SH1690

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THE LAWS OF PHYSICS

I. Basics of Motion
Motion is defined as the change in position over a given time. By
definition, it means that everything behaves linearly, so the objects
and scenarios involved are only moving along one (1) of the three
(3) known axes that we use (x, y, z). An example would be a car
driving along the straight highway, without any other cars
interfering with its movement. c. Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit of time.
Meaning, it shows how fast the object moves to reach that
There are several formulas we use to show motion. But before we
certain amount of velocity within a certain amount of time.
go into that, we need to define a few key terms used in this topic:
Negative acceleration values indicate that the objects are
a. Distance is the total measured length between two (2) given
slowing down.
points. Simply put, if we use a simple racetrack, it is measured
from Start to the Finish line.
II. Formulas and Representation
b. Displacement is the measured mean distance covered
Speed
between two (2) specified points. Displacement is a certain
Speed (represented as 𝑠) is the change in distance (𝑑) per unit
distance at any given two (2) points. So, going back to the
time (𝑡), as seen in the diagram.
track, the displacement could be from Start to the middle,
middle to the Finish line, or it could also be the average 𝑑
distance between the Start and the Finish line, used 𝑠 = | |.
interchangeably with distance. 𝑡
c. Time is the progression of events occurring between
This shows that 𝑣 has a direct
instances. We need to prove that there is a progression
relationship with 𝑑, but is inversely
between events, such as from walking to running, jogging
from point A to B, and so on. 𝒅 proportional to 𝑡. Statistically
speaking, distance is the dependent
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration variable, while time is independent.
a. Speed is the scalar quantity defined as the total distance The formula also represents the
covered per unit time. Simply put, if there is motion, there is
speed. Speed does not and cannot have a negative value. 𝒔 𝒕 formula for instantaneous speed, the
speed at any given instant in time.
Sometimes, it is interchanged with velocity.
b. Velocity is the measured speed measured between two (2) Average speed (𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 ), defined as the
specified points. It is the measured speed at a certain distance overall change in displacement and time, is written as
at any given instance in time. However, unlike speed, velocity
is a vector quantity and requires direction. Negative velocity ∆𝑑
values indicate that the objects are moving in the opposite 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒 = .
∆𝑡
direction.
Expanding the equation above,

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𝒅𝒇 − 𝒅𝟎
𝒔𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝟎
where,
𝑑𝑓 = final distance reached
𝑑0 = initial (or starting) distance
𝑡𝑓 = final time achieved
𝑡0 = initial (or starting) time
Velocity
Velocity (𝑣) also has the same diagram
as speed, but with some minor
differences. Displacement (𝑥) replaces
the distance, and velocity replaces
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Acceleration
, Acceleration (𝑎) also has the same
diagram as both speed and velocity, but
with some minor differences. Velocity (𝑣)
becomes the dependent variable.
Acceleration’s formula is seen in its
𝒗
given definition.
The formula for acceleration, which is
the change in velocity per set time, is,
𝒂 𝒕
∆𝑣
𝑎=
𝒙 which is also equal to,
∆𝑡

speed, as seen in the diagram. (𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝟎 )

𝒂= .
The formula for velocity, defined as the
change in displacement per change in 𝒗 𝒕 (𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝟎 )

unit time, is
∆𝑥 The above equation is also the equation used in determining the
𝑣= average acceleration of the object. If there are no given changes in
∆𝑡
both time and velocity, however (i.e., no given initial and final values),
which is also equal to, acceleration can still be equated as an instantaneous acceleration,
(𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝟎 ) where
𝒗= . 𝒗
(𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝟎 )
𝒂= .
𝒕
As seen in the formulas, it also represents average velocity, the overall
velocity of the changing displacements, and time. If the acceleration value is negative, it means that the object is slowing
If we want to compute only for a specific velocity in a specified time, down or decelerating.
we get the instantaneous velocity (𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑠 ), as seen in the formula,
Derived Equations
By combining and manipulating the given equations, we get the
𝒙 following derived equations,
𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒔 = .
𝒕
Displacement (𝑥)
𝑣̅0 + 𝑣̅𝑓
By simple analysis, we can see that speed and velocity are almost 𝑥=( )𝑡
2
alike in some ways. A negative velocity simply indicates that the object
is moving in the opposite direction.
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1 Take note of the changes in value. If we are to plot them, each graph
= 𝑎𝑡 2
2 looks very different. First, let us plot distance vs. time.
1 2
= 𝑣̅0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 Distance versus Time (Displacement vs. Time)
2
1
= 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 Time Vs Distance (A)
Velocity (𝑣) 60 50
40
𝑣 = 𝑣̅0 + 𝑎𝑡

