DEVELOPINS “alsebr: two key ways to establish some early algebraic ideas in primary classrooms Sed et ek On an mS Ee Re ee CRO UeLT the arguments put forth— and PRS nurs cr Chr Dee OAC SRC) Christine Ormond rimary teachers tudents’ future mathematical success in the early secondary While ake some primary role in their the word ‘algebra’ ma or worried, the teachers feel uncomfortable basic arithmetic ideas underlying algebra are vitally important for older primary students y required to use “alge- in the transition years Radford (2001) said that teachers of mathematics “need to deepen [their] own understanding of the nature of and the way it relates to algebraic thinking sation”. Some commentators have tly argued that "algebraic thinking’ as early as Year 2 or 3 (Kaput, 2008; Mason, 2006; Van Dooren, Vershcaffel & Onghena, 2002) en_and Cooper (2009) go so far as to claim “that the power of mathematics lies in the intertwining of algebraic and arithmetic thinking, each enhancing the other as students becon numerate.” This may seem a daunting ta however, and therefore this paper offers some fundamental strategies to help in this important work of developing early algebraic concepts Researchershave longinsisted that teachers should use a variety of ‘relational’ te and learning classroom strategies ( 36) in order to achieve mathematica lence and "fluency’, so important in the lian Curriculum, Such fluency rithmic fluency” in Appendix 1—requires the deep understanding that Sfard has called “structural reification” (Sfard APMC 17 (4) 2012 1314 Ormond & Linchevski, 1994; Sfard, 1991). It is at these ‘lightbulb’ moments that the student is ready to move on to the next new phase of relational learning, in a kind of repetitive exploratory cycle, moving from “working on the process” to “achieving a product” (Kaput, 2008): Also, in order to establish thoroughly the conceptual links needed for algebraic (and, in fact, all mathematical) thinking, “multiple representations” of the ideas are needed (Warren, 2003; Sfard, 1991). These fall naturally into two distinet types: * verbal /symbolic representations * visual/spatial representations. Verbal/symbolic representations stimulate the ‘left-brained” modes of learning (Sousa, 2008; Skemp, 1986) and include the use of number and operational symbols, spoken and written language, and the use of “blanks’ in equality statements. Visual spatial representations support the ‘right-brained’ learning modes, and involve physical (or computervirtual) manipulatives, diagrams and pictures, tables, and graphs. ‘The conceptual map shown in Appendix 1 is intended for the late primary to early secondary years, and it exemplifies some of these representations with very specific relevance to early algebraic thinking. It is designed to help teachers move students from the ‘relational learning’ stages to the corresponding fluency and ‘structural reification’ stages. This said, the whole range ofalgebraic thinking tools needed by students is difficult to represent on one page alone. ‘Therefore it is specifically limited to just two important aspects in the development of algebraic thinking: the relationship between the operations (number facts) and the role of equality statements (equations). 2 S s a Ss 2 | NOWIVELENS | z S =z s a = 5 3 2 APMC 17 (4) 2012 “Repeated” operations Some key underlying arithmetic concepts for algebra In the middle to later primary years of schooling, particular number facts, based on relationships between the four operations, need to be established. This is, of course, founded in turn on extensive earlier classwork as to the meaning of number symbols and the broader relationships between numbers. These are also early algebraic, sometimes called ‘prealgebraic’, notions. Van Dooren etal. (2002) describe early algebraic skills as “symbolising, generalising, reasoning about relationships, [and] representing unknowns and even operating on them’. ‘This paper focusses upon two conceptual areas essential to developing early algebraic thinking: the equal sign and equality statements, and the four basie operations. Again, it should be noted that these are not the only fundamental early algebraic concepts (for example, suich important ideas as square or triangular number patterns, or fractional understanding, are not discussed here), but itis a very good start. Figure I shows how we can think of these concepts in two different but linked ways: as the pairs of ‘inverse’ operations that are so important when writing correct equality statements; and as the pairs of ‘repeated’ operations needed for correct ‘multiplicative reasoning’, the essential skill that underlies fluency with number facts and ‘times tables’, Figure 2 explains Figure 1 further. Children ideally first attain confidence with the inverse operations, starting with addition/ subtraction. Later, they connect their understanding of how the four operations are all related to each other by developing Inverse operations Figure 1. Relationshios between the four operations: Inverse and repeated ‘operationsBEEP