A LEVEL

12 Motion in a circle

12.1 Radian measure and angular displacement

Learning outcomes
By the end of this topic, you will be able to:
12.1 Kinematics of uniform circular motion
1 define the radian and express angular
displacement in radians
2 understand and use the concept of angular
speed
3 recall and use ω = 2π/T and v = r ω
12.2 Centripetal acceleration
1 understand that a force of constant
magnitude that is always perpendicular to
the direction of motion causes centripetal
acceleration
2 understand that centripetal acceleration
causes circular motion with a constant
angular speed
3 recall and use a = r ω 2 and a = v 2/r
4 recall and use F = mrω 2 and F = mv2/r

Starting points
★ Velocity is instantaneous speed in a given direction.
★ An acceleration is change in velocity brought about by a resultant force.
★ Newton’s laws of motion.

12.1 Radian measure and angular displacement

In circular motion, it is convenient to measure angles in radians rather than degrees.
One degree is, by tradition, equal to the angle of a complete circle divided by 360.

One radian (rad) is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an
arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.

length Thus, to obtain an angle in radians, we divide the length of the arc by the radius of the
of arc s circle (see Figure 12.1).
radius r
θ = length of arc  = s 
 
q radius of circle  r 

q = 1 rad The angle in radians in a complete circle would be

when s = r

θ = circumference of the circle = 2πr = 2π

▲ Figure 12.1 θ in radians radius of circle r
= arc/radius
Since the angle of a complete circle is 360°, then
2π rad = 360°

or
1 rad = 57.3°

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 Angular speed
12 For an object moving in a circle:

The angular speed is defined as the angle swept out by the radius of the circle per
unit time.

The angular velocity is the angular speed in a given direction (for example, clockwise).
The unit of angular speed and angular velocity is the radian per second (rad s –1).
12 MOTION IN A CIRCLE

angular speed ω = ∆θ
∆t

Figure 12.2 shows an object travelling at constant speed v in a circle of radius r.

∆s
In a time ∆t the object moves along an arc of length ∆s and sweeps out an angle ∆θ.
v From the definition of the radian,
r ∆q
∆θ = ∆s/r or ∆s = r∆θ
Dividing both sides of this equation by ∆t,
∆s/∆t = r∆θ/∆t
By definition, for small angles, ∆s/∆t is the linear speed v of the object, and ∆θ/∆t is the
angular speed ω. Hence,
▲ Figure 12.2 Angular
velocity ω = v/r
v = rω

Also, if an object makes one complete revolution of a circle in time T, the object will
have rotated through 2π rad. So, its angular speed ω will be given by

2π
ω=
T

WORKED EXAMPLE 12A

A rocket makes a turn in a horizontal circle of radius 150 m. It is travelling at a
speed of 240 m s –1.
Calculate the angular speed of the aircraft.

Answer
From v = rω, the angular speed ω is 240/150 = 1.6 rad s–1.

Questions 1 A car is travelling along a circular path with linear speed 18 m s –1 and angular speed
0.30 rad s –1. What is the radius of curvature of the track?
2 A ball on a track travels round a complete loop in a time of 1.4 s. Calculate the
average angular speed of the ball.

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 12.2 Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force
Newton’s first law of motion (see Topic 3.1) tells us that an object with a resultant force
of zero acting on it will either not be moving at all, or it will be moving in a straight
12
line at constant speed (that is, its velocity does not change). The object is said to be in
equilibrium. (The full conditions of equilibrium require there to be no resultant force
and no resultant moment acting on the object.)
An object travelling in a circle may have a constant speed, but it is not travelling in
a straight line. The velocity is changing as velocity is a vector (has magnitude and

12.2 Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force

direction) and its direction is changing. A change in velocity means the object is
accelerating.
This acceleration is towards the centre of the circle. It is called the centripetal
acceleration. In order to make an object accelerate, there must be a resultant force
acting on it. This resultant force is called the centripetal force. The centripetal force acts
towards the centre of the circle, in the same direction as the acceleration. This means
that the resultant force, the centripetal force, has constant magnitude and always acts at
right angles to the instantaneous velocity of the object.
Consider a ball on a string which is being swung in a horizontal circle. The tension in
the string provides the centripetal force.

path
direction At any instant, the direction of the ball’s velocity is along the tangent to the circle, as
of velocity shown in Figure 12.3. If the string breaks or is released, there is no longer any tension
of ball
in the string and hence no centripetal force. The ball will travel in the direction of the
direction of force tangent to the circle at the moment of release.
and acceleration
Figure 12.4 shows an object which has travelled at constant speed v in a circular path
from A to B in time ∆t. At A, its velocity is vA, and at B the velocity is vB. Both vA and vB
▲ Figure 12.3 A ball are vectors.
swung in a circle on the The change in velocity ∆v may be seen in the vector diagram of Figure 12.5. A vector ∆v
end of a string
must be added to vA in order to give the new velocity vB.
∆s The angle between the two radii OA and OB is ∆ . This angle is also equal to the angle
vA between the vectors vA and vB, because triangles OAB and CDE are similar. Consider
vB
B A angle ∆ to be so small that the arc AB may be approximated to a straight line. Then,
using similar triangles, DE/CD = AB/OA, and ∆v/vA = ∆s/r or
∆q r
∆v = ∆s(vA /r)
O The time to travel either the distance ∆s or the angle ∆ is ∆t. Dividing both sides of the
equation by ∆t,
∆v/∆t = (∆s/∆t)(vA /r)
▲ Figure 12.4 and from the definitions of acceleration (a = ∆v/∆t) and speed (v = ∆s/∆t = vA = vB) we
Diagram for proof have a = v(v/r) or a = v2/r.
of a = v2 /r
This expression can be written in terms of angular speed ω. Since v = rω, then
D