Distance
40 30
= 𝑎𝑡 20
𝑣 2 = 𝑣̅0 2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥 20 10

Graphical Representation 0
Graphs are one way of showing the relationship between the given 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
variables in Physics. Each of the three (3) rectilinear motion values Time
has its graphical presentation. This is done to represent the changes
in the system.
Given a car moving at a constant, rightward velocity of 10 m/s, the
Graphing helps us identify which part of the system is experiencing a chart shows the results of the car from zero (0) to five (5) seconds,
uniform and/or uniformly accelerated motion. A uniform motion is a The resulting chart shows that the slope is a constant, rising, straight
motion that experiences zero changes to its system. For example, a line. Since time is independent of distance, it is plotted as the x-axis,
ball rolling at 0.3 meters every second will remain to roll at this rate whereas distance is plotted along the y-axis. This shows that the car
because nothing makes it change its velocity (that is, acceleration is does not experience any change in its velocity. The height of the slope
zero). also determines the rate of change the object experiences. This
makes the graph a uniform motion.
However, if an object moves with a set value of acceleration, then the
object’s velocity will gradually change every second (provided that the Now, if we have the same car, this time having the following values,
given acceleration is constant). This makes the motion a uniformly
Time (s) Distance
accelerated one. As an example, if a ball is accelerating at a rate of
0.3 meters every second per second after being pushed to move, then 1 2
the ball rolls as follows: 2 8
3 18
Time (s) Acceleration Velocity Displacement
(m/s2) (m/s) (m) 4 32
1 0.3 0.15 5 50
2 0.9 1.35
0.3 Notice that each given value has exponentially risen than the previous.
3 1.8 5.40 This shows that the car is now experiencing a change in velocity, and
4 3.0 15.0

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now acceleration is present. Plotting it in a graph, the results are as
follows,
Time Vs Distance (C)
60 50 48
Time Vs Distance (B) 50 40

Distance
40
60 50
30 22
50
20
32
Distance

40
10 0
30 18 0
20 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 2 Time
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time Now, you may notice that the distance value decreases. It does not
imply that there is a negative distance because there is no such thing!
Remember, distance is a scalar value. So, to solve this, use the
As seen previously, the graph's slope has also changed, from a difference between the highest distance value and the lowest distance
constant, straight line into a curve. This curve represents the sudden value. Now, looking at the previous given, the car’s initial displacement
change in the car’s velocity, represented by a positive acceleration. is at 50 units. As it travels, it travels from 50 to zero (0) units. By
This makes the graph a uniformly accelerated motion. definition, ∆𝑥 = (𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥0 ). But, if we are to follow it, we shall get -50.
If the car travels as shown in the table below, assuming that the car To correct the total displacement, let us use ∆𝑥 = |𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥0 |. Replacing
started at 50 units, the values,
Time (s) Distance ∆𝑥 = |𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥0 |
1 50 = |0 − 50|
2 48 ∆𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎.
3 40 Now, adding it to the initial displacement value, we get a total distance
4 22 of 100 units.
5 0 Graphing values require analysis. If the results you got are different
When plotted against the graph, it will show that the car shows from the others, you either have faulty data or interpreted the scenario
negative acceleration, with the car moving slowly at first, then speeds wrong. Let us try an example. Suppose we have that same car
up rapidly until it stops, as seen below. Take note that acceleration traveling a certain distance from its initial displacement of 80 units.
values vary depending on use. This time, it has a random changing velocity due to it having
acceleration changes, as seen on the next page.

