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A Review On Bricks and Stabilized Compressed Earth
A Review On Bricks and Stabilized Compressed Earth
Review
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
Accepted 18 March, 2010
This paper is a review of the state of uses of clay bricks and stabilized compressed earth blocks. We
offer an overview of the world general building using clay bricks or stabilized compressed earth blocks
compiled from various research organizations, modern projects which have been carried out and
reports from existing manufacturing of clay bricks or stabilized compressed earth blocks. Although,
stabilized compressed earth blocks as construction materials are highly unknown to most people, its
advantages are seen in terms of rescuing the heritage and also as rediscovered environmentally-
friendly building materials.
INTRODUCTION
The history of civilization is synonymous to the history of water and allow mosquitoes to breed. Extensive sand
masonry. Man’s first civilization, which started about 6000 mining can lower the river- beds and allow salt-water
years ago, was evident from the remains of the intrusion inland. Therefore, the development of many
Mesopotamians masonry heritage. During those days, alternative walling materials as possible will be of
masonry buildings were constructed from any available immense benefit to minimize the impact on the environ-
material at hand. The Mesopotamians used bricks, made ment. Earth can be used for construction of walls in many
from alluvial deposits of the nearby River Euphrates and ways. However, there are few undesirable properties
Tigris to build their cities beside two rivers. Where such as loss of strength when saturated with water,
civilization existed in the vicinity of mountains or rocky erosion due to wind or driving rain and poor dimensional
outcrops, stone was used. The Egyptian pyramids that stability. These draw backs can be eliminated signify-
existed along the rocky borders of the Nile valley were cantly by stabilizing the soil with a chemical agent such
examples of such stone masonry. In the Eastern as cement. Cement stabilized soil is generally used as
civilization, remains of historical masonry are the reputed individual blocks compacted either with manual
Great Wall of China, which is considered as one of the hydraulically operated machines. Significant research
seven construction wonders in the world. data are available for these applications either as block
The prevision of good quality housing is recognized as strength or wall strength (Perera and Jayasingh, 2003;
an important responsibility for welfare of people in any Reddy and Jagadish, 1989).
country. For this, building materials based on natural The early forms of masonry application in Malaysia
resources are often used. Some examples are the use of dated back about 350 years ago with the construction of
clay for making bricks, and river sand for making cement the Stadthuys in Malacca, built by the Dutch in 1650. The
sand blocks. The commercial exploitation of these British colonized the Malaysia Peninsula initiated a more
resources often leads to various environmental problems. modern form of masonry construction. Brickwork
If clay mines are not properly filled up, they can collect buildings were at that time built specially for government
offices, quarters and residential homes. The administra-
tive block, Sultan Abdul Samad building built in 1894 and
given a face-lift during the Fourth Malaysia Plan (1981-
*Corresponding author. E-mail: eng.sadek30@gmail.com. Tel: 1985) is an example of a masonry heritage, which stands
6016 981 8692. Fax: 603 7967 5318. as a remarkable landmark of Kuala Lumpur. During the
500 Sci. Res. Essays
Figure 2. Mean compressive strength of walls against strength for 102 mm thick brickwork in
various mortars Hendry, (1990).
Table 1. Classification of bricks by compressive strength and water absorption (BS 3921:( 1985)
for construction with aesthetics and strength require- boiling test gives fully saturated condition where all pores
ments. All other brick and damp proof- course bricks are filled up with water. The saturation coefficient ranges
should have strengths not less than 5 N/mm2. However, from about 0.4 - 0.95; the lower value of around 0.4
the damp-proof course is divided into two in accordance indicates high durability and higher values of around
to water absorption. 0.95, low durability (Khalaf and Venny, 2002). Other
In the American Standard (ASTM), compressive durability indices have also been developed based on
strengths are classified in accordance to the different relationship of porosity and water absorption. Table 4
grades of weathering and exposure condition as shows the durability indices developed by Surej et al.
indicated in Table 2. The grades of weathering can be (1998).
negligible (NW), moderate (MW) or server (SW) These durability indices, which are function of porosity
depending on the damp zoning as given in ASTM. and water absorption of bricks is shown in the Equation
According to the Australian Standard (AS 1225 - 1984) 1. DIAP (C) and DIAP (S) refer to durability index which is
the characteristics compressive strength characteristics is based on absorption properties derived from the cold
specified, against values for the ration of manufacturing immersion absorption property and suction property,
height to manufacturing width as reflected in Table 3. respectively.
