SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERLESS

INVERTER TOPOLOGY FOR GRID CONNECTED

PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM WITH
REDUCED LEAKAGE CURRENT

A Project/Thesis Submitted in Partial

fulfillment for the requirement of the
degree of

Bachelor of Science
in
Electrical & Electronic Engineering

by

Mr XXX
ID No. xxxxxx

to the

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

North Bengal International University
November, 2022
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERLESS
INVERTER TOPOLOGY FOR GRID CONNECTED
PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM WITH
REDUCED LEAKAGE CURRENT

A Project/Thesis Submitted in Partial

fulfillment for the requirement of the
degree of

Bachelor of Science
in
Electrical & Electronic Engineering

by

Mr XXX
ID No. xxxx

to the

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

North Bengal International University
November, 2022
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis/project has been submitted to the Department of Electrical & Electronic
Engineering of North Bengal International University, Chowddopai, Natore Road, Motihar,
Rajshahi, Bangladesh, for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.Sc.
in Electrical & Electronic Engineering. Thesis title regards to “SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMERLESS INVERTER TOPOLOGY FOR GRID CONNECTED
PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM WITH REDUCED LEAKAGE CURRENT”.

First and foremost, I offer my sincere gratitude and indebtness to my thesis supervisor Mr
YYY, Lecturer, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering who has supported me
throughout my thesis with his patience and knowledge. I shall ever remain grateful to him
for his valuable guidance, advice, encouragement, cordial and amiable contribution to my
thesis/project.

I wish to thank once again Mr AAA as the coordinator of the Department of Electrical &
Electronic Engineering for his support and encouragement and also for providing all kind
of laboratory facilities.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to Mr ZZZ. He has always encouraged me during
the research. I am also grateful to the administration of North Bengal International
University for providing a self-sufficient lab.

Finally, I want to thank the most important and the closest persons of my life and my parents
for giving a big support to me.

Mr XXX November, 2022

ID No. xxxxxx NBIU, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

ii
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled "SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERLESS

INVERTER TOPOLOGY FOR GRID CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM
WITH REDUCED LEAKAGE CURRENT" by Mr XXX (ID No. xxxxxx), has been
carried out under my direct supervision. To the best of my knowledge, this project/thesis is
an original one and has not been submitted anywhere for any degree or diploma.

Thesis Supervisor:

.......................................
Mr YYY
Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
North Bengal International University

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled "SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERLESS

INVERTER TOPOLOGY FOR GRID CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM
WITH REDUCED LEAKAGE CURRENT" has been corrected according to my suggestion
and guidance as an external. The quality of the project/thesis is satisfactory.

External Member:

.......................................
Mr ZZZ
Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
North Bengal International University

iii
 ABSTRACT
In the present era, the demand for electricity has been increasing day by day. For reducing
the intense pressure of electrical power, the renewable sources of energy play a vital role.
Power of renewable sources is converted to grid power by using different single phase
inversion topologies and reduced switch inverter is the best solution for this conversion of
energy because of its advantages like low cost, better output power quality, lower switching
loss, lesser third harmonic distortion, lower electromagnetic interference, lower leakage
current etc. But it has also disadvantages like can’t be used for high power application,
leakage current can’t be fully reduced, high value of filter is needed. This paper mainly used
a new single phase transformer-less inverter topology with a control system where only five
switches and six power diodes are used to produce desired voltage and current waveforms.
The major advantages of this inverter topology ends in smaller size of filter, diminished size,
lesser power loss, along with lower installation cost, low leakage current, safe and it is also
suitable for high power applications. The simulation results are done through the
MATLAB/Simulink software.

iv
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgement ii
Certificate iii
Abstract iv

Table of Contents v
List of Figures vii
List of Tables ix
List of Abbreviations x
List of Symbols xii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview of Renewable Energy 1
1.2 Electricity States in Bangladesh 3
1.3 Use and Importance of Renewable Energy in Bangladesh 4
1.4 Introduction to PV System 5
1.5 Use and Importance of Transformer-less Inverter 6
1.6 Literature Review 8
1.7 Research Motivation 10
1.8 Objectives 11
1.9 Outline of the Thesis 11

Chapter 2 Conventional Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter Topology 12

2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Classification of Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter 13
Topologies
2.2.1 Double Input Voltage (2VPV) Type Single Phase 14
Transformer-less Inverter Topologies
2.2.2 Single Input Voltage (VPV) Type Single Phase 14
Transformer-less Inverter Topologies
2.2.3 Common Ground Type Topologies 15
2.2.4 H-bridge Type Topologies 15
2.2.5 H6 Type Topologies 16
2.2.6 Buck-Boost Type Topologies 17
2.3 Advantages of Single Phase Inverter Topology 17

v
 2.4 Voltage and Current Control of Photovoltaic (PV) Panel 17
2.4.1 Offline Method 18
2.4.2 Online Method 19
2.5 Duty Cycle of PWM Topology 21
2.6 Boost Converter 21
2.7 Leakage Current Problems 22

Chapter 3 Proposed Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter Topology 24

3.1 Proposed Inverter Topology 24
3.1.1 Introduction 24
3.1.2 Operation of Proposed Single Phase Inverter Topology 24
3.2 Control Scheme of Proposed Inverter Topology 26
3.2.1 Proportional Resonant (PR) Controller 26
3.2.2 Proportional Integral (PI) Controller 27
3.2.3 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 28

Chapter 4 Results 30
4.1 Simulation Parameters of Proposed Topology 30
4.1.1 PV Array 30
4.1.2 Inverter 30
4.1.3 Filter 30
4.1.4 Controller 30
4.2 Simulation Results 31
4.3 Comparison Between Proposed Topology and Existing 40
Topology
4.3.1 Comparison of Mid-Point Clamped Transformer-less 40
Topologies
4.3.2 Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less 41
Topologies Based on Components
4.3.3 Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less 42
Topologies Based on THD

Chapter 5 Conclusion and Discussion 43

5.1 Conclusion and Discussion 43
5.2 Future Works 44

References 45

vi
 List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Total electricity generation by various energy source 1

Fig. 1.2 Total electricity generation by renewable energy sources 2

Fig. 1.3 Growth in renewable electricity generation 2

Fig. 1.4 Installed Capacity in Bangladesh 4

Fig. 1.5 PV cell 6

Fig. 1.6 Single phase full bridge inverter 7

Fig. 2.1 Classification of single phase transformer-less inverter topologies 13

Fig. 2.2 Half-Bridge inverter with two switches and their corresponding 14
switching pulses
Fig. 2.3 Full-Bridge inverter with four switches and their corresponding 14
switching pulses
Fig. 2.4 S4 inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses 15

Fig. 2.5 oH5 inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses 16

Fig. 2.6 HERIC inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses 16

Fig. 2.7 H6 inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses 16

Fig. 2.8 P-V curve of a solar cell 18

Fig. 2.9 Flowchart of Perturb and Observe (P & O) method 19

Fig. 2.10 Flowchart of Incremental Conductance (IC) method 20

Fig. 2.11 Pulse width modulation waveform 21

Fig. 2.12 Circuit diagram and waveforms of boost converter 21

Fig. 2.13 (a) H-B inverter (b) Simplified model of H-B inverter (c) Simplified 23
common mode model

vii
Fig. 3.1 Proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology 24

Fig. 3.2 Block diagram of proposed control scheme 26

Fig. 3.3 Basic block diagram of a PR current control 26

Fig. 3.4 Basic block diagram of a Proportional Integral (PI) controller 27

Fig. 3.5 Basic block diagram of a PLL circuit 29

Fig. 4.1 MATLAB Simulation model for proposed single phase transformer- 31
less inverter
Fig. 4.2 Switching pattern for proposed single phase transformer-less inverter 32

Fig. 4.3 Simulated waveform of (a) Grid voltage and (b) Grid current 33

Fig. 4.4 THD of (a) grid voltage and (b) grid current 34

Fig. 4.5 Simulated waveform of (a) Vab, (b) Van, (c) Vbn, (d) Vcmv, (e) 35
Leakage current for resistive load (unity power factor)
Fig. 4.6 Simulated waveform of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for 36
resistive load (unity power factor)
Fig. 4.7 THD of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for resistive load (unity 36
power factor)
Fig, 4.8 Simulated waveform of (a) Vab, (b) Van, (c) Vbn, (d) Vcmv, (e) 38
Leakage current for inductive load (lagging power factor)
Fig. 4.9 Simulated waveform of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for 38
inductive load (lagging power factor)
Fig. 4.10 THD of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for inductive load 39
(lagging power factor)
Fig. 4.11 Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less Topologies 41
Based on Components
Fig. 4.12 Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less Topologies 42
Based on THD

viii
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Installed capacity of BPDB power plants on February 2021 3