EE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE Developing “algebraic thinking": Two key ways to establish some early algebraic ideas in primary classrooms fluency with multiplication and division and building up skills for ‘multiplicative reasoning’ (Chapin & Johnson, 2006). — isthe inverse of + > i repeated + 4+ 11= 15 and 6x9 =54 because Figure 4, Multiplicative reasoning: one representation of the inverse operation of civsion: the same number fact 15-4=11 9494949+949=64 but represented ierenty > isthe inverse of + Is repeated — at ss ae Meanwhile, the inverse operation of Seep) 4 +6 - Stace multiplication is division, and similarly, the 54 5429-6, §4-9-9-9-9-9- division equation 12 = 4 = 3 can also be seen sof 54 =9, Yoof 54 = 6 in terms of repeated* subtraction (12-3 3 Figure 2. inverse and repeated operations, two concopts necessary for early algebraic thinking. Visualisation and manipulatives Primary teachers know that visual representations and the use of manipulatives are vital for establishing fundamental mathematical reasoning and fluency. For example, Figure 3 below (from Appendix 1 also) illustrates a ‘times tables’ number fact, by using the representation of a rectangular array. So, 4 x 3 = 12 can either be thought of as “4 lots of 3 is 12” (multiplication) or as “8.434343 =12" (repeated addition). Figur 3. Multiplicative reasoning: one representation {or mutiptcaton 2 Sound multiplicative reasoning results from successful establishment of concepts in these areas along with an understanding of fraetional numbers, Although fractional numbers are briefly featured in the first box in Figure 2, fractions themselves will not be discussed in detail here: they are of course also intrinsic to algebraic understanding and Auency. = 3=3). When the student has reified these concepts, learning multiplication number facts involves far less of a cognitive load, and he or she is able to abandon old and cumbersome strategies, such as counting on', The concept of multiplication as repeated addition is particularly important in establishing early algebraic ideas. For example, a fundamental misconception that, hampers many a Year 8 or Year 9 student is the belief that 4n = 4+ n, This is called a concatenation problem (MacGregor, 1998), which means that the student sees the 4 and the 7 as just ‘things’ standing next to each other, rather than as having an implied multiplicative relationship. In fact, m is a quantity just as much as is the number 4, even if we do not know its value. It is not, as so many children at first believe, an ‘object’, hor a code for a ‘word’, Thus, 4n=4xn or dn=ntnenen This particular syntax that has been chosen for use in algebra (thatis, in 4n it is alright to eave out the mul something students have to learn, and it is not intuitive If the idea of multiplication as repeated addition has been firmly established in 3 For some readers it will make more sense, perhaps, to think of this as 12-3 ~ 8-3-3 4 Figures 3 and 4 both immediately also connect, notionally with the idea of fractions, and of course fractional thinking plays a central role in multiplicative reasoning. An understanding of fractions and operations with fractions js also essential to success in algebra, if not, as explained, further elaborated upon here. ‘APMC 17 (4) 2012 1516 Ormone primary school, this problem is at least a little less likely to occur. Students will have a better understanding of the natural connection between number equality statements and similar algebraic equations, for example: 4545 and also 3x5 =15 +xtx (butnot3+a) 8x5 3x Early algebra and the meaning of the equal sign The syntax of algebra has just been discussed: how algebraic letters and other symbols are ‘put together’ and commonly understood. We now again consider a student's likely interpretation of just what he or she immediately sees, and then ‘translates’ into meaning. The use of multiple representations for arithmetic reasoning in the primary classroom is good early algebraic work because it can help to circumvent some well researched algebraic misconceptions. For example, students are very reluctant to let go of the idea that the equal sign ahyays means ‘give the answer’, something discussed by researchers for many years (Sousa, 200 Knuth, Stephens, McNeil & Alibali, 200 Van Dooren, et al, 2002; Radford, 2001; MacGregor & Stacey, 1997; Kieran, 1981, 1989). Even so, it may be difficult for teachers to see why this can be a problem. Consider the following. ‘The conception of the equal sign as ‘do’ or ‘give the answer’ is fairly understandable in the case of 4x3 Primary school students complete a multitude of tasks thatare set out in just this way. Yet, very importantly, the equal sign really should be generally interpreted as *is equal to", rather than “an instruction to ‘do™ (Appendix 1), If students do not really appreciate this, they may have difficulty when the ‘blank’ does not appear immediately—and on its own—to the right of the equal sign. Examples might be problems like these: 4x =2x6 = ef 4x3=__ x6 APMC 17 (4) 2012 The notion of the equal sign being