Acid buret – is a glass vial with graduation
marks. It is used in the laboratory for accurately
measuring and dispensing liquids.
Adapter – used to connect pieces of ground
glass joint glassware to each other, to a vacuum
source, or to a water aspirator. It is also used to
lead liquids from a condenser to a receiving flask
during distillation.
Alkali/Base Buret – are used for base titrants.
Basically, this is used in titrations where the
analyte is an acid.
Beaker – A cylindrical borosilicate
glass container used as a receptable
for solid and liquid substances.
Buret clamp – a clamp
which is used to secure
a buret on a stand.
Clay shield – used to insulate
the Bunsen burner flame from
the surroundings. It is also used
to support materials when
heating.
Clay triangle – used in conjunction
with the clay shield to create a stable
framework in which to place a
substance while it is heated to
a high temperature.
Condenser – used in the laboratory to condense
hot vapors into liquids during distillation.
Crucible Tong – It is used to safely handle hot
materials at a very high temperature.
Distilling Flask – used to separate
mixtures of two liquids with
different boiling points.
Dropper – used to transfer
small quantities of liquids.
Erlenmeyer Flask – used for storing
and mixing of chemicals in a
laboratory setting.
Evaporating Dish – used to
evaporate excess solvent to
produce a concentrated solution
or a solid precipitate of the
dissolved substance.
Florence Flask – is designed for
uniform heating, boiling, distillation
and ease of swirling.
Funnel – used to channel liquid or
fine-grained substances into
containers with a small opening.
Glass rod/Stirring rod – used to mix chemicals
and liquids for laboratory purposes.
Graduated Cylinder – used for measuring
Volumes (amounts) of liquids accurately.
Iron clamp/Test tube clamp
– used to hold test tubes in
place during heating
operations and/or reactions.
Iron Ring – used to hold or
Support beakers during
experiments while connected
to the iron stand.
Iron stand – supports the iron ring
when heating substances or mixtures
in a flask or beakers.
Pipette – used in chemistry to
transport a measured volume of liquid,
often as a media dispenser.
Pipettor/ Aspirator- used to
draw liquids in pipettes.
Test tube – are containers for heating Alcohol lamp –
small amounts of liquids or solids with
a Bunsen burner or alcohol burner.

Test tube brush – used for cleaning test tubes

and narrow-mouthed laboratory glassware, such
as beakers and flask.

Test tube holder - used for holding a test tube in

place when the tube is hot or should not be
touched.

Test tube rack – used to hold upright multiple

test tubes at the same time.
Commonly used when
various different solutions
are needed to work
simultaneously.

Thermometer – used to measure temperatures

or temperature changes with a high degree of
precision.

Water bath – used to incubate samples in water

at a constant temperature over a long period of
time. Also used to enable certain chemical
reactions to occur.

Watch glass – is used to evaporate a liquid, to

hold solids while being weighed, for heating a
small amount of substance and as a cover for a
beaker.
Wire gauze – is placed on the support ring that is
attached to the retort stand between the Bunsen
burner and the beakers or other glassware or
flasks during heating.
One of the common operations in the laboratory
is the use of a Bunsen burner. It produces a
single open flame which is used for heating
and combustion. Combustion is commonly
called burning. The substance that burns is
usually referred to as fuel. Sufficient air or
oxygen is needed for the complete combustion of
a fuel.
1. Bunsen Burner