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 SH1690

Time (s) Distance Σ𝑥 = |𝑥0 + ∆𝑥2−1 + ∆𝑥3−2 + ∆𝑥4−3 + ∆𝑥5−4 + ∆𝑥6−5 |

1 80.00
2 92.50
3 110.00
4 65.00
5 10.00
6 10.00
As seen on the table, there are instances when the values remain
constant, such as the distance value of 10 units against the five (5)
and six (6) second marks. It is interpreted as that the car is in a state
of rest or stationary for that time being. Presenting it in graph form, we
get the values,
= |80 + (92.5 − 80) + (110 − 92.5) + (65 − 110) + (35 − 65) + 0|
= |80 + 12.5 + 17.5 + (−45) + (−30) + 0|
= |110| + |−75|
= 110 + 75
= 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬.
Velocity versus Time
Velocity-time graphs are graphs meant to interpret changes for
acceleration values. As discussed earlier, acceleration is the change
of velocity per unit time. Therefore, if there is a substantial change in
an object’s velocity within a certain amount of time, the object is said
to be accelerating.
Let us once again use the car as an example in this scenario. Provided
below is the table for the car’s distance-time values,

Time Vs Distance (D) Time (s) Distance

110.00 1 10
120.00 92.50
100.00 80.00 2 20
65.00
Distance

80.00
3 30
60.00 35.00 35.00
40.00 4 40
20.00 5 50
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
Time The graph of this table will be a steady, straight rise. Previously, we
have learned that straight line rising steadily represents an object
moving at a constant velocity. Presenting it in graph form, we get,
As seen above, when the car revved up after one (1) second, the
graph rises gradually at two (2) seconds, reaching its peak at three (3)
seconds, which slopes down at four (4) to five (5) seconds. The
sloping down of the graph means that the Grab car is experiencing
negative, constant velocity. The car slows down and stops as it
reached the five (5) second mark in the given scenario. Computing for
the total distance, including the initial displacement of 80 units, we get
185 units.

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Converting into a graph, we get,
Time Vs Velocity (A)
12 10 10 10 10 10
Velocity 10 Time Vs Velocity (B)
8 15
6 10

Velocity
10 8
4 6
2 4
5 2
0
1 2 3 4 5 0
Time 1 2 3 4 5
Time

In terms of acceleration, the car experiences zero (0) acceleration The graph shows a steady increase in velocity over a certain period.
because the velocity values are equal on all levels, hinting that the car That is why acceleration is evident. Using example D, plotting the
is moving steadily. But, if we are to make a velocity-time graph from velocity table, we get,
the values as seen in the table below,

Time (s) Velocity

Time (s) Distance
1 0.00
1 2
2 10.00
2 8
3 15.00
3 18
4 -40.00
4 32
5 -30.00
5 50
6 0.00
Plotting it for a velocity-time table, we now get the following values,
In graph form, we get,
Time (s) Velocity
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

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Time Vs Velocity
20.00 10.00 15.00
0.00 0.00
Velocity 0.00
1 2 3 4 -30.00
5 6
-20.00
-40.00
-40.00
-60.00
Time

If we are now to combine the graphs, we get the graph seen at the
right. As seen from the three graphs at the right, the time vs.
acceleration graph shows no slope. That is because, in terms of
calculus, adding a slope for an already constant value shall render the
graph discontinuous or broken. Since acceleration is constant in
value, if there is an evident change in velocity, there is no need to add
a slope. Computing for the values using the graph, we use
computation for the area. First, trace the acceleration graph. Then,
match the values of the acceleration graph to get the velocity graph.
Then, finally, match the velocity values to graph the distance graph.
To compute for velocity using the time-acceleration graph,
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤,
where velocity is the Area (𝐴), the acceleration is the
(𝑙), and time is the width (𝑤).
Computing for the graph values is easy. If you are given a time-
acceleration graph (i.e., the graph full of rectangular formations and
no slant and curved lines), use the following equations:
1. To determine the velocity value of each point, use,
𝑣0 = the initial velocity (i.e., the velocity before the required
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡, velocity)
where, 𝑎 = the acceleration value on the graph
𝑣 = the required velocity 𝑡 = the time