a signal of equivalence and not an instruction is an important one, and this links back strongly to the idea of inverse operations. One reason that 4 x 3 is a relatively simple mathematical task is because it reads logically from left to right, imitating a written or spoken sentence with an active verb. For example, we read the following English sentence from left to right, and automatically understand that Sam did two things, in this order he ate something, and then walked somewhere: After Sam ate a hamburger, he walked home. Part of the natural language ability that we use here in reading this sentence is also employed in reading a ‘number sentence’, in as far as we ‘read’ it from the left to the right. However, there is a very important difference. Mathematical equations do not actually imply any ‘doing’ words (verbs) they are always about one quantity equalling another one. So, in a number sentence or equation, one could argue that the only verb is “IS”. This is the “verb-to-be” and itis in fact just as much a verb as “eat” or “walk” ~ but there is no “action” implied. It is all about, and only about, equivalence. We can continue this language metaphor a litile further. In English (or any other language native to the speaker), we can also very easily understand a rearranged sentence that has the same meaning. The actions of “walk” and “eat” could be interchanged in their order of appearance, as below, but we would have no difficulty understanding that the sentence above could be rewritten as (and is semantically the same as): ‘Sam walked home after he had eaten a hamburger. One could argue that the following equations also ‘say the same’ as 4 x 3 , in terms of number facts, as the inverse operations of multiplication and division can be used to make the same equality statement in different ways:Developing “algobraic think We understand in the case of the third equation that we need to use the inverse notion of division (12 + 3) to help us here. However, the innate understanding that we have in language does not support us here in the same automatic way: we actually have to think about this and solve the problems by using our knowledge of 4x 3 = 12. For children, gaining an understanding of number sentences like these—and providing the correct numbers in blanks to make the equations ‘true’—creates a cognitive load far greater than that involved in recognising the semantic likeness of the pair of sentences about Sam. Yet if the teacher has strongly emphasised the fact that the equal sign means “is” or “is equal to”, then it is easier for students to accept that the “blank’ to be filled may appear in other places than just on. its own on the right. This again links with preparation for algebra. Even in the case of students who have less trouble in completing such purely numerical equations as seen above, it can be argued that it is worth practising such problems so as to establish algebraic thinking. For example, in Year 8, many students may have little difficulty explaining why n= 3 if However, consider the challenge for students asked to “solve for n” in this equation: 42430 Not only must they correctly interpret the pronumeral (letter) 7, but they need to cope with the cognitive challenges described earlier. Inotherwords, the ‘default’ position of needing to have “all of the numbers” on the left side of the equation, and “all of the unknowns’ on the right after the equal sign, may interfere with their ability to reach the solution. How algebraic misconceptions combine with each other Another brief word is offered here as to why this work in the primary classroom can be so useful to students for later algebraic development. Two fundamental and troublesome problems seen in lower secondary mathematics classrooms are a limited understanding of the meaning of the equal sign, and a tendency to believe that a pronumeral such ay x is an object rather than a quantity. Asa primary teacher you will probably never have to work with problems like the following, but perhaps reflecting on. them for a moment may help you to see why good early algebraic work is so helpful. This example demonstrates how both of these misconceptions work together. Consider the problems: Simplify 32+ 46+ 2a Ba4 4d +2 This is the same task presented in two very typical ‘textbook’ ways; it is inviting the stuclents to “gather the like terms’. This means they should add terms where they can, but not do so where they cannot. The answer is Bat 4b+2a=5a+4d However, the following is a response that their teachers often see instead! 3a+4b+2a ab a+ ‘The research says that there are two main reasons why students give this final incorrect response of 9ab. One is that they are "concatenating" and seeing all of the numbers and letters just sitting there as ‘things’ ready to be gathered up. They are used to adding 3 + 4+ 2 to a result of 9, and they sce they aand bas just part of that process, The fact that, syntactically speaking, ab means ax b does not even come into the picture: they are seeing a + # instead, as two objects that should be placed side by side. Also, the problem of not knowing what are the quantities «and bis just overlooked. However, we cannot overlook the fact that and bare unknown quantities as this is a generalising expression, meaning ‘four lots of and five lots of b'. The expression 9ab means nine lots of the product of @ and 4, and is (almost without exception) a different quantity for the infinite number of possible values’ of a and b. For example, if a= 2 and b= 6, Bat db=5x2+4x6=94 Gab =9 x 2x 6= 108. 