of the tape, and the process is called toping. In
this regard the ground may be level ground, sloppy ground or uneven (ups and downs) ground,
therefore the surveyor should consider the methodology of applying the tape.

2.3.2.1 Taping over Level ground

In measuring horizontal distance between two points, Measurements are carried out by unwinding
and laying the tape along the straight line between the points. But if the length of the line between
the two points exceeds that of the tape length, we need interval points which are fixed in alignment
between the two points to prevent from measuring zigzag distances between the intervals which is
called ranging as in the next figure.

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

2.3.2.2 Taping along Sloping and uneven ground

In measuring distances over an uneven ground, it is standard to hold the tape horizontal and to
plumb bob at both ends of the tape. When one end of the tape is held on the ground, the other end
is in considerable elevation above the ground. This distance is projected to the ground by means of a
plumb-bob. Shorter distances are measured and accumulated to the total full tape length.

2.4 Corrections for Errors in Taping Measurement

Methods of measuring with a tape have been dealt with, although it must be said that training in the
methods is best undertaken in the field. The quality of the end results, however, can only be
appreciated by an understanding of the errors involved. Of all the methods of measuring, taping is
probably the least automated and therefore most susceptible to personal and natural errors. The
majority of errors affecting taping are systematic, not random, and their effect will therefore increase
with the number of measurement. The errors arise due to defects in the equipment used; natural
errors due to weather conditions and human errors resulting in tape-reading errors, etc.

2.4.1 Types of errors in Taping

A). Tape not standard length/erroneous tape-length (error of standard)
B). Tape not horizontal ( error of slop)
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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

C). Variation in Temperature ( temperature error)

D). Variation in Tension ( tension error)
E). Sag in the Tape ( sag error)
F). Correction For MSL
Since all the above-mentioned errors are systematic, the surveyor should give corrections to the
measured distance.

Common mistakes made in tapping operation

These are serious mistakes and occur when the surveyor blunders through lack of experience, lack of
care. The effects are unpredictable & often large.
Fieldwork should be free from mistakes before calculations & Plotting are carried out. Most of the
time the common examples of mistakes are:
- Incorrect booking of a measurement
E.g. - Writing 2.324m instead of 22.324 m
- Incorrect reading of the measurement
E.g. - Reading 5.655 instead of 15.655
-Interchanging the figures
E.g. - 3.24 instead of 2.34
-Miscounting the number of repeated of measurements
These can be eliminated only by proper and careful methods of observing & booking and constantly
checking both operations.

2.4.2 Corrections for systematic errors in Taping

1) Correction for Standard

During a period of use, a tape will gradually alter in length for a variety of reasons. The amount of
change can be found by having the tape standardized at either the National Physical Laboratory (NPL)
like quality and standard assurance in Ethiopia, for invar tapes or the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) for steel tapes, or by comparing it with a reference tape kept purely for this purpose.
The tape may then be specified as being 30.003 m at 20◦C and 70 N tensions, or as 30m exactly at a
temperature other than standard. Taping cannot be more accurate than the accuracy to which the
tape is standardized. It should therefore be routine practice to have one tape standardized by the
appropriate authority.

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

This is done on payment of a small fee; the tape is returned with a certificate of standardization
quoting the ‘true’ length of the tape and standard conditions of temperature and tension. This tape is
then kept purely as a standard with which to compare working tapes.
If the tape is shorter or longer than the standard length of the tape, this correction is necessary. The
error can be corrected by
a) correcting the tape itself
b) correcting the measurements taken, which is done by applying the following rule:
l' l
Ca  ( )L
l , where ca= correction for absolute length
l' = actual tape length
l = nominal tape length, L= measured length.
Example
1. A distance is measured with a 50m steel tape and is found to be 739.56m. Later the tape is
standardized and is found to have an actual length of 50.05m. Calculate the corrected length of
the measured distance.
Given – L = 739.56m, l'’ = 50.05m, l = 50m
Required– absolute length

l' l
50 .05 m  50 m
Ca  ( ) L Ca  ( 50 m
) 739 .56 m
Solution - l Ca = + 0.74m
Corrected (Absolute) Length = measured Length + Correction for absolute length