vA 2
centripetal acceleration = v = rω 2
r
∆v ∆q C
Now, force F is related to acceleration a by the expression F = ma, where m is the mass of
the object.
vB

2
E centripetal force = mv = mrω 2
r
▲ Figure 12.5 Vector
diagram for proof of
a = v2 /r
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 WORKED EXAMPLE 12B
12 The drum of a spin dryer has a radius of 50 cm and rotates at 720 revolutions per
minute.
a Show that the angular speed of the drum is about 75 rad s –1.
b Calculate, for a point on the edge of the drum:
i its linear speed
ii its acceleration towards the centre of the drum.
12 MOTION IN A CIRCLE

Answers
a 720 revolutions per minute is 12 revolutions per second. Each revolution is
2π rad, so the angular speed ω = 2π × 12 = 75 rad s–1.
b i Using v = rω, v = 0.50 × 75 = 38 m s–1 (37.7 m s–1).
ii Using a = v2/r, a = (37.7)2/0.50 = 2800 m s–2 (2840 m s–2).

Questions 3 A toy train moves round a circular track of diameter 0.76 m, completing one
revolution in 12 seconds. Calculate, for this train:
a the linear speed
b the angular speed
c the centripetal acceleration.
4 A stone attached to a string is moving in a horizontal circle of radius 96 cm.
The stone has mass 64 g and completes one revolution in 0.72 s. Calculate the
tension in the string, keeping the stone in its circular path.

Examples of circular motion

When a ball is whirled round on the end of a string, you can see clearly that the tension
in the string is making the ball accelerate towards the centre of the circle. However, in
other examples it is not always so easy to see what force is providing the centripetal
acceleration.
A satellite in Earth orbit experiences gravitational attraction towards the centre of the
Earth. This attractive force provides the centripetal force and causes the satellite to
accelerate towards the centre of the Earth, and so it moves in a circle. We shall return to
this in detail in Topic 13.2.
A charged particle moving at right angles to a magnetic field experiences a constant
force at right angles to its direction of motion and, therefore, moves in the arc of a circle.
This will be considered in more detail in Topic 20.3.
For a car travelling in a curved path, the frictional force between the tyres and the road
surface provides the centripetal force. If this frictional force is not large enough, for
example if the road is oily or slippery, then the car carries on moving in a straight
line – it skids.
A passenger in a car that is cornering appears to be flung away from the centre of the
circle. The centripetal force required to maintain the passenger in circular motion is
provided through the seat of the car. This force is below the centre of mass M of the
passenger, causing rotation about the centre of mass (see Figure 12.6). The effect is that
the upper part of the passenger moves outwards unless another force acts on the upper
part of the body, preventing rotation.

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 resultant
force F

rotation
of road
on vehicle Fv
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about M

centre of Fh
mass M

12.2 Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force

force towards
centre of
circle weight
▲ Figure 12.7 Cornering
▲ Figure 12.6 Passenger in a car rounding a corner on a banked track

For cornering which does not rely only on friction, the road can be banked (Figure 12.7).
The road provides a resultant force normal to its surface through contact between
the tyres and the road. This resultant force F is at an angle to the vertical, and can be
resolved into a vertical component Fv and a horizontal component Fh, as shown in
Figure 12.7. Fv is equal to the weight of the vehicle, thus maintaining equilibrium in the
vertical direction. The horizontal component Fh provides the centripetal force towards
the centre of the circle. Many roads are banked for greater road safety, so as to reduce
the chance of loss of control of vehicles due to skidding outwards on the corner, and for
greater passenger comfort.
An aircraft has a lift force caused by the different rates of flow of air above and below
the wings. The lift force balances the weight of the aircraft when it flies on a straight,
level path (Figure 12.8a). In order to change direction, the aircraft is banked so that the
wings are at an angle to the horizontal (Figure 12.8b). The lift force now has a horizontal
component which provides a centripetal force to change the aircraft’s direction.
a) b)

lift

lift lift lift

weight weight

▲ Figure 12.8 An aircraft a) in straight, level flight and b) banking

A centrifuge (Figure 12.9) is a device that is used to spin objects at high speed about an
axis. It is used to separate particles in mixtures. More massive particles require larger
centripetal forces in order to maintain circular motion than do less massive ones. As a
result, the more massive particles tend to separate from less massive particles, collecting
further away from the axis of rotation. Space research centres, such as NASA, use
centrifuges which are large enough to rotate a person (Figure 12.10, overleaf).
Their purpose is to investigate the effects of large accelerations on the human body.