5 In fact, the only way that itis possible for the equation 52+ 44 ~ Sab to hold true is ifa and b are both equal to 1 or both equal to 0, ‘APMC 17 (4) 2012 718 Ormond ‘There is a second reason why students tend to ‘gather up’ the terms incorrectly in this way, one that is to do with misunderstanding of the meaning of the equal sign. If students see the equal sign as an instruction to “finish with one answer on the right,’ then they may have difficulty accepting that the answer 5a-+ 4b is correct and as far as they can go if they do not know what the values of a and b are. Secondary teachers, when theyare teaching algebra effectively in the lower secondary years, address the problems of sccing letters as objects, or of not understanding that letters can be used like numbers even if their actual values are not known. However, primary teachers can help a great deal with this second problem by allowing. students opportunities to see ‘unfinished on the right’ equations, such as 4x3=1x12 6x2= 34841 Once again, if the emphasis is upon ‘this side is the same quantity as that side,’ rather than ‘get the answer,’ the true meaning of equations, that of equivalence, will be better established. Putting it all together Appendix 1 offers an overall sense of the connections between these ideas, and attempts to provide just enough detail to give the primary teacher an organised sense of how to think about these challenges’. Here can be seen a selection of representations which teachers can employ as guides as to what the students could draw, or what inanipulatives to look for in the mathematics storeroom. It suggests ways to talk about the concepts in written or spoken language, and ‘ways to write the mathematics with symbols. It pays attention to students’ different learning styles, and reveals the connections in the mathentatics. ‘An explanation follows that relates to the ast raw of Appendix 1 Suppose that a teacher wishes to emphasise or establish these two mathematical ideas with her students, and to 6 Italso now includes mention of the “commutative law" for both addition and multiplication, and the fundamental connection of many of these concepts with fractional understanding, ‘APMC 17 (4) 2012 do this in a number of ways: © The equal sign is not an instruction to ‘do’ but expresses equality in an equivalence statement, * In an equation, both sides must be equal. Appendix 1 offers equivalent ways to do this. The ‘verbal/symbolic’ and ‘visual/spatial’ approaches offer representations like these: ‘Number symbols: Equivalence statements © 4x3=12 (standard, asinamultiplication number fact); and * 4x 3 = 2 x 6 (nonstandard or “unfinished on the right’) Language (writien and spoken): “Multiplying 4 by 3is the same thing as multiplying 2 by 6 or 6 by 2 or 12 by 1.” Using ‘blanks’ in the equation: 4x3=Ox6=12x0 Manipulatioes: blocks or objects arranged in rows and columns (arrays): Keccce isthe same as Jee eee. Diagrams: appropriate rectangular “array’ 4x3) is the same as In this way, both attention to students’ different learning styles and the meaning of the mathematics is covered—and algebraic thinking is asked for. The concept of an unknown is communicated by the blanks, but without the use of the letters that will follow in the secondary years, The notion, of equivalence is strongly featured, and the concepts surrounding this are represented in a number of mutually supportive ways. This final planner is offered to primary teachers in the hope that it will help them to achieve a good balance and variety of conceptual representations. It is also hoped. that it will provide some clearer perspectivesDeveloping “algebraic thinking": Two key ways to establish some early algebraic ides in primary classrooms for teachers when they are preparing a program in the Number and Algebra strand, one that both consolidates arithmetic and establishes some early algebraic thinking, References Chapin, §, & Johnson, A. (2006). Math maiters. Grades "Ee Understanding the math you teach (2nd ed.) CA Math Solutions Publications Kaput, J. (2008) What is algebra? What is algebraic taking? In J. Kaput, D. Caraher, & M. Blanton (Eds), Alger inthe easy grades (pp. 5-18). Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum. kieran, ©. (1989). The carly leaming of algebra: A Teructural perspective. In C. Kieran, 8. Wagner (Eas), Research sues in the arming aed taching of debra (Vo. 4, pp. 89-50). VA: Lawrence Extbaum, Kieran G. (1981). Conceptsassociated with the equality ‘yrabol. Féwational Studies iw Mathematics, 12 (3). 