Table 1.2 De-rated capacity of BPDB power plants on February 2021 3

Table 3.1 Operation and main feature of proposed topology 25

Table 4.1 Key parameters used in simulation 40

Table 4.2 Comparison of Mid-Point Clamped Transformer-less Topologies 40

ix
 List of Abbreviations

PV Photovoltaic
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
FB Full Bridge
HB Half Bridge
HERIC Highly Efficient and Reliable Inverter Concept
HF High Frequency
LF Low Frequency
IEA PVPS International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems
Program
MPP Maximum Power Point
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracker
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
BPDB Bangladesh Power Development Board
PF Power Factor
LEDS GP Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership
PSMP Power Sector Master Plan
TSES Technical Solartech Energy Limited
TWh Terra Watt Hour
CKM Circuit Kilometer
GW Giga Watt
MW Mega Watt
KWh Kilo Watt Hour
KW Kilo Watt

x
LPF Low Pass Filter
HFO Heavy Fuel Oil
HSD High Speed Diesel
BDT Bangladesh Taka
CMV Common Mode Voltage
SPWM Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
HB-ZVR Half Bridge Zero Voltage Rectifier
HB-ZVR-D Half Bridge Zero Voltage Rectifier Diode
HB-ZVSCR Half Bridge Zero Voltage Switch Controlled Rectifier
DM Differential Mode
CM Common Mode
SVPWM Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation
THIPWM Third Harmonic Injection Pulse Width Modulation
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
CSI Current Source Inverter
P&O Perturb and Observation
IC Incremental Conductance
PI Proportional and Integral
PR Proportional Resonance
PLL Phase Locked Loop
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator
FM Frequency Modulation
PM Pulse Modulation
NPC Neutral Point Clamped
TF Transfer Function

xi
 List of Symbols

Ω Ohm (unit of resistance)

µ Micro

V Volt (unit of voltage)

A Ampere (unit of current)

Vgrid Grid Voltage

Igrid Grid Current

Vout Voltage across the Load

Iout Current through the Load

Iinv Inverter Current

Vpv or Vdc Output Voltage of PV Array

Ipv Output Current of PV Array

PPV Output Power of PV Array

Cpv Parasitic Capacitance

C1, C2 DC Link Capacitor

L1, L2 Filter Inductor

C0 Filter Capacitor

RL Load Resistor

A and B Phase

N Neutral

VAN, VBN Phase to Neutral Voltage

VAB Phase to Phase Voltage

VCMV Common Mode Voltage

fSW Switching Frequency

f Normal Frequency

xii
Hz Hertz

Ts Sample Time

ILeakage Leakage Current

D Diode

Q or S Switch

L Inductor

C Capacitor

Voc Open Circuit Voltage

Isc Short Circuit Current

VMPP Maximum Power Point Voltage

T Time period

Ɵ Theta (angle)

xiii
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1. Overview of Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is an energy that is collected from renewable resources distributed
around the world, which are naturally met by the environment over time, such as sunlight,
wind, rain water, geothermal heat, biomass, tides and waves [1]. Now-a-days due to the high
growth of population, the demand of electricity is increasing day by day. The total electricity
consumption around the world (where generation of electricity in 2019 was 26,700 TWh)
by the source (fuel) in 2019 Coal (27%), Natural Gas (24%), Hydro (7%), Solar (1%), Wind
(2%), Nuclear (4%), Oil (34%) and others (1%) [2]. It can be noted that the total generation
of electricity by source in 2019 coal (38%), natural gas (23%), nuclear (10%), oil (3%),
wind & solar PV (7%) and hydro & other (19%) [2]. Among them the demand of renewable
energy sources (such as hydro, wind, solar, bioenergy, geothermal etc.) are increasing day
by day as they are the safest, cleanest and abundant form of energy. It makes the country
energy independent, needs little maintenance, is a technology, is a stable form of energy,
can be used to recycle our waste products, can be profitable etc, [3].

GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY IN 2019

Coal Natural Gas Nuclear Oil Wind & Solar PV Hydro & Other

19%

38%
7%

3%

10%

23%

Fig. 1.1. Total electricity generation by various energy source [2]

By analyzing the data we can be ensured that the use of renewable energy sources are rising
gradually due to its numerous amenities. In 2018, the total amount of electricity generation
from renewable energy sources was 6586 TWh. About 63% of this i,e, 4149 TWh power is
generated from renewable hydro, 1263 TWh from wind energy, 523 TWh from bioenergy,
1 TWh from marine energy, 88 TWh from geothermal energy and 562 TWh from solar
energy. Among them generation of bioenergy was divided into as follows 365 TWh (70%)

1
from solid biofuels, 88TWh (17%) from biogas, 62 TWh (12%) from renewable human
waste and 7 TWh from liquid biofuels [4].

GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY BY
RENEWABLE SOURCES IN 2018
Hydro Wind Bioenergy Solar Geothermal

8% 1%
8%

20%
63%

Fig. 1.2. Total electricity generation by renewable energy sources [4]

In 2018, generation of electricity from the renewable energy sources was 376 TWh more
than in 2017 i,e, growth of generation of power increases about 6.1%. The growth of
generation of power was similar to 2016, with increase in generation of hydropower (mostly
in Europe), but high growth of electricity generation from solar and wind power continued
that contributed in this sector a strong effect on the overall growth in generation of
electricity. In 2018 generation of solar power increased about 28% and generation of wind
power increased almost about 11%. So, it can be said that these two renewable sources of
energy (wind & solar) dominate the growth in generation of electricity by renewable
sources, according for 73% of growth since 2014 [4].

Fig. 1.3. Growth in renewable electricity generation [4]

Although the use of renewable sources are increasing day by day, it has some disadvantages,
such as some form of renewable energy aren’t place independent, needs high initial cost,

2
lower efficiency, consume large floor area, poor reliability , sometimes renewable sources
pollute air, they are not stable form of energy etc, [3]. For this reason, several technologies
are used to reduce the limitations of renewable energy sources. Now a days different
countries show their eagerness to use renewable energy sources due to its several
advantages.

1.2. Electricity States in Bangladesh

The economic development of a country mostly depends on the availability of electricity.
Bangladesh is a developing country where 98% of population can access electricity with a
per capita availability of 512 KWh per annum. Installed capacity of electrical power in
Bangladesh was 21239 MW on February 2021 [5]. The number of consumer is about 3.84
crore while total conduction line is 12379 CKM and distribution line is 5.86 lakhs KM. If it
is possible to utilize the whole generated power, then the demand of electricity can be
fulfilled. But due to the system loss of 8.73% it can’t be possible.

Table 1.1. Installed capacity of BPDB power plants on February 2021 [5]
Fuel Type Capacity(Unit) Total (%)
Coal 1768 MW 8.32 %
Gas 10979 MW 51.69 %
HFO 5724 MW 26.95 %
HSD 1290 MW 6.07 %
Hydro 230 MW 1.08 %
Imported 1160 MW 5.46 %
Solar 88 MW 0.41 %
Total 21239 MW 100%

Table 1.2. De-rated capacity of BPDB power plants on February 2021 [5]
Fuel Type Capacity(Unit) Total (%)
Coal 1688 MW 8.14 %
Gas 10574 MW 50.96 %
HFO 5722 MW 27.58 %
HSD 1286 MW 6.20 %
Hydro 230 MW 1.11 %

3
 Imported 1160 MW 5.59 %
Solar 88 MW 0.42 %
Total 20748 MW 100%

INSTALLED CAPACITY ON FEBRUARY 2021

Imported Solar Coal
Hydro 0%
6% 8%
HSD 1%
6%

HFO
27%

Gas
52%

Fig. 1.4. Installed Capacity in Bangladesh [5]

We can say from the above table that most of the power is generated with the help of gas
and HFO. About 80% of the generated power come from these sources. As the demand of
electricity is increasing day by day, due to the lack of generation of power load-shedding
occurs which affect the economy of our country. For this reason Government tries to
implement several plans to fulfill the demand of electricity. Among them dependence on
solar energy and nuclear energy are the most important. In this way, the demand of
electricity can be fulfilled as well as cost of generation will decrease in future.

1.3. Use and Importance of Renewable Energy in Bangladesh

To ensure a reliable and good quality of power supply at a reasonable and affordable price
Government has approved several plans now-a-days. We know that the social and economic
development mostly depends on the adequate power generation capacity of any country.
There is no other way to increase this development except to increase the power generation
capacity by using different types of fuel. Development of renewable energy is one of the
important strategies adopted as part of diversification program. According to Bangladesh
Power Sector Master Plan (PSMP-2016), Bangladesh has enough capacity to generate 3.6

4
GW of electricity from renewable energy sources. Bangladesh has more than 15 MW solar
energy capacity through rural households and 88 MW solar power is connected to the
national grid already. There is a 1.9 MW wind power plant at Kutubdia and Feni [6].
Technical Solartech Energy Limited (TSES) has installed a grid connected 20 MW solar
power plant at Teknaf which consume 116 acres of land [6]. Although Bangladesh had
planned to produce 10% of total generated power from the renewable energy sources like
solar energy, wind and waste by the end of 2020, it could not be possible due to pandemic
situation in the country. The country wants to increase the generation of electricity by the
renewable energy sources to 17% by 2041 so that the greenhouse gas emissions reduced to
5% until 2030. The country is also wanted to use the geothermal energy to produce
electricity in near future [7]. To achieve this goal the Government has taken a lot of plans.
In the electricity sector, enlarging the capacity can be achieved less costly and effectively
by the use of clean form of energy sources such as wind energy, solar energy, human waste,
tide energy, geothermal energy etc,. These sources of clean energy not only reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, but also increase job opportunities and improve human health
conditions by declining air and water pollution [1]. According to a report from the Low
Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership (LEDS GP) and based on the detailed
modelling analysis, the advantages of increasing the use of clean energy in Bangladesh’s
power generation causes the following results by 2030:

❖ Reduce the emissions of greenhouse gas by up to 20%

❖ Generate domestic employment of up to 55,000 full time equivalent jobs
❖ Potential to produce 30 GW of electricity additionally from the utilization of solar
PV cell and 53 GW of generation of electricity from all solar sources
❖ Save almost 27,000 lives and more than US$ 5 billion (BDT 420 billion) [8].