 Complete combustion of a fuel yields
carbon dioxide and water vapor. This
reaction typically gives off heat and a
non-luminous flame. The general
equation for a complete combustion
reaction is
fuel + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) + heat
 Incomplete combustion occurs when
the supply of air or oxygen is poor. It
yields carbon monoxide and pure
carbon aside from carbon dioxide and
water vapor. This pure carbon is called
soot. The flame produced is a luminous
one.
fuel + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
+ CO(g) + C(s) + heat
Parts of a bunsen burner:
Parts of a Bunsen Burner and Their Functions:
 Barrel - where the fuel and air mixes
 Air hole – entrance of the air
 Mouth – place of ignition
 Gas inlet – entrance of the fuel gas
 Gas regulator – valve that controls the
fuel gas coming into the gas spud
 Gas spud – regulates/controls the amount
of fuel gas to be combusted
 Collar – movable part that
regulates/controls the amount of air
coming in and to close and open the air
holes
 Base – supports the Bunsen burner
 Rubber tubing – attached to the gas inlet
and connected to the gas source
Note the gas inlet and the nozzle or gas spud
at the base of the burner.
 Before lighting the Bunsen burner, make
sure that the gas regulator is closed and
the airholes are open.
 Open the gas regulator slightly.
 Light a matchstick and hold it just slightly
above the mouth of the burner.
 Slowly open the gas cock until you have a
flame of about ten cm high.
 Open and close the air holes and note the
difference in the color of the flame.
 Put out the flame by turning off the gas
cock and close the gas regulator. NEVER
BLOW OUT THE GAS FLAME.
2. Measurement of volume of liquids.
In reading the volume, place the graduated
cylinder on a flat surface and keep the eye at
level with the lower meniscus of the liquid
Record the volumes of liquids in approximately
two decimal places.
NOTE: For reading the volume of colored liquids,
keep the eye level with the upper
meniscus.
3. Transferring Liquids
- Hold the beaker with water with one hand
and a glass rod with the other.
- Hold the glass rod against the lip of the
beaker containing the water and put the
free end of the rod into an empty 250 mL
beaker.
- Carefully pour the water and let it glide
down the glass rod into the empty
beaker
4. Heating liquids in test tubes
- Hold the test tube with a test tube holder
and position it at a 45˚ angle.
- Heat the liquid by moving the test tube
slowly back and forth through the flame
in such a manner that the top of the flame
is near the top of the liquid but does
not touch the empty part of the test
tube.
5. Investigating odors
- Many substances have characteristic
odors. Some have agreeable odors
 while others have disagreeable or
irritating odors.
- Be cautious in investigating odors. Some
vapors, when inhaled, can be lethal.
- Never take a direct sniff of the vapor at
the mouth of the container where the
concentration of the vapor is high.
- When it is necessary to smell chemicals in
the laboratory, cup your hand above the
container and WAFT OR FAN THE
VAPOR towards your face.
- Try not to breathe in through your nose
but bring in just enough to detect the
smell.
Heat energy is transferred from a hot metal to
water until the metal and the water have
reached the same temperature. This transfer is
done in an insulated container to minimize heat
losses to the surroundings. It is safe to assume
that all the heat lost by the metal (Qx) is absorbed
by the water and is equal to the heat gained by
the water, (Qw).
This relationship can be used to calculate specific
heat of a metal because both the mass of the
metal and its temperature change can be
measured.

The bottom of the test tube should be at least one

CALORIMETRY
 Calorimetry is the science of measuring a
quantity of heat.
 Heat is a form of energy associated with
the motion of atoms or molecules of a
substance.
 Heat, Q, is measured in energy units such
as joules (J) or calories (cal).
 Temperature, T, is measured in degrees
Celsius,°C.
 Temperature and heat are related to
each other by the specific heat, cp, of a
substance, defined as the quantity of heat
needed to raise the temperature one gram
of a substance by one degree Celsius
(J/g-°C).
 The relationship between quantity of heat
(Q), specific heat (cp), mass (m) and
temperature change (∆T) is
mathematically expressed by the
equation:
Q = mcp∆ T or Joules = (g)(J/g -°C)(°C)
– half inch above the
bottom of the beaker.
Fill the beaker with tap water so that the height of
the water in the beaker is about two
inches higher than the top of the metal sample.
There should be no water inside the test
tube.
The nested cups with the cardboard cover and
the thermometer are referred to as a calorimeter.
It is important that the transfer takes place
quickly and carefully to minimize heat loss to
the surroundings and to avoid splashing.
the specific heat of the metal versus the atomic
mass of the scorresponding metal. THE
SPECIFIC HEAT IS INVERSELY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE ATOMIC MASS OF
THE METAL.

