Water Supply and Treatment Engineering

1. Introduction
18CV46

Introduction:
Need for protected water supply
Demand of Water:
Types of water demands -Domestic, Industrial, Institutional and Commercial,
Public Use,
Fire Demand Estimation,
Factors affecting Per Capita Demand, and
Variations in Demand of Water, Peak Factor,

t. v. manju Prasad, Asst. Prof., HMSIT, Tumakuru-572 104.

5/9/2023
1. Introduction 18CV46

1. Introduction:
Water:
 Need for protected water supply,
2. Demand of Water:
 Types of water demands
 Domestic, Industrial, Institutional and Commercial, Public use,
 Fire demand estimation
 Factors affecting per capita demand
 Variation in demand of water
 Peak factor

Introduction:
The environment, which supports life and sustains various human activities, is widely known as
bio-sphere. Since, bio-sphere is very complex and large, it is usually divided into smaller units or eco-
system. All eco-systems can be divided into two parts known as the biotic (living) and the abiotic (non-
living) components.

Bio-sphere

Biotic abiotic

Nitrogen Phosphorous Producers Consumers Decomposers

Plants Animal life Bacteria

Algae Fungal

Human activities and environmental pollution:

Water constitutes one of the physical environments of man and has a direct bearing on his
health, there is no gain saying that contamination of water leads to health hazards. Water supplies to
man, and therefore control of water supplies to ensure that, they are pure and wholesome, as one of the
primary objectives of environmental sanitation. Water may be polluted water supply by physical,
chemical, and bacterial agents. Therefore, protected water supply is a sine-qua-non (outcome) of public
health of a community.

The use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing population. Already there are acute
parts of the country. Careless pollution and contamination of the streams, lakes, reservoirs, and other
underground sources has greatly impaired the quality of available water. This pollution results because
of improper disposal of waste-water, both domestic as well as industrial. Organized community life
require twin services of water supply and sewage disposal, good sanitation cannot maintained without
adequate water supply system. Without proper disposal, the waste of a community can create

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1. Introduction 18CV46

intolerance nuisance, spread diseases and create other health hazards. The planning, financing and
operation of water and waste-water systems are complex undertaking, and they required a high degree
of skill and judgment.

Water for various beneficial uses and quality requirement:

With the advancement of civilization the utility of water economically increased and now such a
stage come that without well organized water supply scheme, it is impossible to run the present civic
life and the development of towns. The importance of water from only a quantity view point was
recognized from the earliest days and the importance of quality come to recognize gradually in the later
days.

Water borne diseases are well accepted during 1900, the correlation between water quality and
incidence of diseases established by Dr. John Snow in 1849, London. All impurities were achieved by
drinking water treatment.

Water required for various purposes are;

1. For drinking and cooking,

2. For bathing and washing,
3. For watering lawns and gardens,
4. For heating and air conditioning systems,
5. For growing crops,
6. For street washing,
7. For fire fighting
8. For recreation in swimming pools, fountains, etc.,
9. For steam power & various industrial process etc. and so on.

Need for protected water supply:

Protected water supply means the supply of water that is treated to remove the impurities and
made safe to public health.

The water supply to the consumers should be protected for the following reasons;

1. The water available for the surface sources such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc, may be polluted
by the people residing near the sources which may cause water-borne diseases like cholera,
typhoid, dysentery etc,
2. The underground water may be polluted by the percolating water which may carry harmful
chemicals. Such pollution may be the cause of skin diseases, and troubles f heart, lungs, kidney
etc.
3. The source of water may be polluted by radioactive substances which may affect the human
organs seriously.

Water may be polluted by physical and bacterial agents. Water is also good carrier of disease
causing germs. The causes of outbreak of epidemics are traced to pollute water and poor sanitation

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1. Introduction 18CV46

hospitals are continued to be flooded with the sick due to ignorance about health continues to be
profound.

To achieve the goal of ‘Health for all by 2000 AD’ several states, National, International, and
non-governmental agencies are working to make wholesome water available to all. All present, only
16% of towns in our country are equipped with water supply works serving, about 5% of population of
the whole of country. India has got to make serious efforts to make the treated water available to the
most of its population so as to minimize the water borne disease. Therefore protected water supply is a
SIN_QUO_NON of public health of a community. There are many central, state and international agencies
coordinating and executing the urban and rural water supply facilities/ schemes in the country.

Pollution:
The presence in water of any foreign substances which tend to lower its quality to a point it
becomes a health hazard or impairs the usefulness of water. The water supply schemes are prepared by
the combination of field observation and office work. Usually advantage of water supply scheme is
given to the city in stages.
1. A part of the city is developed first, and
2. Then the second part is developed and so on.