1.4. Introduction to PV System

The earth intercepts 1730 TW solar power per day but only a little amount of power can be
converted into electrical energy. The equipment which is used to convert the sunlight energy
into electrical energy is called Photovoltaic (PV) cell. A PV cell is made of two
semiconductor layer: one is p-type layer which is lightly doped and another one is n-type
layer of heavily doped. There is a depletion layer formed between those two semiconductor
layers. When the sunlight falls on the depletion region electron-hole pairs generate in the
depletion region due to photon energy presents in the sunlight. Because of the driving force
electrons rush to the n-type layer and holes rush to the p-type layer. That’s why a high
potential difference between the two layers forms. And if an external circuit is connected
between those layers, a dc current will flow through it. The more the potential difference,
the more the dc current will flow through the external circuit. It can be noted that each PV

5
cell can generate 0.5-0.6V only. In practice, the n-type layer is thinner than p-type layer. As
PV cell cannot generate high power, they are connected in series and parallel to get desired
power. Several PV cells are connected in series and parallel to form solar module and
several solar modules are used to form PV array. The series connection of PV cells increase
the voltage rating whereas the parallel connection increase the current rating. The
conversion efficiency of solar PV is about 10-28%. In a PV system, the total cost of PV
array is 57% of total cost, cost of battery is 30% of the total cost and the cost of inverter &
MPPT is 7% of total cost. As the conversion efficiency of solar power is low and consume
large floor it is needed to operate the solar array at maximum power point [1, 41].

Fig. 1.5. PV cell [9]

There are three types PV cell: Mono-crystalline Si cell, Polycrystalline Si cell and
Amorphous Si cell. Among them Mono-crystalline Si cell is costly and has higher
conversion efficiency of 27.6%. It may be noted that there are two types of PV system:
stand-alone PV system and grid connected PV system. Stand-alone system supply power
directly to the load or electrical equipment and integrated with energy storage elements such
as battery, inductors etc,. In contrast, grid connected PV system is directly connected to the
utility grid so that power can be directly transmitted, distributed and used. As there is no
need of energy storage elements, grid connected PV system is more cost effective and
maintenance free [21]. About 99% of installed PV power is grid connected PV system [10].
Although PV system has some disadvantages, it is mostly used because solar energy is
clean, safe & abundant form of energy. It needs lower maintenance cost and doesn’t need
highly skilled people [3].

1.5. Use and Importance of Transformer-less Inverter

Based on the galvanic isolation, grid connected PV inverter topologies are classified into
two groups: transformer-less PV inverter topology and with transformer PV inverter

6
topology. Transformer is mainly used for voltage amplification and provides galvanic
isolation between PV modules and the grid. In this way, the transformer prevents the flow
of dc current and leakage current injection into the grid [23]. Depending on the configuration
of the PV modules there are two types of transformer: low frequency (LF) transformer and
high frequency (HF) transformer. Although LF transformers are heavy, bulky, costly and
having lower system efficiency due to the winding power losses, high frequency (HF)
transformer are light weight, less costly and having relatively higher efficiency which is not
too much greater than the LF transformer due to the multiple converter stages (dc-dc & dc-
ac). To eliminate these limitations transformer-less inverter topologies can be introduced as
it has higher system efficiency. Furthermore, they are smaller, lighter and less costly [13-
17, 41].

Although the transformer-less PV inverter has many benefits, due to the nonappearance of
the transformer, a galvanic connection is formed which provides a conductive path for
leakage current to flow from PV modules to the grid. Parasitic capacitance due to film of
water on the glass, grounded support and roof surface area initiates high leakage current in
the system when the frequency increases. This high leakage current causes total harmonic
distortion (THD) of the grid current, system losses, electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
also causes human safety problems such as electric shocks [21, 41].

Fig. 1.6. Single phase full bridge inverter [1]

There are mainly three modulation techniques: unipolar, bipolar and hybrid modulation, and
they can be used for single phase full bridge (H4) transformer-less PV inverter system.
Based on the modulation schemes CMV, leakage current and efficiency characteristics
change. In case of unipolar modulation and hybrid modulation three-level voltage is
generated across the filter and provides lower core losses [24]. However, they generate high
leakage current because of high frequency common mode voltage (CMV) i,e, variable
CMV. In case of bipolar modulation two-level voltage is generated and showing higher core

7
losses. Moreover, it generates constant CMV, hence leakage current is lower than unipolar
and bipolar modulation scheme. Leakage current issues can be solved by using bipolar
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) technique. Nonetheless, efficiency of bipolar
SPWM inverter is lower contrasted with unipolar SPMW inverter topology due to its higher
core losses at filter inductors and the switching losses at MOSFET and/or IGBT [16].

1.6. Literature Review

In the year 2007, R. Gonzalez and his partners proposed a new inverter topology in which
required low input voltage consists of six semiconductor switches & two diodes and made
the common mode voltage constant [11]. The system was less costly as low rating switches
were used. They checked their theoretical analysis in practical experiment and got 97.4%
efficiency. But in their experiment the switching loss increased with the decreased in the
power factor. The further improvement can be done by introducing new modulation as well
as switching technique. In 2007, T. Kerekes and his partners analyzed and compared single-
stage transformer-less PV inverter topologies for single-phase and three-phase concerning
the leakage current generation [12]. They observed single phase full-bridge topology with
bipolar switching was suitable for transformer-less PV inverter because the leakage current
was so much lower than in case of unipolar switching and three phase full-bridge inverter
was not suitable for transformer-less PV inverter, but in case of 3*NPC or 3*HB gave the
better result for three phase transformer-less PV inverter. They observed their theoretical
analysis in MATLAB Simulink and practical experiment which gave the same result.
Although they got good result, the conduction loss and number of switches was high. For
further development new switching technique can be developed. In the year 2011, T.
Kerekes and his partners proposed a HB zero state voltage rectifier inverter topology having
constant common mode voltage and low leakage current [13]. They also showed
comparison with two existing topologies. They observed their theoretical analysis in
MATLAB Simulink and practical experiment which gave the same result. Although they
got good result, the overall efficiency was low compared to others and leakage current
wasn’t fully reduced. By introducing new inverter topology and modulation technique the
further improvement can be done. In 2014, T. K. S. Freddy and his partners compared &
analyzed some single phase transformer-less grid-connected PV inverters (H5, oH5, H6,
HERIC, HBZVR) and proposed a simple modified H-bridge zero-voltage state rectifier to
combine the benefits of the low loss ac-decoupling method and the complete leakage current
elimination of the CMV clamping method [14]. The performances of various topologies,
regarding CMV, leakage current, total harmonic distortion, power losses and efficiencies
were compared. In proposed topology, Unipolar SPWM modulation technique was used and
1.9% of THD & 95.03% of efficiency was found. The analyses were done theoretically and
by means of simulation studies and further approved with exploratory outcomes. In their
analysis the leakage current was not fully reduced. For further development new switching