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 SH1690
2. To determine the displacement value of each point, use, Height (𝑦)
𝟏
1 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝟐
2 Velocity (𝑣)
where, ̅𝒇 = 𝒗
𝒗 ̅𝟎 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
𝑥 = the required displacement ̅𝒇 = 𝒗
𝒗 ̅𝟎 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈∆𝒚

𝑥0 = the initial displacement (i.e., the displacement before the

required displacement) References:
Bauer, W., & Westfall, G. D. (2016). General physics 1 (2nd ed.).
𝑣0 = the initial velocity (i.e., the velocity before the required
Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Education.
velocity)
Bauer, W., & Westfall, G. D. (2016). General physics 1 (2nd ed.).
𝑎 = the acceleration value on the graph Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.
Bautista, D.C. (2013). Science impact: Integrated science (3rd ed.).
𝑡 = the time Antipolo City: Academe Publishing House, Inc.
III. Free-Fall Belleza, R.V., Gadong, E.S.A., …, Sharma, M. PhD. (2016). General
Suppose a man went skydiving, jumping off his King Air 12,000 feet physics 1. Quezon City, Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
above the ground, going from zero to 175 m/s within a short amount CHED. (2016). Displacement, time, average velocity, instantaneous
of time. This is an example of free-fall, another case of rectilinear velocity. Retrieved 2017, February 13 from Teach Together:
motion. CHED K-12 Curriculum Sharing Site:
http://teachtogether.chedk12.com/teaching_guides/view/82
Free-fall is a motion wherein only gravity is the only acting influence Elert, G. (2016). Graphical representation of data. Retrieved October
on the object. Since gravity pulls everything towards its center, it is 13, 2016, from The Physics Hypertextbook:
safe to say that gravity is the only driving mechanism in an object’s http://physics.info/graphs/
vertical motion. The most common examples used in free-fall are the Freedman, R. A., Ford, A. L., & Young, H. D. (2011). Sears and
balls being thrown upwards or dropped downwards in its classical zemansky’s university physics (with Modern Physics) (13th
take. Acceleration here is nearly constant since gravity is the only ed.). Addison-Wesley.
influence here. Known as lowercase 𝑔, the value of acceleration due Khan Academy. (n.d.). What is acceleration?. Retrieved 2017,
to gravity is calculated to be 9.8 m/s 2, or 32.2 ft/s 2 . Air resistance is February 7 from Khan Academy:
“irrelevant” in classic free-fall, providing an “ideal” setup for its cases. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/one-
Formulas Used dimensional-motion/acceleration-tutorial/a/acceleration-
The formulas used by free-fall are the same as those used by the article
standard rectilinear motion, with slight differences. In this case, Santiago, K. S., & Silverio, A. A. (2016). Exploring life through science:
acceleration 𝑔 is already given, whereas distance here is known as Senior High school physical science. Quezon City: Phoenix
“height”, represented by 𝑦. Acceleration due to gravity, being a vector Publishing House, Inc.
value, has a positive value when directed downwards. Also, graphing Somara, S. (2016). Motion in a straight line – Crash course physics
free-fall values are the same as rectilinear motion. Maximum height is #1. Retrieved from YouTube:
achieved if 𝑣̅𝑓 = 0. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZM8ECpBuQYE

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Texas Education Agency. (n.d.). Graphical representation of motion
along a straight line. Retrieved 2017, February 13 from the
Texas Gateway for Online Resources:
https://www.texasgateway.org/node/4117

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