The amount of heat needed to raise the

temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree Celsius is
the basis of the calorie.
Thus, the specific heat of water is exactly 1.00
cal/g∙0C. The SI unit of energy is the joule and it
is related to the calorie by: 1 calorie = 4.184 J.
Thus, the specific heat of water is also 4.184
J/g∙0C. The specific heat of a substance
relates to its capacity to absorb heat energy.

The higher the specific heat of a substance

the more energy required to change its
temperature.

In this experiment, calorimetry is used to

determine the specific heat of a metal.
 HEAT OF COMBUSTION
 The combustion of organic compounds
like alcohols produces large quantities
of energy.
 Ethanol is a commonly used fuel in motor
cars and its usage is increasing because it
is a form of renewable energy.
 A good fuel is any substance which gives
out large amounts of energy when it is
burnt. In most cases, fuels are burnt in
oxygen (air), i.e., they are oxidized.
This experiment aims to investigate the
relationship between the number of carbon atoms
in an alcohol chain and its standard enthalpy
change of combustion.
The heat of combustion (standard enthalpy
change of combustion) is the enthalpy change
when one mole of the compound undergoes
complete combustion in excess oxygen under
standard conditions.
It is given the symbol ΔH˚comb and standard
conditions simply refer to room conditions with a
temperature of 298K and a pressure of 1 atm.
The combustion of alcohol is an exothermic
process. It releases heat to the surrounding
resulting to a negative value.
NOTE: Alcohols are organic substances that are
flammable and easily catch fire when
exposed to naked flames. It is a fire hazard. Care
must be taken to ensure that any
spills are being cleaned up immediately. Safety
goggles must be worn while
performing this experiment. A fire extinguisher
should also be kept close by in case
of emergencies.
what relationship can be drawn between the
number of carbon atoms and their standard
enthalpies of combustion? – They are directly
proportional to each other.
5 types of combustion and define each type.
1. Complete - ccurs in an unlimited supply of
air, oxygen in particular. Also, complete
combustion is also known as clean
combustion.
2. Incomplete - takes place when the air is
in limited supply. And as opposed to
complete combustion it is otherwise
known as dirty combustion. Due to lack of
oxygen, the fuel will not react completely.
3. Rapid - Rapid energy needs external heat
energy for the reaction to occur. The
combustion produces a large amount of
heat and light energy and does so rapidly.
The combustion will carry on as long as
the fuel is available.
4. Spontaneous - it requires no external
energy for the combustion to start. It
happens due to self-heating. A substance
with low-ignition temperatures gets heated
and this heat is unable to escape.
5. Explosive - when the reaction occurs very
rapidly. The reaction occurs when
something ignites to produce heat, light
and sound energy, The simple way to
describe is it to call it an explosion.
Examples of combustion in everyday life
- Burning of Wood or Coal to heat your
home
- Burning of Petrol or Diesel to run your Car
- Combustion of Natural Gas or LPG to
cook for on your stovetop
 - For the production of energy in thermal
power plantt
- Fireworks
Ethanol (C2H6O)
Propanol (C3H8O)
Butanol (C4H10O)
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTIONS
Reduction reaction refers to the gain of
electrons by a chemical particle while oxidation
is the loss of electron by another chemical
particle.
The particle that loses electrons is said to be
oxidized and that one that gains these
electrons is said to be reduced. Redox is the
term that comes from the combination of the
two words “reduction” and “oxidation”.
Oxidation and reduction always occur
simultaneously. That is, if one element is
oxidized by losing electron then another element
has to be reduced by taking/ gaining those
electrons.
METAL AND SOME ASPECTS OF
CORROSION
Metals are composed of atoms which easily
lose electrons and form cations. They possess
a lustrous appearance, have high thermal and
electrical conductivities and are malleable and
ductile.
Corrosion is a general term applied to the
process in which uncombined metals, when left
exposed, eventually combine with the elements
surrounding them (e.g. oxygen from the air) to
form compounds.
In this special case of iron, the corrosion
process is called rusting because the compound
formed is a rust, Fe2O3∙H2O.
LABORATORY SAFETY & HAZARDS
Do (What to do in a Laboratory….)
 Wear appropriate eye protection, and
inform teacher if one wears contact
lenses.
 Observe safety when handling sharp
objects.
 Wash your hands before you leave the
laboratory
 Be aware of all the safety devices. Should
know where to find the first aid kit, the
chemical spill kit, the eye wash and the
safety shower
 Keep clutter to a minimum. Clean spillage
of chemicals, and maintain general
hygiene immediately after every work.
 Report all spills, injuries, or broken
equipment to your teacher. Immediately
after a spill or breakage occurs, it must be
reported to your teacher. No matter how
small it may seem.
 Use mitts or tongs with hot materials to
prevent burns.
 Work with volatile chemicals under a fume
hood.
 Check glassware for stars or cracks.
 Label all chemicals and close the
containers tightly.
 Use the appropriate PPEs including hand
gloves and chemical splash safety
googles for the chemicals handled.
 All contaminated wastes must be collected
and disposed appropriately as per
disposal procedure.
Don’t (Things to Avoid in a Laboratory…)
 Do not touch any equipment, chemicals,
or other materials until told to do so.
 Do not eat or drink, and do not chew gum
in the laboratory.
 When heating liquid, the opening of the
test tube must NEVER be pointed towards
another person or to yourself.
 Never blew out the gas flame in the
Bunsen burner
 Do not put pieces of lab equipment in your
mouth.
 Do not pipet solutions by mouth
 Do not use the phone or computer with
gloves on your hands to avoid getting
contaminations.
 Never take a direct sniff of the vapor at the
mouth of the container where the
concentration of the vapor is high.
 Never leave a heat source unattended
 DON’T transfer used chemicals back into
primary container.
  DO NOT work with chemicals until you are
sure of their safe handling. This includes
some awareness of their flammability,
reactivity, toxicity, and disposal.
Laboratory Safety Equipment & Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE)
Eye Wash Stations - are paramount for every lab.
There should be multiple eyewash stations so
they can be quickly accessed during
emergencies. Eyewash stations are designed to
flush the eye and face area only. There are
combination units available that contain both
features: a shower and an eyewash.
Lab-safe Refrigerators - Laboratory fridges
are designed to store samples, specimens,
vaccines and medicines at a very specific
temperature range. They are used to cool
samples or specimens for preservation. inside of
a lab-safe fridge has no sources of ignition, and
has no internal electrical components which could
trigger an explosion.
Laboratory Safety Symbols or Signage