8
technique can be improved or used. In 2014, an improved H5 topology was proposed by M.
Islam, S. Mekhilef [15]. They compared their proposed topology with other transformer-
less topologies in terms of leakage current, different mode (DM) characteristics, and
efficiency. They got 98% of efficiency, 2.54% of THD, relatively lower leakage current and
used unipolar SPWM technique. The analyses were done theoretically and by means of
simulation studies and further approved with exploratory outcomes. Although they got good
result, the switching loss was high. For further development new switching technique can
be improved. A single phase transformer-less current source inverter (CSI) topology based
on the operation of Cuk converter proposed by M. Rajeev and V. Agarwal in 2015 [16].
They designed a common neutral line for both PV array and grid which made the common
mode voltage constant which in turn decreased the leakage current. They checked the
validity of their work through Simulation, analytical analysis and practical experiment.
Although they got good result, slight asymmetry was observed at the output when the input
was low. Further improvement can be done by using the combination of low and high power
rating switches. In 2016, K. S. Tey and S. Mekhilef proposed a single phase transformer-
less topology and compared it some other topologies based on the leakage current,
efficiency, total harmonic distortion (THD) and power loss [17]. They used SVPWM
modulation technique and checked the validation of their work practically and in Simulink
platform. In their proposed topology, the conduction loss and leakage current was found.
Using new technique the overall efficiency can be increased. A novel transformer-less
inverter topology having a charge pump circuit which induced a low leakage current
proposed by J. B. Ardashir and his partners in 2016 [18]. They designed a common neutral
line for both grid and PV array in which common mode voltage became constant. They also
compared their system with other existing topologies. They checked the validity of their
work by Simulation (PSCAD software) and practical experiment. Although they got 97.5%
efficiency, the system was complex and leakage current wasn’t fully reduced. By making
common mode voltage constant the overall system can be improved. In the year 2017, Y. P.
Siwakoti and F. Blaabjerj proposed a new single phase three level transformer-less inverter
topology which could inject the reactive power into the grid and eliminate the leakage
current where unipolar SPWM technique was used [19]. The validity was checked through
MATLAB Simulation and experimental process. They got THD >2.3% and efficiency 98%.
But their system was suitable for only low power generation. By introducing new switching
technique further improvement can be done. In 2018 J. Roy and her partners compared
different transformer-less inverter topology such as DDCL, HBVS and FB topologies in
terms of leakage current, THD and efficiency [20]. They observed all of those topologies
experimentally and ensured that among all of them FB with unipolar SPWM and without
Cpv was good as its THD was low and efficiency was high. In their experiment the switching
frequency was 100 KHz which was very high. In 2018, Z. Ahmad and S. N. Singh proposed
a reduced leakage current CMV clamped single phase transformer-less inverter topology
which could inject the reactive power into the grid also [21]. They eliminated the extra
common mode filter and got 1.7% THD, 97.04% efficiency. They also provided the

9
analytical information of loss in IGBT. They checked the validity of their work in MATLAB
Simulink platform and done it experimental also, which gave the approximately same result
as the theoretical one. In their proposed topology the conduction loss was high. By
introducing new switching technique and reduced filter value the further improvement can
be done. In the year 2019, A. P. Yadav and U. V. Patil developed a transformer-less inverter
topology with a charge pump circuit to keep the common mode voltage constant and
reduced the leakage current [22]. The validity of their work was checked in MATLAB
Simulink platform. Although the leakage current was small in their model, the system was
complex and suitable for only low power generation. The better output can be found by
using high rating semiconductor switches and new modulation technique. In the year 2019,
M. N. H. Khan and his partners proposed a new H-bridge clamped transformer-less inverter
topology to keep the common mode voltage constant which in turn increased the overall
efficiency to 97.74% and decreased the THD to 1.8% [23]. They also provided the analytical
information of power losses in their system. They checked the validity of their work in
Simulink (PLECS) platform and experimental process. In spite of the fact that the efficiency
was high and THD was little in their paper, the conduction loss, switching frequency was
high. The further improvement can be done by introducing new switching technique which
provides lower conduction loss, lower switching frequency, lower THD, higher efficiency,
lower leakage current etc.

1.7. Research Motivation

In grid connected inverter topology, PV cell is designed in such a way so that it can
withstand any weather condition. Combination of high and low power rating switch is used
to decrease the switching loss. It should be done in such a way so that it increases the power
handling capability in a required level. Instead of using booster circuit a lot of PV cell can
be connected in series and parallel. By using small booster circuit the system can be made
economical. To decrease the leakage current and made the common mode voltage constant
several topologies were proposed. It is a matter of fact that leakage current can’t be fully
eliminated but can be reduced. So different modulation technique such as THIPWM,
SVPWM etc, can be used.
From the above discussion, our main concern should be design a single phase transformer-
less grid connected inverter using a combination of IGBTs and MOSFETs so that the system
becomes cost effective. Make the output of PV cell stable at different conditions by using
an easy and standard control strategy. By using SPWM modulation technique the efficiency
and the leakage current can be increased.

10
1.8. Objectives
The main objectives of that thesis work are
❖ To reduce the size of inverter.
❖ To reduce inverter power loss and cost.
❖ To make the converter compact.
❖ To reduce the value of filter.
❖ To reduce the leakage current.
❖ To reduce the dc current injection.
❖ To determine the total harmonics distortion.
❖ To identify the technique of the lowest THD.
❖ To reduce the number of switches.
❖ To reduce the number of voltages sources.
❖ To reduce the number of power diodes.
❖ To reduce total harmonics distortion (THD).

1.9. Outline of the Thesis

The thesis report is orderly into five chapter. The content of each chapter is explained below:
Chapter 1: Presents introduction of the thesis chapter also summarizes the content of the
report.

Chapter 2: Details of conventional single phase transformer-less inverter topology i,e, the
requirements of various electrical equipment, problems of conventional single phase
transformer-less inverter are discussed here.

Chapter 3: Presents proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology.

Chapter 4: Simulation Results and discussion presents here. The comparison with other’s
proposed topology is also shown here.

Chapter 5: Shows conclusion of the proposed topology and Future work.

11
 Chapter 2
Conventional Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter
Topology

2.1. Introduction
An inverter is a one kind of power electronics device that converts direct current (DC) input
into alternating current (AC) output. Ideally, the magnitude of the DC input and AC output
is equal to each other as there is no losses at the inside of the inverter. But practically due to
the switching losses, internal resistance and environment conditions a small amount of loss
occurs at the inverter. Therefore the output of the inverter have smaller magnitude than the
input. The inverter can’t produce any power, the change of power at the output depends on
DC supply. An inverter can be classified as: Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) and Current
Source Inverter (CSI). As name indicates, in CSI constant current is needed and in VSI
constant voltage is needed. The output of the CSI is a single or three phase adjustable AC
current while the output of the VSI is a single or three phase adjustable AC voltage whose
frequency & magnitude can be controlled. An inverter can be used in single and three phase
power system depending on the requirements of the system although the designs are slightly
different. Three phase inverter is mainly used to supply the three phase load. It is used for
commercial purpose only. But single phase inverter is mainly used to fulfil the domestic
needs and if the output can fulfil the household needs, then it can be fed to the utility grid.
That’s why single phase inverter can be used for both commercial and domestic purpose.
For switching the switches of the inverter various types of modulation technique are used.
Depending on the modulation technique the efficiency, THD, leakage current, EMI etc, of
the output varies. For example in a single phase full bridge inverter three modulation
techniques are used: unipolar, bipolar and hybrid modulation. Among them unipolar
modulation technique is mostly used as it provides higher efficiency and lower core loss.
Depending on the configuration of the PV modules there are two types of transformer: low
frequency (LF) transformer or high frequency (HF) transformer. Although LF transformers
are heavy, bulky, costly and having lower system efficiency due to the winding power loss,
high frequency (HF) transformer are light weight, less costly and having relatively higher
efficiency which is not too much greater than LF transformer due to the multiple converter
stages (dc-dc & dc-ac). To eliminate these limitations transformer-less inverter topologies
are introduced as it has higher system efficiency. Furthermore, they are smaller, lighter and
less costly [26-28]. To implement a single phase transformer-less inverter topology several
electrical and electronic equipment are needed.

12
2.2. Classification of Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter Topologies
Because of lower cost, smaller size, easier to control and higher efficiency VSIs are mostly
preferable over the CSIs. Besides numerous voltage source transformer-less inverter
topologies have been proposed and developed for grid connected PV system having higher
performances and compatible to grid codes.

Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter

DC Link Voltage = 2VPV DC Link Voltage = VPV

Common Ground H-Bridge Type H6 Type Buck-Boost Type

Type Topologies Topologies Topologies Topologies

Mid-Point Decoupling
Clamping

AC Decoupling DC Decoupling

Fig. 2.1. Classification of single phase transformer-less inverter topologies [25]

In the Fig. 2.1 we can see the single phase transformer-less inverter topologies used in PV
systems based on dc link voltages are classified into two major sub-groups: DC link voltage
= 2VPV and DC link voltage = VPV based single phase transformer-less inverters. Moreover
DC link voltage = VPV based single phase transformer-less inverters are categorized into
five sub-groups based on common mode current suppression, common ground, H-bridge,
H6 and buck-boost type topologies [25].

13
2.2.1. Double Input Voltage (2VPV) Type Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter
Topologies
There are various types of double input voltage (2VPV) single phase transformer-less inverter
topology. Half-bridge (H-B) inverter with two switches is one of them. Here two capacitors
and two switches are used where these two switches are operated on two opposite switching
pulses. And those capacitors operate the input dc voltage which is obtained from the output
of the PV cell by charging & discharging periodically. But H-B inverter have several
limitations like lower efficiency, difficult to control, contain ripples at the output etc,. That’s
why this topology is not suitable for the practical used [25].

Fig. 2.2. Half-Bridge inverter with two switches and their corresponding switching pulses
[25]

2.2.2. Single Input Voltage (VPV) Type Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter
Topologies
A full-bridge (FB) inverter with four switches is one of the most used single input voltage
(VPV) type single phase inverter topology. A convenient FB inverter with bipolar modulation
technique provides constant CMV, low icm and higher efficiency than unipolar modulation
technique. A FB inverter with bipolar modulation technique is shown in Fig. 2.3. Here the
switches Q1 and Q4 are complementary to switches Q2 and Q3 i,e, when Q1 and Q4 are on
state Q2 and Q3 are on off state.