Table 4. Limit of durability indices (Surej et al, 1998). lower environmental burden offers opportunities for
significant reductions in energy use and carbon dioxide
Limiting values emissions. One of the most effective alternatives to
Index
Durable Non-durable Portland cement is GGBS, which has the potential to
DIAP(C) > 90 < 75 typically replace up to 80% of the Portland cement (Oti et
DIAP(S) > 85 < 70 al., 2008a). GGBS has extremely low energy usage and
CO2 emission when compared with PC. The energy
usage of 1 ton of GGBS is 1300 MJ, with a corresponding
CO2 emission of just 0.07 ton Higgins (2007), while the
initial rate suction. equivalent energy usage of 1 ton of PC is about 5000 MJ
Higgins (2007), with at least 1 ton of CO2 emitted to the
atmospheres (Wild, 2003).
Clay brick density Literature review on stabilized earth masonry
bricks/blocks revealed that there is a growing interest in
Raw materials and manufacturing process affect bricks stabilized earth building materials development with
density, which could vary between 1300 - 2200 kg/m3. respect to an energy conscious and ecological design,
The density of bricks influences the weight of walls and which fulfils all strength and serviceability requirements
the variations in weight have implications on structural, for thermal transmittance. There are previous researches
acoustical and thermal design of the wall. Incorrect studies reported on compressive strength and erosion
assumptions on wall weight can result in inaccurate dead characteristics of earth blocks/ rammed earth wall
loads and seismic loads, reduced factor of safety in shear (Heathcote, 1991; Walker 2004; Jayasinghe and
walls and overestimate of acoustical transmission loss Kamaladasa, 2007). The work by (Jayasinghe and
(Grimm, 1996). Mallawaarachchi, 2009) was on flexural strength of
compressed stabilized earth masonry materials. Reddy et
al. (2007) reported on enhancing bond strength and
Stabilized compressed earth blocks characteristics of soil-cement block masonry. This resur-
gence of renewed research interest in recent years in
The new technology focuses on stabilized earth masonry stabilized earth building bricks may be partially due to its
brick development incorporating an industrial by-product potential as a commercial construction material. The fact
material, which is vital for the future of construction. The that, a single element can fulfill several functions
stabilized earth masonry brick technology relies on the including structural integrity, thermal transmittance and
use of an activated industrial by-product (Ground durability in service makes the material an excellent
Granulated Blast-furnace Slag – GGBS) and natural walling material when compared to the fired earth bricks
earth. Due to the use of a by-product material in the used in mainstream construction of today.
formulation, it is anticipated that the final pricing of the Earth as a construction material has been used for
stabilized earth masonry building brick will be reduced. thousands years by civilizations all over the world. Many
The added environmental advantage of utilizing industrial different techniques have been developed; the methods
by-products available in the country will further improve used vary according to the local climate and environment
the sustainability profile of masonry brick production. The as walls as local traditions and customs. As a modest
use of a cement replacement material (GGBS) with a estimate, it is thought that as many as 30% of the world’s
Deboucha and Hashim 503
populations live in a home constructed in earth (Houben current soil-cement block production systems. Soil-
and Guillaud, 1994). The compressed earth block is a cement blocks are usually smaller than sandcrete blocks
modern descendent of moulded earth block, more com- and consequently, they are more costly to lay because of
monly known as the adobe block. The idea of compacting the increased laying time and additional mortar required
earth to improve the quality and performance of moulded per square meter. Using local cost data for predictions, it
earth blocks is, however, far from new and it was with was found that further savings, in the order of 50%, are
wooden tamps that the first compressed earth blocks potentially possible if impact compaction of larger size
were produced. The first machines for compressing earth soil-cement blocks (equivalent to the size of current sand-
probably dated from the 18th century. But the turning crete blocks) were investigated. However, it was found
point in the use of presses and the way in which that at present, soil-cement is disadvantaged by the
compressed earth blocks were used for building and incorrect perception that, it is not a "permanent" building
architectural purpose came only in effect from 1952, material; it is strongly associated with traditional
following the invention of the famous little CINVA-RAM unstabilized soil construction in the minds of many. It was
press, designed by engineer Raul Ramirez as walls as its found that nomenclature was the prime reason for this
technical worth. During the 1950s, use of the material association and that this may be remedied through the
was widely disseminated. In 1960s and early 1970s were removal of "soil" from the material's name. The soil, raw
however stagnant years. This was to change the 1976 or stabilized, for compressed earth block (CEB) is slightly
Vancouver Assembly of the United Nations conference moistened, poured into press (with or without stabilizer)
on Human Settlement. and then compressed either with a manual or motorized
Continued interest in CSBs (Cement Stabilized Blocks) press. CEB can be compressed in many different shapes
will in the future evolve around the several merits and and sizes. The input soil stabilization allowed building
attractions associated with its use. Firstly, as the basic with thinner walls, also, having better compressive
raw material is soil, its source will remain abundant. This strength and water resistance. With cement stabilization,
facilitates direct site-to-service application, thereby, the blocks must be cured for four weeks after
lowering costs normally associated with acquisition, manufacturing.