Safety Goggles - Goggles can be used to protect

the eye against particles, chemicals, water, glare
and from things striking the eyes

Fire Extinguisher - Fires can occur whenever

electrical equipment, and flammable materials
and chemicals are being handled. A fire
extinguisher should be kept in an easily accessed
location, and all laboratory personnel should
know how to use it properly.

Protective Gloves - Laboratory gloves reduce

contamination and protect you while working with
germs, pathogens, or other potentially hazardous
samples.

Lab Coats and Aprons - When there are chemical

spills, these will help prevent dangerous liquids
and particles from ruining clothes and chemical
contact to the skin.

Safety Showers - In the case of hazardous

chemicals coming into contact with skin, it is
extremely important to promptly rinse off the
substances.

First Aid Kits - First aid kits are important to have

initial treatments and care during emergencies.
They can be use to properly sterilize and cover
the exposed area to prevent any dangerous
chemicals from getting into the wound.

Fire Blankets - Fire blankets help smother the

flames if someone’s clothing ignites. After the
person has dropped to the floor and rolled around
to try to extinguish the flames, a fire blanket can
be used as a last resort.

Chemical Fume Hoods - Fume hoods are

chemical and fire-resistant enclosures that protect
lab personnel from inhaling dangerous chemicals
by drawing in vapors, gases, and dusts before
ventilating them out of the laboratory.