Fig. 2.3. Full-Bridge inverter with four switches and their corresponding switching pulses
[25]

14
For the positive half cycle Q1 and Q4 are on and therefore input voltage and output voltage
is equal to each other. During the freewheeling period the output current flows through the
switch Q1 and the antiparallel diode of switch Q2 for positive half cycle and for negative
half cycle the output current flows through the switch Q3 and the antiparallel diode of switch
Q4. In FB single phase inverter with bipolar modulation technique CMV is constant, icm is
low but due to the ripple in the output it needs higher value of filter [25].

2.2.3. Common Ground Type Topologies

The topology where the negative polarity of the PV panel is straightforwardly associated
with the utility grid is called common ground type topology. There are many common
ground type topologies. Among them S4 inverter topology is one. The S4 inverter topology
is shown in Fig. 2.4. In this topology, for the positive half cycle switches Q1 and Q3 are on
state and produce positive (+Vdc) and zero voltage, while Q2 is in off state throughout the
whole time period. In this period the diode D1 remains off as it is in reverse biased and
capacitor C1 is charged with the help of the diode D2. At the same time the voltage across
the capacitor C2 remains constant. To get the negative half of the output signal capacitor C2
is allowed to charge by -Vdc through capacitor C1. It can be noted that, in this topology losses
are relatively high [22, 25].

Fig. 2.4. S4 inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses [25]

2.2.4. H-bridge Type Topologies

H-bridge type topology is subdivided into two groups: Mid-point clamping type topology
and decoupling type topology.
When FB inverter is extended through the power electronics devices for clamping the
voltage either on DC or AC side, then this inverter is called mid-point clamping inverter.
There are several mid-point clamping type inverter topology. Among them oH5 is one. The
function and operation of the oH5 is similar to the FB inverter except there are two more
extra switches are used on the DC side of the inverter to get the desired voltage clamping.
In this topology, the desired voltage clamping can be achieved by two ways: at potential up
and at potential down [25, 30].

15
 Fig. 2.5. oH5 inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses [25]

A single phase transformer-less inverter topology can be extended by adding switches and
diodes on the AC or DC side for decoupling purposes. HERIC topology is one of the AC
decoupling based topology. The operation of HERIC topology is similar to the FB inverter
topology except there are two extra switches at the AC side for decoupling purpose. During
the freewheeling period this two switches become short-circuit which in turns isolate the
AC side from the DC side. However, in this topology the conduction loss is high as the
number of switches are high [25].

Fig. 2.6. HERIC inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses [25]

2.2.5. H6 Type Topologies

To reduce the leakage current and ripple from the output signal FB inverter topologies are
extended with some switches and diodes. Among them H6 [31] is one. This topology can
even control the reactive power flow. This topology is shown in Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7. H6 inverter topology and their corresponding switching pulses [25]

16
For the positive half cycle switches Q1, Q6 and Q4 are on state and current flows through the
switch Q6 and antiparallel diode of switch Q5 at zero voltage state. For the negative half
cycle switches Q2, Q5 and Q3 are on state and current flows through the switch Q5 and
antiparallel diode of switch Q6 at zero voltage state. This topology provides lower THD but
relatively higher conduction losses [25].

2.2.6. Buck-Boost Type Topologies

To make a simple single phase transformer-less inverter topology buck/boost and buck-
boost topologies are implemented in the circuit. It reduces the cost of PV panels, provides
insulation between input and output, reduces the common mode current significantly.
However, this topology increase the THD as it amplify the noise signal with the input signal
of the inverter also [25].

2.3. Advantages of Single Phase Inverter Topology

Single phase inverter has several advantages:
▪ Simple construction
▪ Less capital is needed
▪ Easy to implementation
▪ Less number of switches are needed
▪ Power loss is lower than three phase system
▪ Lower conduction loss
▪ Can be used for both domestic and commercial purposes
▪ Lower value of filter is needed

2.4. Voltage and Current Control of Photovoltaic (PV) Panel

In PV system, PV panel is used as a constant DC current source. That’s why it is required
to control the voltage and current of PV panel. To control the AC output of the inverter the
DC input of the inverter must be controlled. And for PV system, this DC input comes from
PV panels. We know that the output of the PV cell depends on temperature of the
environment and solar panel, solar irradiance and electrical characteristics of the load. If
these conditions vary the output of the PV panel also varies. So, to keep the output constant
we have to ensure that the solar panel operates at maximum power. For this reason,
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) method/algorithm is used which maximize the
𝑑𝑃(𝑝𝑣)
power extraction from the PV panel and this maximum power can be found when =
𝑑𝑉(𝑝𝑣)
0 point is found at solar PV curve. There are two types of MPPT method/algorithm: Offline
method and Online or Hill-Climbing method [32].

17
 Fig. 2.8. P-V curve of a solar cell [33]

2.4.1. Offline Method

i. Curve Fitting Method: It is an offline MPPT method where the characteristics of
PV panels and all data & manufacturing details are needed for calculation of
maximum power voltage. Here the mathematical model and equations describe
the output characteristics of solar cell which are pre-decided. The PV module
characteristics is given by,
Ppv = aV3pv + bV2pv + cVpv + d; where a, b, c and coefficient
determined by sampling m values of PV voltage Vpv, PV current Ipv and PV
output power Ppv.
After the calculation of the coefficients, the maximum power point voltage can
be calculated as [32],
−𝑏 ± √(𝑏2 −3𝑎𝑐)
Vmpp = (2.1)
3𝑎

ii. Differential Method: We know that PV output power Ppv is the product of PV
voltage Vpv and PV current Ipv. In this method the maximum power is obtained
by differentiating Ppv with respect to time and make it equal to zero [32].

𝑑𝑃(𝑝𝑣) 𝑑𝐼(𝑝𝑣) 𝑑𝑉(𝑝𝑣)

= Vpv + Ipv =0 (2.2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
iii. Open-Circuit Voltage Method: In this method, the ratio of the maximum power
point voltage to its open-circuit voltage is approximately constant as given by,
(Vmpp / Voc ) ≅ K < 1 9 (2.3)
In open-circuit voltage method, PV array is temporarily isolated from the MPPT
then Voc is measured. After getting the open-circuit voltage maximum power
point voltage Vmpp is calculated. This procedure is repeated periodically [32].
iv. Short-Circuit Current Method: In this method, the ratio of the maximum power
point current to its short-circuit current is approximately constant as given by,
(Impp / Isc ) ≅ K < 1 (2.4)

18
 In short-circuit current method, PV array is temporarily isolated from the MPPT
then Isc is measured. After getting the short circuit current maximum power point
current Impp is calculated. This procedure is repeated periodically [32].
v. Temperature Method: In this strategy, the maximum power point voltage is
determined by estimating the temperature of the PV cell and contrasting it with
the reference temperature. As the change in solar irradiation has small effect on
the Vmpp, its effect can be ignored/neglected. Here, it is assumed that the voltage
changes linearly with temperature. The equation can be written as [32],

Vmpp (T) = Vmpp (Tref) + u(vmpp)* (T-Tref) (2.5)

where, Vmpp = Maximum power point voltage, Tref = Reference voltage, u(vmpp)
= Temperature coefficient of Vmpp and T = Measured temperature.

2.4.2. Online Method

i. Perturb and Observe (P & O) Method: It is an iterative method which senses the
panel operating voltage. This method compares the output power of the PV panel
with that of the previous output power of that PV panel and measured the change in
power ∆Ppv. If ∆Ppv is positive, the perturbation of the working voltage should be a
similar way of the augmentation. If ∆Ppv is negative, then it indicates the operating
point moves away from the maximum power point. That’s why the perturbation of
the working voltage should be the other way of the increment. This process continues
𝑑𝑃(𝑝𝑣)
until = 0 can be found [32, 34].
𝑑𝑉(𝑝𝑣)

Fig. 2.9. Flowchart of Perturb and Observe (P & O) method [34]

19
ii. Incremental Conductance (IC) Method: In this method, incremental change of the
voltage and current of the PV array is measured by the controller to predict the effect
of change of voltage. Here the instantaneous panel conductance (Ipv/Vpv) is
compared with the incremental panel conductance (dIpv/dVpv). The maximum power
point voltage is found when (dPpv/dVpv) becomes zero. The output of PV module is,
Ppv = IpvVpv
∴ (dPpv/dVpv) = Ipv + V*(dIpv/dVpv) (2.6)
The IC method is based on the fact that (dPpv/dVpv) = 0 or (dIpv/dVpv)= -(I/V) at
MPP, (dIpv/dVpv) < -(I/V) or (dPpv/dVpv) < 0 if the operating point is on the right side
of the PV curve and (dIpv/dVpv) > -(I/V) or (dPpv/dVpv) > 0 if the operating point is
on the left side of the PV curve [32, 34].

Fig. 2.10. Flowchart of Incremental Conductance (IC) method [32]

iii. Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage Method: In this method, maximum power point
voltage (Vmpp) is always a constant fraction of the open-circuit voltage (Voc). After the
measurement of the open-circuit voltage (Voc) of the PV array, this is used as an input to the
controller [34].