transportation and production. Home ownership can then Subsequently, it can be used like common bricks with a
be delivered at comparatively low costs. Secondly, the soil cement stabilized mortar. Since the early days,
initial performance characteristics of the material such as compressed earth blocks are most of the time stabilized.
the wet compressive strength (WCS) dimensional Many stabilizers can be used. Cement and lime is the
stability, total water absorption (TWA), block dry density most common ones. Others, like chemicals, resins or
(BDD) and durability are technically acceptable. They are natural products can be used as wells.
also comparable to those of rival materials (ILO:
International Labour Organization, 1987; Houben and
Guillaud, 1994; Houben et al., 1996). Houses constructed Compressive strength
of CSBs also uniquely offer better internal climatic
conditions than other modern materials (Fullerton, 1979; The compressive strength of compressed stabilized earth
Hughes, 1983). Thirdly, promoting the use of CSBs gene- building blocks (that is, the amount of pressure can resist
rates more direct and indirect employment opportunities without collapsing) depends upon the soil type, type and
within the local populace than would be in the case with amount of stabilizer and the compaction pressure used to
other materials. Fourthly, use of the material contributes form the block. Maximum strengths (described in MN/m2)
directly to the social, cultural and educational advance- are obtained by proper mixing of suitable materials and
ment of the population (Schumacher, 1973; Anderson et proper compacting and curing.
al., 1982; Aksa, 1984). Cement blocks were found to be a In practice, typical wet compressive strengths for
major construction material in both urban and peri-urban compressed stabilized earth building blocks may be less
areas and are increasingly becoming the basic walling than 4 MN/m2. However, some Sudanese black cotton
material in these areas. soil when stabilized with hydrated high calcium lime to
The block quality obtained for a given production cost is give wet compressive strengths in the range of 6 - 8
much below that which could be achieved. Problems MN/m2, strength suitable for many building purposes. It
were observed with raw material testing, cement optima- also competes favourably, for example, with the minimum
zation, mixing, batching, mould filling, compaction and British Standard requirements of 2.8 MN/m2 for precast
curing. These problems could be reduced if producers concrete masonry units and load bearing fired clay blocks
were more informed, better skilled, equipped with better and of 5.2 N/m2 for bricks.
production and testing equipment and more diligent in Where building loads are small (e.g. in the case of
quality control. It was found that micro-enterprise single storey constructions), a compressive strength of 1
production of soil-cement could offer cost savings over - 4 MN/m2 may be sufficient. Many building authorities
sandcrete walling (www.earth ouroville.com). The cost around the world recommend values within this range
advantage is small (0 - 30%) for built-up walling using (CDE, 1998).
504 Sci. Res. Essays
Table 5. Properties of compressed stabilized earth blocks versus other walling materials (Adam, 2001).
Normally, compressed stabilized earth blocks are denser (i) Soil is available in large quantities in most regions.
than a number of concrete masonry products such as (ii) Cheap and affordable - in most parts of the world soil
aerated and lightweight concrete blocks. Table 5 shows is easily accessible to low-income groups. In some
the range of various types of bricks e.g. clay, calcium locations it is the only material available.
silicate and concrete bricks. (iii) Easy to use - usually no specialized equipment is
The high density of compressed stabilized earth blocks required.
may be considered as an disadvantage when the blocks (iv) Suitable as a construction material for most parts of
have to be transported over long distances; however, it is the building.
of little consequence when they are produced at or near (v) Fire resistant - non-combustible with excellent fire
the construction site. Low density compressed stabilized resistance properties.
earth blocks have an advantage over high density ones (vi) Beneficial climatic performance in most regions due
of acting as better thermal insulators. to its high thermal capacity, low thermal conductivity and
This is particularly, advantageous in hot dry climates porosity, thus, it can moderate extreme outdoor tempera-
where extreme temperatures can be moderated inside tures and maintain a satisfactory internal temperature
buildings made of compressed stabilized earth blocks. balance.
For example, the El Haj Yousif School in Sudan as (vii) Low energy input in processing and handling soil-
presented in Figure 3 (Adam, 2001). only about 1% of the energy required manufacturing and
Deboucha and Hashim 505
processing the same volume of cement concrete. This Sudan. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Technical Note No12 comparing adobe with fired clay bricks.
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