= 739.56 + 0.74m
= 740.30m
2) Correction for Slope

In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a distance lies along a
uniform slope and when the difference in height between the two end points has been determined it
may be preferable to measure the distance directly. Otherwise the horizontal distance could be
obtained by applying the following corrections:

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

A slop
e di
stan
ce
h

horizontal distance

Case I. If the elevation difference of the two extreme ends is known

V2
Cg 
2S Where V = elevation difference
S = measured slope distance
Cg = Correction for slope (grade)
Case II. If the slope angle Θ is known, it is given as
Cg  S (1 Cos )
Where S = measured slope distance
Θ = measured vertical angle
Cg = Correction for slope (gradient)
Example
2. A distance measured with a hundred meter steel tape a long an uneven ground and found to be
238. 40m. if the elevation difference b/n the end points is 2.75m (or the slope angle Θ, is 00
39’39”) what’s the respective measured horizontal distance.
Given – S=238.40m, V= 2.75m, Θ = 00 39’39”
Required - Horizontal distance
Solution

V2 (2.75) 2
Cg  Cg 
Case 1 2S (2  238.40 m) Cg = 0.02
Cg  S (1 Cos ) Cg  238.40 (1 Cos 0039'39" )
Case 2 Cg = 0.02
Horizontal Distance = Slope Distance – Correction for slope
H= 238.40m – 0.02m
H= 238.38m
3) Correction for Temperature

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

Tapes are usually standardized at 20 0C. Any variation above or below this value will cause the tape to
expand or shrink, giving rise to systematic errors. Difficulty of obtaining true temperatures of the
tapes lead to the use of invar tapes, invar is a nickel-steel alloy with a very low coefficient of
expansion. When measuring with a steel tape, neglecting temperature effects could be the main
source of error. For example, in winter conditions in the UK, with temperatures at 0 0C, a 50 m tape,
standardized at 20 0C, would contract by 11.2 × 10−6 × 50 × 20 = 11.2 mm per 50m. Thus even for
ordinary precision measurement, the temperature effect cannot be ignored. Even if the tape
temperature is measured there may be an index error in the thermometer used, part of the tape may
be in shade and part in the sun or the thermometer may record ground or air temperature which
may not be the same as the tape temperature. Although the use of an invar tape would resolve the
problem, this is rarely, if ever, a solution applied on site. This is due to the high cost of such tapes and
their fragility.
If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the standard temperature of the tape,
correction for temperature is required which is given as:-
Ct   ( Tm  T0 ) L
Where,
Ct= correction for temperature
α = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
Tm = Mean temperature during measurement
To = Standardization temperature of the tape
L= the measured length
Example
3. A survey line was measured with a 50m tape and found to be 135.76m at an average field
temperature of 25 0C. Find correction for temperature if the standard temperature of the tape
is 10 0c. Take α of the tape as 1.15 x 10-5 /0C.
Given – Tm = 250C, T0= 10 0C, L = 135.76m, α = 1.15 x 10-5 /0C.
Required – Correction for temperature
Solution
Ct   ( Tm  T0 ) L Ct 1.15105 ( 25 0C 100 C ) 135.76 m Ct = 0.023m
4) Correction for pull (Tension)

Generally the tape is used under standard tension or pull, in which case there is no correction. It may,
however, be necessary in certain instances to exert a force or tension greater or less than the
standard. From Hook’s law: stress = strain × a constant, this constant is the same for a given material
and is called the modulus of elasticity (E). Since strain is a non-dimensional quantity, E has the same

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

dimensions as stress, i.e. N/mm2: If the tension in the tape is greater or less than standard the tape
will stretch or become shorter. Tension applied without the aid of a spring balance or tension handle
may vary from length to length, resulting in random error. Tensioning equipment containing error
would produce a systematic error proportional to the number of tape lengths. The effect of this error
is greater on a light tape having a small cross-sectional area than on a heavy tape.
Since any tape is elastic to some extent, its length is changed by variation in the tension applied,
which means if the pull applied at the ends of the tape during measurement is not equal to the
standard tension at which the tape was calibrated, a correction for pull is required. For pull is
required. It is given by:

Pf  P0
CP  ( )L
AE Where, CP = correction for pull
Pf = pull applied in the field
Po = Standard pull
A = Cross-Sectional Area of the tape
E = Young’s modules Elasticity (N) mm2)
L = Measured length
Example
4. A steel tape 20m long standardize with a pull of 100N was used for measuring a base line. Find
the correction for tape length if the pull exerted during measurement was 160N. Take cross
sectional area of the tape and young’s modulus of elasticity of the tape as 5.089x10-6m2 and 2.11
x 106 KN/m2.
Given – P0 = 100N, Pf = 160N, A = 5.089* 10-6 m2 , E = 2.11* 106KN /m2 , L= 20m
Required – Correction for temperature
Solution
Pf  P0 160  100
CP  ( )L CP  ( ) 20m
AE 5.089 10 6  2.11109 Cp = 0.118m (additive)
5) Correction for sag

A tape supported only at the ends will sag or hang down in the centre by an amount that is related to
its weight and the pull (tension). If the tape is standardized for a flat a negative correction is required
for say because the chord distance is always less than the curved distance along the sag which is
given by:-

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

w2 l 3
Cs 
24 p 2 , Where Cs = Correction for sag

l = Length of the tape b/n supports

w = Weight of the tape per unit length (N/M)
P = Pull applied in the field.
If the total weight of the tape (W) is used, the formula will be.
W2L
Cs 
24 p 2 , Where, W = (weight*length)

Example
Calculate the sag correction for a 30m steel tape under a pull of 100N if the weight of the tape was
0.17 N/m.

w2 l 3
Cs 
24 p 2 0.172  303
Cs  CS= - 0.003m
24  1002
6) Correction for Mean Sea Level (CM)
If the surveys are to be connected to the national mapping system of a country, the distances will
need to be reduced to the common datum of that system, namely MSL.
Alternatively, if the engineering scheme is of a local nature, distances may be reduced to the mean
level of the area.
This has the advantage that setting-out distances on the ground are, without sensible error, equal to
distances computed from coordinates in the mean datum plane.
Consider the figure below in which a distance L is measured in a plane situated at a height H above
MSL.
By similar triangles
R
M  L
RH

RL  R  LH
Therefore, correction C M  L  M   L   CM  L1    CM 
RH  RH  RH

LH
As H is normally negligible compared with R in the denominator C M 
R

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHAIN SURVEYINGINSTRUMENTS

1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be dried and
wiped with an oily rag.
2. A piece of colored cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon – attached) to enable them to be
seen clearly on the field.
3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station point.
4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are graduated
should be indicated.
5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always after
repairs.
6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.
2.5. Tacheometric Surveying

Tacheometric is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are determined by
taking angular observation with an instrument known as a tachometer. Tacheometric surveying is
adopted in rough in rough and difficult terrain where direct leveling and chaining are either not
possible or very tedious. The accuracy attained is such that under favorable conditions the error will
not exceed 1/100. and if the purpose of a survey does not require accuracy, the method is
unexcelled. Tacheometric survey also can be used for Railways, Roadways, and reservoirs etc. Though
not very accurate, Tacheometric surveying is very rapid, and a reasonable contour map can be
prepared for investigation works within a short time on the basis of such survey.

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

Uses of Tachometry

Tachometry is used for:

 preparation of topographic map where both horizontal and vertical distances are required to
be measured;
 survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods of measurements are inconvenient;
 reconnaissance survey for highways and railways etc;
 Establishment of secondary control points.

Instruments used in tachometric surveying

An ordinary transits theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for tacheometric
surveying. The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above and the other an equal
distance below the horizontal cross hair, the stadia hair being mounted in the same ring and in the
same vertical plane as the horizontal and vertical cross-hair.

D = KI + C = 100 I, for horizontal sight

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Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance

H = 100 I cos2(α) V = 100 I sin(α) Cos(α)

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