20
2.5. Duty Cycle of PWM Topology
In inverter and booster circuit, semiconductor switches are used and for the switching of
these switches duty cycle must be controlled using different PWM techniques. Duty cycle
is defined as the fraction of the time during which the switch remains on. Here, ton is the on-
time, which is the time during which the DC supply is applied to the load and toff is the off-
time which is the period during which that supply is switched off. Duty cycle can be varied
from 0 to 100%.
A low duty cycle corresponding to low power, because the power is off for most of the time.
Duty cycle is expresses in percentages [28].

Fig. 2.11. Pulse width modulation waveform [28]

There are two times that must be specified and controlled. These are the period (T) and the
time when the output is high (ton). A term used to describe a pulse width modulated
waveform is duty cycle. Duty cycle can be written as,

Duty Cycle = (ton/T) × 100% (2.7)

2.6. Boost Converter

As the cost of PV panel is high, therefore the use of boost converter is required. The lower
voltage generated by the PV panel is boosted by the boost converter and then fed to the
inverter as an input. There are different boost converter topology depends on design
requirements. The most common and popular boost converter is explained below:

Fig. 2.12. Circuit diagram and waveforms of boost converter [28]

21
In Fig. 2.12, Vs is the input DC voltage, L is the boost inductor, VL is the voltage across the
boost inductor, iL is the current flows through the boost inductor, S is the controlled switch,
is is the current flows through the controlled switch, D is the diode, C is the filter capacitor,
ic is the current flows through the filter capacitor, i0 is the load current, R is the load
resistance, V0 is the voltage across the load and capacitor, T is the time period, D is the duty
cycle.
When the switch S is in the on state the current in the inductor increases linearly. The diode
D is in the off state at that time. When switch S is in the off state, the charge which was
stored in the inductor and the supply voltage flows through the load, diode and filter
capacitor. That’s why the voltage across the load becomes high.
Based on the Faraday’s law we can write,

VsDT = (V0 – Vs) × (1 - D)T (2.8)

The DC voltage transfer function can be written as,

MV = (V0/Vs) = 1 / (1 – D) (2.9)

The minimum value of the boost inductor can be written as,

Lmin = {(1 – D)2 DR} / 2f (2.10)

where, f is the switching frequency.

The minimum value of the filter capacitor can be written as,

Cmin = DV0 / VrRf (2.11)

where, Vr is the ripple voltage[28].

2.7. Leakage Current Problems

Since, in transformer-less PV inverter system, there is no galvanic isolation between the DC
and AC side, the varying common mode voltage and the parasitic capacitance in the PV
array may induce leakage current in the overall system which in turns increase the THD and
decrease the efficiency. To explain the definition of the leakage current consider a basic H-
B inverter shown in Fig. 2.13.

22
 (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.13. (a) H-B inverter (b) Simplified model of H-B inverter (c) Simplified common
mode model [17]

In the Fig. 2.13, Cpv indicates parasitic capacitance between the PV array and the ground
through which leakage current flows in the system. From the Fig. 2.13, if the voltage
between point A and N is VAN and the voltage between point B and N is VBN, then the
common mode voltage (VCM) and the differential mode voltage (VDM) can be calculated as,
VCM = (VAN + VBN)/2 (2.12)
and VDM = VAN - VBN (2.13)
Now, the total common mode voltage (Vcmv) can be calculated as,
Vcmv = VCM + VDM × (L2 – L1)/2(L2 + L1)
∴ Vcmv = VCM = (VAN + VBN)/2
Now the leakage current can be written as,
Icm = Cpv (dVcmv/dt) (2.14)
From the above equations, it is clear that the leakage current depends on parasitic
capacitance and common mode voltage. As parasitic capacitance never be zero, that’s why
to reduce the leakage current we have to control the common mode voltage in such a way
that makes it constant i,e, (dVcmv/dt) = 0 and as a result no common mode or leakage current
flows in the grounding path [17].

23
 Chapter 3
Proposed Single Phase Transformer-less Inverter
Topology

3.1. Proposed Inverter Topology

3.1.1. Introduction
In this section, the function of proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology is
discussed. In the proposed topology total 5 IGBTs, 6 diodes, 2 inductors and 3 capacitors
(including two DC link capacitors) are used. The proposed single phase transformer-less
inverter topology is shown in Fig. 3.1. In the proposed topology, there are a clamping circuit
which is connected to the mid-point of the DC bus or DC link capacitors (C1, C2) to clamp
the common mode voltage constant which in turns reduce the dc current injection to the grid
during the freewheeling period or zero state. An extra diode D6 is used to protect from short-
circuiting the lower dc link capacitor. Since there is a deadtime between the active state and
zero state, the possibility of dc current injection to the grid still presents through the
antiparallel diode of the input capacitor. To prevent this an additional diode D5 is used in
the proposed topology. To get a pure ac wave shape a low level LCL filter is placed between
the grid and the inverter.

N
Fig. 3.1. Proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology

3.1.2. Operation of Proposed Single Phase Inverter Topology

The proposed inverter has four operational modes. They are explained below:
• Mode 1: The mode 1 indicates the active state of positive half cycle. In this cycle,
Switch Q1 and Q4 are conducting (in Fig. 3.1) and other switches and diodes are off
and current flows through the filter and load. Therefore, the voltage between point

24
 A to neutral N is equal to the DC link voltage VPV i,e, the magnitude of the output
voltage of PV array.

• Mode 2: The mode 2 indicates the zero state at the positive half cycle. In this cycle
or mode, the diode D2 and D3 remains in forward bias and other switches and diodes
are off, therefore freewheeling path creates through the load, filter, diode D2 and D3,
switch Q5 and diode D6. In this mode, current decreases and freewheels through
diodes D2, D3 and the grid. The voltage VAN decreases and VBN increases until their
values reach to the common point.

• Mode 3: The mode 3 indicates the active state of negative half cycle. In this cycle,
Switch Q2 and Q3 are conducting (in Fig. 3.1) and other switches and diodes are off
and current flows through the filter and load. Therefore, the voltage between point
B to neutral N is equal and opposite to the DC link voltage VPV i,e, the magnitude
of the output voltage of the PV array.

• Mode 4: The mode 4 indicates the zero state at the negative half cycle. In this cycle
or mode, the diode D1 and D4 remains in forward bias and other switches and diodes
are off, therefore freewheeling path creates through the load, filter, diode D1 and D4,
switch Q5 and diode D6. In this mode, current decreases and freewheels through
diodes D1, D4 and the grid. The voltage VAN decreases and VBN increases until their
values reach to the common point.

Table 3.1. Operation and main feature of proposed topology (based on the Fig. 3.1).
Operation Proposed Topology
Mode

During positive half cycle During negative half cycle

Active mode Freewheeling Active mode Freewheeling

mode mode

Switches State Q1 and Q4 are Only switch Q5 Q2 and Q3 are Only switch Q5
switched at fs. is switched at fs switched at fs. is switched at fs
Q2, Q3 and Q5 i,e, on. Q1, Q4 and Q5 i,e, on.
are off. are off.
Current Path Q1, L1, Grid, L2 L1, Grid, L2, D2, Q2, L2, Grid, L1 L2, Grid, L1, D1,
and Q4 Q5 and D3 and Q3 Q5 and D4

CMV Vdc/2 Vdc/2 Vdc/2 Vdc/2

25
3.2. Control Scheme of Proposed Inverter Topology
To make the proposed system grid connected the switching of the switches must be
controlled. Therefore controller is used in the proposed topology. The scheme of control
system of the proposed topology is given below.
ɵ
V(grid) PLL Sin

+
× -
PR SPWM

-
V(mpp) +
PI
I(grid)

V(dc)

Fig. 3.2. Block diagram of proposed control scheme

The control block of the proposed inverter topology is appeared in Fig. 3.2, where a
maximum power point algorithm is included. The grid voltage is detected and taken care of
to a phase locked loop (PLL) to generate a unity sinusoidal signal which is in phase with
the grid voltage. A PI current controller is used to control the output voltage. The output of
the PI controller is multiplied with the unity sinusoidal signal resulting in the AC current
reference. In the inner loop, the output current is controlled by a PR controller. To
understand the control scheme of the proposed system, the function of different equipment
must be known. So, the details of Proportional Resonant (PR) controller, Proportional
Integral (PI) controller and Phase Locked Loop (PLL) in Fig. 3.2 are explained in the next
section.

3.2.1. Proportional Resonant (PR) Controller

Due to the dynamics of the integral term and pole at the zero frequency Proportional Integral
(PI) controller cannot detect or follow the sinusoidal reference without creating any steady
state error. To ease the solution the term Proportional-Resonant (PR) controller comes
which is the mostly used current controller for grid connected PV system. This controller
can control or regulate the injection of current into the grid. Although PI controller needs
feed-forward voltage to get the steady state position, PR controller doesn’t need any feed-
forward voltage term.