517-826. Knuth, EJ. Stephens, A. C., MeNeil, N. M. & Alba 'M. W. (2008). Does understanding dhe equal sign tnatter? Evidence from soling equations. feurnal or ‘Resear in Mathematis Baton, 37(4), 297-312 MacGregot, M. (1998). How students interpret ‘equations: Intuition versus taught procedures. In Hi Steinbring, M. Bartoli Brussi & A. Siexpinska (EAs) Lanuige and communication in the athena {asroom (pp. 249-261). Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, MacGregor, M. & Stacey, K (1997). Students! understanding of algebraic notation: 1 Educational Studies in Mathematics, 33 (1), 1- ‘Mason, J. (2006). Making use of children’s powers to produce algebraic thinking. In J. Kaput, D. Carraher & M. Blanton (Eds), Algebra iv the eax _gides (pp. 57-94). Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, Radford, L. (2001), Signs and meanings in students emergent algebraic thinking: A semiotic analysis, Educational Studies in Mathematis, 42, 237-268, Sfard, A. (1991). On the dual nature of mathematical conceptions: reflections on processes and objects fon different sides of the same coin, Educational ‘Shuai in Mathematics, 2 (1), 1-36. Sfard, A., & Linchevski, L. (1994). The gains and pitfalls of reification: The case of algebra, Rducational Studies in Mathematics, 2, 1-96, ‘Skemp, R. (1986). The psychology of learning mathematics. London: Pengui Sousa, D. (2008). How the brain ams mathematics. “Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Van Dooren, W., Versheaifel, L. & Onghena, P. (2002). The impact of pre-service teachers’ content Inowledge on their evaluation of students’ strategies for solving arithmetic and algebra word problems. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 33, 319-351 Warren, E. (2003), The role of arithmetic structure the ansition from arithmetic 10 algebra ‘Mathematics Education Research Journal 15 (2), 122 137. Warren, E, & Cooper, T. (2009), Developing mathematics understanding and abstraction: ‘The case of equivalence in the elementary years. ‘Mathematics Bucaton Resarch Journal 21 (2), 76-95. ‘APMC 17 (4) 2012 19Ormond Early algebraic thinking in Years 5, 6, and 7: Conceptual representations WORKING ON PROCESS \VERBAL/SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATIONS RELATIONAL Blanks 5 Syn OPERATIONS | "SrAieprg | Number Symbols | Spoken / Wen Language ‘iidoonne) | wat the sum of 3 and 2 What do inverse a+2=5 | Ihaveto ad to 2 to go 521 tako2 operatons | and aay rom 5 wht wil have? take {of each other) | 5-203 something away from § and get 3, what id tke aay? Addition’ Equivalence i Subtraction | statement as2qaea | Maina 210316 fo XameasadcindS | 542-240 (equation) (z : _4 | ccivaence Aang 203s the sro aunty 05 statement a42—1+4 — | adding 104, because bath scescttne | 37> (ore dietaioy uation equal 5. ‘Addition! Wl add 3 four times, that is the same quantity as 4 lots of 3— {wre ~ and iss the same family of operation as nding 4 ‘Multiplication aaoyeteo Tots of 3 ane ! s04x (4 multiplied by 31s 12) Subtraction/ Relationship a -9-3-3- 1 subeact 9 four tines rom 121 wil havea quent of Division between the = Poe cd at >) | four operations ~on- i i surat tre umes rom 12 wl havea quantity of tree — and hiss in he same fam of operation sting ow many 3's rein 12 - eo (12 ded by 418 3 What is the product of 4 and 37 — Wha ot have to multiply byt get 129 operators Weve 12 by 3 what wil have? (of ach othe) WH dide 12 by someting nace, | sg og “ | ‘what did | divide it by? aanani Multiplication | /Division | Equivalence i | Saumort | 4xdeax4 | MatMEARYZIete anening (equator) isis Eawvaence | 4.3226 | min 4p ite sre ing os aera y | 4xa=re%1 | stig 296062 0 12071Developing “algebraic thinking": Two key ways to establish some early algebraic ideas in primary classrooms Number facts The equal sign VISUAL/SPATIAL REPRESENTATIONS. ACHIEVING OF PRODUCT Manipulatives Pictures and diagrams | MLGORTHMIC | STRUCTURAL FLUENCY REIFICATION ‘Adlon is th imverse A66 (aed) — denen Acton and | of subtraction and is inthe same family of operatons as subtraction number | they ae inthe same Mee 8e (he aay ed) — doe facts family of operations, ‘Adon ~ Subtraction Commutative la of C46 ddd isthosamess 6 ond dee aii) ‘The equa sign isnot an instruction to “c" but expresses equality In.an equivalence satemont In an equation both MEE nies Ctocamcas danieddd Seermetiioeeaal Multiplication is tee at repeated atin. ded—aee H ‘dition hee -dde dee oe Abandonment ofthe Mddoddd dee dee “counting on strategy isthe same family of operations 35 cd eonivaie ie +H reasoning is | Dvision is repeated eee established. Fluent | Subtraction, ddd—eee recall of ables ren eee eae cee " Sed de dee cee oe Division Mutipticatio isthe Inverse of division and ee itiesion snd hy aein to same : tae t °S | fay of peratns TT | on roca of bles anh (Establishment eee ot of actos eee understanding) eee deca f The 1 ‘Commutative law of ue 666 | 6xallisnesamemaxaLfil | Moon sin is ‘ultpeaton #46 bnesaress uae ‘but expresses equality or inaneqovalnce ace 4 fesese] Reena {In an equation both dee dedeee 63 Eis the same as 2x6 sides must be equal, EE is the same as CERES otc, Lae