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12
12 MOTION IN A CIRCLE

▲ Figure 12.9 Separation of a solid ▲ Figure 12.10 Centrifuge testing the effect of
from a liquid in a laboratory acceleration on the human body
centrifuge

Motion in a vertical circle

Some theme park rides involve rotation in a vertical circle (Figure 12.11). A person on
such a ride must have a resultant force acting towards the centre of the circle.
The forces acting on the person are the person’s weight, which always acts vertically
downwards, and the normal contact force from the seat, which acts at right angles to
the seat.

normal
contact
force Rt
weight W

normal
contact
force Rb

▲ Figure 12.11 A big wheel at a theme park

weight W Consider a person moving round a vertical circle at speed v.
▲ Figure 12.12 Forces on At the bottom of the ride, the normal contact force Rb from the seat must provide
a person on a circular the centripetal force, as well as overcoming the weight W of the person. Figure 12.12
ride illustrates the situation.

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 The centripetal force is given by
mv2/r = Rb – W
At the top of the ride, the weight W and the normal contact force Rt both act downwards
12
towards the centre of the circle. The centripetal force is now given by
mv2/r = Rt + W
This means that the force Rt from the seat at the top of the ride is less than the force Rb
at the bottom. If the speed v is not large, then at the top of the circle the weight may be
greater than the centripetal force. The person would lose contact with the seat and fall

12.2 Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force

inwards.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12C

A rope is tied to a bucket filled with water, and the bucket is swung in a vertical
circle of radius 1.2 m. What must be the minimum speed of the bucket at the highest
point of the circle if the water is to stay in the bucket throughout the motion?

Answer
This example is similar to the problem of the theme park ride. Water will fall out of
the bucket if its weight is greater than the centripetal force. The critical speed v is
given by mv2/r = mg or v2 = gr.
Here, v = 3.4 m s–1.

Question 5 At an air show, an aircraft diving at a speed of 180 m s –1 pulls out of the dive by
moving in the arc of a circle at the bottom of the dive.
a Calculate the minimum radius of this circle if the centripetal acceleration of the
aircraft is not to exceed five times the acceleration of free fall.
b The pilot has mass 85 kg. What is the resultant force upwards on him at the
instant when the aircraft is at its lowest point?

SUMMARY
» Angles may be measured in radians (rad).
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc of the circle equal in length to
its radius.
» Angular speed ω is the angle swept out per unit
time by a line rotating about a point.
» A particle moving along a circle of radius r
with linear speed v has angular speed ω given
by v = rω .
» A particle that takes time T to complete one
revolution of a circle has angular speed ω = 2π/T.
» A resultant force acting towards the centre of the
circle, called the centripetal force, is required to
make an object move in a circle.
» An object moving along a circle of radius r with
linear speed v and angular speed ω has an
acceleration a towards the centre (the centripetal
acceleration) given by a = v2/r = rω 2 .
» For an object of mass m moving along a circle
of radius r with linear speed v and angular
speed ω , the centripetal force F is given by
F = mv2 /r = mrω2 .

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 END OF TOPIC QUESTIONS
12 1 State how the centripetal force is provided in the following examples:
a a planet orbiting the Sun,
b a child on a playground roundabout,
c a train on a curved track,
d a passenger in a car going round a corner.
2 NASA’s 20-G centrifuge is used for testing space equipment and the effect of
acceleration on humans. The centrifuge consists of an arm of length 17.8 m,
12 MOTION IN A CIRCLE

rotating at constant speed and producing an acceleration equal to 20 times the

acceleration of free fall. Calculate:
a the angular speed required to produce a centripetal acceleration of 20g,
b the rate of rotation of the arm (g = 9.81m s–2).
3 A satellite orbits the Earth 200 km above its surface. The acceleration towards the
centre of the Earth is 9.2 m s–2. The radius of the Earth is 6400 km. Calculate:
a the speed of the satellite,
b the time to complete one orbit.
4 A light rigid rod is pivoted at one end C so that the rod rotates in a vertical circle at
constant speed as shown in Fig. 12.13.
ball,
mass m

light rod
0.72 m

C
▲ Figure 12.13
A small ball of mass m is fixed to the free end of the rod so that the ball moves in a
vertical circle. When the ball is vertically above point C, the tension T in the rod is
given by
T = 2mg
where g is the acceleration of free fall.
a i Explain why the centripetal force on the ball is not equal to 2mg. [2]
ii State, in terms of mg:
1 the magnitude of the centripetal force, [1]
2 the tension in the rod when the ball is vertically below point C. [1]
b The distance from point C to the centre of the ball is 0.72 m.
Determine, for the ball:
i the angular speed, [3]
ii the linear speed. [2]
Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics (9646) Paper 03 Q2 parts a and b
Oct/Nov 2010

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