Ui*
+
Ii* - GPR (s) GD(s) GF(s)

Ii

Fig 3.3. Basic block diagram of a PR current control

26
Fig. 3.3 shows the current control strategy of PR current controller where Ii is the inverter
output current, Ii* is the inverter current reference and Ui* is the inverter voltage reference.
A PR current controller is the combination of proportional and resonant terms can be
represented by,
GPR(s) = KP + KI (s / s2 + 𝜔02) (3.1)
where, KP is the proportional gain, KI is the integral gain and 𝜔0 is the is the resonant
frequency.
In the Fig. 3.3, GF(s) represents the LCL filter, GD(s) processing delay of the
microcontroller, which is equal to the time of one sample Ts and can be represented by:
GD(s) = 1 / (1 + sTs)
An ideal PR current controller is able to provide infinite gain at the interested resonant
frequencies to make the steady state error zero and zero gain to other frequencies.
Equation 3.1 represents an ideal PR current controller which creates stability problems
because of its infinite gain. To solve these problems, a non-ideal PR current controller can
be introduced and it is given by [35, 36],
GPR(s) = KP + KI (𝜔cs / s2 + 2 𝜔cs + 𝜔02) (3.2)
where, KP is the proportional gain, KI is the integral gain, 𝜔0 is the is the resonant frequency
and 𝜔c is the bandwidth around the ac frequency 𝜔0.
Equation 3.2 i,e, the s-domain is only suitable for continuous analysis. For obtaining discrete
equation, this equation has to be converted into z-domain. To change the equation 3.2 from
s-domain to z-domain putting z = (2/Ts) × (1 - z-1)/(1 + z-1), then we get [37],
GPR(z) = (n0 + n1z-1 + n2z-2) / (1 + d1z-1 + d2z-2) (3.3)
where,
n0 = {(4 + 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2)Kp + 4KITs 𝜔c} / (4 + 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2)
n1 = {(- 8 + 2𝜔02Ts2)Kp} / (4 + 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2)
n2 = {(4 - 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2)Kp - 4KITs 𝜔c} / (4 + 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2)
d1 = (- 8 + 2𝜔02Ts2) / (4 + 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2)
d2 = (4 - 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2) / (4 + 4Ts𝜔c + 𝜔02Ts2)

3.2.2. Proportional Integral (PI) Controller

A Proportional Integral (PI) Controller is a feedback control loop (closed loop) that
calculates an error signal by taking the difference between the output of a system or plant
and the input signal or set point. The input signal or set point indicates the point or level at
which we’d like to have our system running.

Integral gain, Ki

E(s) C(s)
+ +
R(s) - + Plant, G(s)

Proportional gain, Kp

Fig. 3.4. Basic block diagram of a Proportional Integral (PI) controller

27
In Fig. 3.4, R(s) indicates the input signal and C(s) indicates the output of the plant or
system.
PI controller is the combination of proportional and integral term. In PI controller two
control actions are needed: proportional control action and integral control action. If the
relation between the output of the controller is u(t) and actuating error signal is e(t) then,
For proportional control action,
u(t) = Kpe(t)
After Laplace transform of the above equation we obtain a transfer function (TF) of the
Proportional controller,
𝑈(𝑠)
= Kp (3.4)
𝐸(𝑠)
where, Kp is the proportional gain.
For integral control action,
𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
= Kie(t)
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
or, u(t) = Ki ∫0 𝑒(𝑡)dt
After Laplace transform of the above equation we obtain a transfer function (TF) of the
Integral controller,
𝑈(𝑠)
= Ki /s (3.5)
𝐸(𝑠)
where, Ki is the integral gain.
Finally, for the proportional plus integral control action we get,
𝑡
u(t) = Kpe(t) + (Ki/Ti) ∫0 𝑒(𝑡)dt
After Laplace transform of the above equation we obtain a transfer function (TF) of the
Proportional Integral (PI) controller,
𝑈(𝑠)
= Kp (1 + 1/Tis) (3.6)
𝐸(𝑠)
where, Ti is called integral time [38, 39].

3.2.3. Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

A Phase-Locked Loop or Phase Lock Loop (PLL) is a control framework that creates a yield
signal whose stage is identified with the period of guaranteed or wanted information signal.
In a word, PLL tries to match the phase of input signal and output signal. Keeping the input
phase and output phase in the lock state indicates that input and output signal have same
frequency. During the synchronization between input and output signals, a PLL can track
an input frequency, or it can generate a signal whose frequency is the multiple of the input
frequency. Phase-locked loops (PLL) are mostly used in radio, telecommunications,
computers and different electronic appliances. They can be used for frequency synthesis,
demodulation of a signal, recover a signal from a noisy communication channel etc,. As a
PLL building block can be found in a single integrated circuit (IC), it is widely used in
modern electronic devices. There are different types of PLLs: analog phase-locked loop
(APLL), digital phase-locked loop (DPLL), all digital phase-locked loop (ADPLL) and
software phase-locked loop (SPLL).

28
 Fin Phase Voltage
Charge Low-Pass Bias Output
Frequency Controlled
Pump Filter Generator Converter
Detector Oscillator

÷N
(optional)

Fig. 3.5. Basic block diagram of a PLL circuit

Phase-locked loop (PLL) mechanisms may be implemented as either analog or digital

circuits. Both analog and digital circuits use the same basic structure. Generally, a PLL
circuit consists of four basic elements:
• Phase detector
• Low-pass filter
• Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) and
• Feedback path (which may include a frequency divider) [40].

Phase Detector: A phase detector or phase comparator is an important part of a PLL circuit.
It is a logic circuit or mixer-like circuit that generates a signal which is proportional to the
phase difference between two input signals of same frequency. Sometimes, a XOR gate is
used as a phase detector in the digital PLLs [40].
Low-Pass Filter: A low-pass filter is totally opposite of a high pass filter. It is a filter that
allows to pass a low frequency signal and reject the unwanted high frequency signal. In the
low pass filter, the frequency which is less than the cut-off frequency can pass, but the
frequency which is above the cut-off frequency can not pass. The low pass filter is
sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble-cut filter in audio applications. Actually, the
LPF detects the change of frequency in a PLL [40].
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator: A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is used in the PLL
circuit to generate a signal based on the input signal. It is an integral part of a PLL. It is also
used in frequency modulation (FM), phase modulation (PM) for generating a desired signal.
According to the type of waveform generation a VCO can be categorized into two groups:
• Linear or harmonic oscillators which can generate a sinusoidal waveform and
• Relaxation oscillators which can generate a sawtooth or triangular waveform [40].

Frequency Divider: A PLL circuit utilizes a frequency divider to create a frequency which
is the multiple of a reference frequency signal. It can be implemented for both analog and
digital applications. A frequency divider, likewise called a clock divider or scalar or
prescaler takes an input signal of frequency fin and generates an output signal of frequency
Fout[40],
Fout = fin/n (3.7)
where, n is an integer.

29
 Chapter 4
Results

4.1. Simulation Parameters of Proposed Topology

The proposed grid connected single phase transformer-less inverter topology are simulated
through the MATLAB/Simulink software. Therefore various Simulink blocks are used
there. They are explained in this section.

4.1.1. PV Array
PV array is made of strings of PV modules connected in parallel where each string consists
of modules connected in series. There are two inputs fed to the PV array where input 1
indicates Sun irradiance, in W/m2, and input 2 indicates Cell temperature, in deg.C. In the
simulation, a fixed 1000 W/m2 of solar irradiance and 25oC of cell temperature is used. In
this array, the number of parallel strings are 1 and the number of series-connected modules
per string is 6.

4.1.2. Inverter
There are total four IGBT switches with antiparallel diodes in the proposed single phase
inverter. This inverter is connected across the PV array. The inverter is also connected with
the clamping circuit which consists of four power diodes and an IGBT switch with anti-
parallel diode.

4.1.3. Filter
The output of the proposed single phase inverter is connected to the grid through a LCL
filter consists of two 1.5mH of inductors and a 0.20𝜇𝐹 of capacitor. The value of this filter
is found through trial and error method or process.

4.1.4. Controller
To generate the unipolar SPWM signal there are mainly two controller is used: PI controller
with PLL circuit is used to generate current reference and PR controller used to generate
main modulation reference signal i,e, sine wave. For SPWM signal, triangular wave of 9
KHz (i,e, switching frequency) signal is used. Here the both PI and PR controller is tuned
through the trial and error method or process. Here, IC method is used as a MPPT algorithm
to track the maximum power from the PV array that also helps to generate modulation
signal.

30
4.2. Simulation Results
The simulation model for proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology has been
shown in the Fig. 4.1 where the output of the PV array is fed to the single phase inverter.
Then the output of the inverter is connected to the grid through the LCL filter. Here,
controller is used to generate modulation signal.

Fig. 4.1. MATLAB Simulation model for proposed single phase transformer-less inverter

31
 Fig. 4.2. Switching pattern for proposed single phase transformer-less inverter

To see the performance of the proposed single phase transformer-less inverter we need to
know about the output of the inverter, grid voltage and current and their corresponding
THD, load voltage and current and their corresponding THD and leakage ground current
for pure resistive (R = 100Ω) and inductive load (R = 100Ω and L = 70mH). Peak value of
these outputs are shown below (based on Fig. 4.1):

32
 (a)

(b)
Fig. 4.3. Simulated waveform of (a) Grid voltage and (b) Grid current

(a)

33
 (b)
Fig. 4.4. THD of (a) grid voltage and (b) grid current

(a)

(b)

34
 (c)

(d)

(e)
Fig. 4.5. Simulated waveform of (a) Vab, (b) Van, (c) Vbn, (d) Vcmv, (e) Leakage current for
resistive load (unity power factor)

(a)

35
 (b)
Fig. 4.6. Simulated waveform of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for resistive load
(unity power factor)

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4.7. THD of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for resistive load (unity power
factor)

36
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

37
 (e)
Fig. 4.8. Simulated waveform of (a) Vab, (b) Van, (c) Vbn, (d) Vcmv, (e) Leakage current for
inductive load (lagging power factor)

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4.9. Simulated waveform of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for inductive load
(lagging power factor)

38
 (a)

(b)
Fig. 4.10. THD of (a) load voltage and (b) load current for inductive load (lagging power
factor)

Here all the simulations are done for fixed solar irradiance and constant temperature. As the
common mode voltage almost constant, therefore low leakage current is founded and
eliminate the possibility of the use of additional common mode filter (CMF). Although the
output of the PV array vary, at the output of the inverter we get almost sinusoidal waveform
of voltage and current. During the inductive or resistive load there are a small distortion in
the output current. From Fig. 4.9, it is clear that the proposed topology can inject the reactive
power to the grid because due to lagging power factor there is a very small distortion in the
output current which is mostly required in single phase transformer-less inverter system. To
get the leakage current two capacitors (as a parasitic capacitor) of 100nF connected to the
positive and negative terminal of DC supply (PV array) and the neutral of the load.

39
Table 4.1. Key parameters used in simulation
Parameters Value

Final Input Voltage 338.4V DC

Resistive Load 100Ω
Resistive-inductive Load 100Ω, 70mH
Grid Voltage (Vgrid) 238.9V AC (rms)
Grid Current (Igrid) 6.637A AC (rms)
Rated Power 1.5 KW
Modulation Index (M) 1
Line Frequency 50Hz
Switching Frequency 9KHz
Filter Inductor (L1,L2) 1.5mH
Filter Capacitor (C0) 0.20µF
DC Link Capacitor (C1, C2) 250µF

4.3. Comparison Between Proposed Topology and Existing Topology

4.3.1. Comparison of Mid-Point Clamped Transformer-less Topologies

There are various mid-point clamped transformer-less inverter topologies exit. As the
proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology is also a mid-point clamped
transformer-less inverter topology, therefore it has to be compared with others mid-point
clamped transformer-less inverter topologies. The table is given below:

Table 4.2. Comparison of Mid-Point Clamped Transformer-less Topologies

Topology Leakage Output Common Filter Filter Switching
Name Current Voltage Mode Inductors Capacitor Frequency
Level Voltage
(CMV)
HB-ZVR [13] 74.5mA 3 163 to 200 1.8mH 2µF 8KHz
(rms) for 350V
DC input

40
 HB-ZVR-D 42.7mA 3 199 to 200 3mH 6nF 10KHz
[14] (rms) for 400V
DC input

HB-ZVSCR -- 3 199 to 200 0.65mH 2.2µF 25 KHz

[23] for 400V
DC input

Proposed 26.163mA 3 163 to 165 1.5mH 0.20µF 9KHz

Topology (rms) for 330V
DC input

In the Table 4.1, the comparison among several mid-point clamped transformer-less
topologies with proposed topology is shown where only the inverter part of the proposed
topology is considered to make the comparison fair. From that table it is clear that the
leakage current is low in the proposed topology although the output of the PV panel or the
input of the inverter contains ripple. According to DIN VDE-0126-1-1 [42], the leakage
current must be less than 300mA and should be less than 30mA otherwise the system has to
be disconnected from the grid within as soon as possible. So the proposed topology
maintained that standard. Again, the proposed topology used low switching frequency
which decrease the switching loss.

4.3.2. Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less Topologies Based on

Components

Comparison Based on Components

6 6 6

6 5 5 5 5
No. of Components

5 4

0
No. of Diodes No. of Switches
Ref. [13] Ref. [14] Ref. [23] Proposed

Fig. 4.11. Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less Topologies Based on

Components

41
In the above chart the number of semiconductor devices used in the inverter part of the
proposed topology is shown and compared with the other conventional topologies where all
the topologies are mid-point clamped transformer-less topology. In the proposed inverter
topology, although the number of diode is high, the number of IGBT is low compared to the
other topologies to reduce the leakage current and power loss and this makes the system
mostly secure and economical.

4.3.3. Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less Topologies Based on

THD

THD Comparision
1.97%

1.90% 1.80%
2.00%
1.90%
1.95% Proposed
THD

1.90% Ref. [23]

1.85%
1.80% Ref. [14]
1.75% Ref. [13]
1.70%
THD
Ref. [13] Ref. [14] Ref. [23] Proposed

Fig. 4.12. Comparison of Proposed and Existing Transformer-less Topologies Based on

THD

In the above chart, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the output current of proposed
inverter is compared with other existing topologies. The THD of the output current of the
proposed inverter is less than the highest standard value of THD declared by IEEE i,e,
< 5% [43].

42
 Chapter 5
Conclusion and Discussion

5.1. Conclusion and Discussion

In the proposed topology, DC-DC converter is excluded and single-stage converter has been
developed and tested on Matlab Simulink platform. The single-stage PV inverter provides
better efficiency, lower cost and easier implementation although having shading problems.
Smaller leakage current and make the system economical is the main concern of the
proposed topology. The proposed topology is designed to supply the power into the grid
directly, but it can be directly used for the domestic purpose also by adding battery with the
system, in this way after the fulfilment of domestic load the power can be supplied to the
grid. As the cost of PV cell is high and consume large floor area, the proper use of PV array
must be ensured. In the proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology, it is
considered that the PV array operates at fixed solar irradiance and constant temperature. To
reduce the leakage current in the proposed topology, a clamping circuit consists of a full
bridge diodes and one switch is used which tries to clamp the AC terminal voltage to the
DC midpoint during zero state or freewheeling period. In this way, common mode voltage
(CMV) becomes constant which helps to connect the system into the grid. In the proposed
inverter topology IGBT switches are used so that they can handle the high power and can
supply the reactive power into the grid. Besides, a lower switching frequency is used in the
proposed topology to reduce the switching or conduction loss. In the proposed topology
conduction loss is also low for using less number of switches during the conduction period
and freewheeling period. To connect the output of the inverter to the grid a low value of
LCL filter is used in the proposed topology. As the capacitor across switches increase the
leakage current, the number of IGBT switches are low at the proposed topology. Although
the number of diodes in the clamp circuit are high in the proposed topology, it is more
economical than the use of extra IGBT switches, because there is a small voltage drop and
lower power loss at the diode compared to the semiconductor switch. Besides, the number
of diodes increase in the proposed topology to make the system more secure. In the proposed
single phase transformer-less inverter topology the THD of output current is 2.05% and
1.91% for resistive and inductive load respectively and the leakage current is 26.163 mA
(rms) for both resistive and inductive load. Although the THD of the grid current of the
proposed topology is relatively higher than the existing mid-point clamping topology, it
provides lower leakage current compared to others which ensures lower power loss and
human safety requirements. During the starting period the leakage current is high for few
milliseconds, but still lower than the standard value declared by DIN VDE-0126-1-1, that’s
why it can be said that the proposed topology is safe and secure. The value of THD and
leakage current fulfil the requirements for the grid connected PV system. To get the
modulation reference signal PI, PR controller and PLL circuit are used in this proposed
single phase transformer-less topology. For switching of the IGBT switches, unipolar PWM

43
technique is used where a high frequency triangular signal is used as a carrier signal. Finally,
the proposed topology is compared with existing works to find weather the topology is good
or bad. So it can be said that the proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology
is economical as well as ensure safety concerns.

5.2. Future Works

There are several research tasks for future work and some of these are given below:
• During the presented work, simulations are done by considering ideal components
and the efficiency of the topology has not been determined. However, by considering
switching and conduction losses for switching elements efficiency can also be
determined in simulation, additionally including losses for the passive components.

• DC-current injection is of incredible interest in transformer-less PV inverters. New

topologies or control methodologies could be researched, that wipe out or limit the
DC part in the induced AC flow.

• In the proposed single phase transformer-less inverter topology further

investigations can be possible to improve the efficiency by choosing better
components.

• The proposed system is designed for fixed solar irradiance and constant cell
temperature. So this system can be designed for variable solar irradiance and cell
temperature.

• The leakage current can be reduced to zero by using new topologies and/or voltage
and current controller.

• The common mode voltage can be made more stable by using better voltage
controller.

• The grid current is not fully stable, but it can be made fully stable by using proper
design.

44
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