Objectives of water supply schemes:

1. To provide wholesome water to the consumers for drinking purpose.
2. To supply adequate quality to meet a least the minimum need to the industries.
3. To adequate provisions for emergencies like firefighting, festivals.
4. To make provisions for future demands due to increase in population increase in standard of
living, storage and conveyance.
5. To maintain the treatment units and distribution system in good condition with adequate staff
and materials.
6. To design and maintain the system that is economical and reliable.

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1. Introduction 18CV46

Integration of natural and human generated water cycle

Factors considered in any Water Supply Scheme:

1. Financial Aspect,
2. Population Forecasting,
3. Quality of Water,
4. Rate of Consumption or Rate of Water Demand,

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1. Introduction 18CV46

5. Sanitary Survey of Area,

6. Sources of Water Supply,
7. Topography of Area, and
8. Trends of Town Development.

1. Financial aspect:
The data regarding the availability of fund for the fulfillment of the water supply scheme should
be obtained in the initial stages of the scheme only. The scheme should then be adjusted in relation to
the funds available. Every step should be taken to make the scheme as economical as possible and to
take the maximum advantage of it.

2. Population Forecasting:
From the available census of previous years, the present population should be determined and
make the scheme to accommodate population after three or four decades. The failure to provide for the
future expansion results in great hardship in future.

3. Quality of Water:
The water should be no or minimum source of contamination to avoid any excessive treatment.
Hence, samples of available sources of water should be taken and properly analyzed and the results of
various tests should thoroughly study to suggest an economical water supply.

4. Rate of water consumption:

Depending upon the probable population, the total water required for the town or city should
be estimated considering the domestic demand, p[public demand, industrial demand, fire demand, etc.
rate of demand multiplied by the population gives the total quantity of water required for the water
supply scheme.

5. Sanitary Survey of Area:

Careful study of survey helps in estimating the possible contamination of water from such
sources, the sanitary survey include the collection of information regarding the likely sources of water
pollution.

6. Sources of Water:
The sources of water should be such the cost of conveyance and water treatment may be
reasonable. The source should be selected while keeping in view its adequacy quality of water and
cheapness.

7. Topography of Area:
The topographical map of the area to be served by the scheme should be prepared and it should
be studied in relation to the low lying area, density of population, etc. the study is essential to evolve a
simple but cheap water supply scheme.

8. Trends of Town Development:

The trends of town development in future should be predicted and properly adjusted in the
water supply scheme. Such trends may take various forms such as possibility of new industries, public
recreational centers, institutions, residential blocks etc.

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1. Introduction 18CV46

Importance of Water Supply Project:

The successful implementation of ay water supply project grants the following advantages;

1. The growth of new industries for various pipe appurtenances such as air valves, bib cocks, etc,
take place in the locality granting employment opportunities.
2. The industries which require pure water for their working are saved from the expenditure of
installing their own water purification plant.
3. The installation and maintenance of the water supply scheme grant opportunities of
employment to the local people.
4. The public in general gets treated gets treated reliable water for consumption and other uses.
5. The sanitation of the area is considerably improved by the adequate water supply.
6. There are less chances of water borne diseases to occur resulting in saving of human lives and
working hours.
7. The available water in the locality is used in the best possible manner and its misuse and
wastage are avoided to a considerable extent.
Sequences of units to be installed in the layout of any water supply project starting from the
source of water to the distribution system are;

1. Location of intakes including pumping plant.

2. Plain sedimentation tanks,
3. Coagulation tanks,
4. Filter units,
5. Water softening and other miscellaneous treatment plants,
6. Disinfection plant,
7. Storage of clear water in underground and over head reservoir tank, and
8. Distribution of water.

One complete water treatment plant requires the following process starting from the source of
water up to distribution zone:

Sl.No. Name of unit Purpose

1 Intake water including pumping plant
2 Plain sedimentation
3 Sedimentation with coagulation
4 Filtration
5 Water softening plant
6 Miscellaneous treatment plant
7 Clear water reservoir
8 Pumps for pumping the water in service If the city situated in higher elevation them
reservoir
Raw water from the source for treatment
To remove suspended impurities such as silt, clay,
sand etc.
To remove suspended matter
To remove micro-organisms and colloidal matter.
To remove hardness of water
To remove dissolved gases, tastes and odor
To store the treated water
pumping is required

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1. Introduction 18CV46

Important points in Selecting Water Supply Project:

1. The components of projects should be arranged in sequence so that the water flows smoothly
from one process to the process.
2. If possible, the location of all the plants should be such that the water flows by gravitation
only.
3. The treatment units should be arranged and designed in such a way that future expansion is
bit obstructed.
4. Necessary staff quarters and office units should be provided to control the functioning of the
project.
5. The site of entire project should reflect neat clean appearance with pleasing atmosphere.
6. The project should accommodate a fully-fledged laboratory in which routine tests can be
carried out to check the quality of raw water and treated water and to suggest the change in
treatment process when the occasion demands.
Demand of Water: (Quantity of Water)
While designing the safer supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to determine the total
quantity of water required for various purposes by the town. As a matter of fact the first duty of the
engineer is to determine the water demand of the town and then to find suitable water sources from
where the demand can be met. There are so many factors involved in demand of water; it is not possible
to accurately determine the actual demand. Certain empirical formulae and thumb rules are employed
in determining the water demand, which is near to the actual demand. The quantity of water required
for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be designed data;
1. Water consumption rate, ( per capita demand in liters per day per head)
2. Population to be served.
Quantity = Per Capita Demand x Population
Types of water demands: (MQP)
Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town;
1. Domestic water demand,
2. Industrial demand,
3. Institutional and commercial demand
4. Demand for public use,
5. Fire demand, and
6. Loses and wastes.

1. Domestic demand:
The quantity of water demand in the houses for drinking, bathing cooking, washing etc, is called
domestic water demand. Domestic demand mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic
conditions and customs of the people. As per IS: 1172-1963, under normal conditions, the domestic
consumptions of water in India is about 135 liters /capita/day. In developed countries this figure may
be 350 liters/capita/day because of use of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns,
automatic house hold appliances.

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1. Introduction 18CV46

Domestic consumptions of water are;

1. Drinking 05 liters
2. Cooking 05 liters
3. Bathing 55liters
4. Clothes washing 20 liters
5. Utensils washing 10 liters
6. House washing 10 liters
Total, 135 liters/capita/day

2. Industrial demand:
The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which are
existing in the city. The water required by factories, paper mills, cloth mills, cotton mills, breweries,
sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use. The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is
around 20% to 25% of the total demand of the city.

3. Institutional and commercial demand:

Institution, commercial buildings, universities and commercial centers, health centers schools,
temples, cinema halls, railway and bus stations etc, are comes under this category.

4. Public uses:
Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and sprinkling on
roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountain etc are comes under public
demand. To meet this public demand 5% of the total consumption is made while designing of the water
works.

As per IS: 1172-1963, water requirements for the public buildings other than residences as
follows;

Sl. Type of building Consumptions

No. / capita/day
liters
1. Factories where bathrooms are required 45
Factories where bathrooms are required 30
2. Hospitals < 100beds 340
>100 beds 450
3. Nursing homes, medical quarters 135
4. Hostels 135
5. Offices 45
6. Restaurants, per seat 70
7. Hotels, per bed 180
8. Cinema halls, per seat 15
9. Day schools 45
Boarding schools 135
10. Gardens, sports grounds 35, per m2
11. Animal/ vehicles 45

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1. Introduction 18CV46

5. Fire demand:
Fire may takes place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials,
explosions, bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen mishappening. If fires are not
properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to serious damage and may
burn cities.

All big cities have full fire-fighting squads. As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water
required for throwing it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water tank to
supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the mains for this purpose. In the cities fire
hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100mtr to 150mtr apart for fire demand. The requirement
of water for the demand can be worked out in a logical way as;

1. Minimum number of streams require,

2. Discharge of each stream,
3. Duration of a fire, and
4. Number of simultaneous fire.

For Indian conditions Kuichling’s formula gives satisfactory results;

Q=3182√𝑷
Where, Q = quantity of water in liters/min,
P = population of city in thousands.

The rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function of population and is worked out from
the following empirical formulae;
Authority Formulae, in thousands
1. American Insurance Association Q=4637 √𝑷(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏√𝑷)
(National Board of Fire Underwriters’ formula) liter/minute
𝐏
2. John R. Freeman’s Formula Q=1136 ( + 𝟏𝟎)
𝟓
liter/minute

3. Ministry of Urban Development Manual Formula Q=100 P, P>50,000

Kilo liter/day
4. Buston’s formula Q=5663√𝑷, liter/day
5. Kuichling’s Formula Q=3182√𝑷,liter/minute

Losses and wastes/Unaccounted for:

All the water, which goes in the distribution, pipes does not reach the consumers, for the
following reasons;

1. Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and
fittings.
2. Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps even when they are not using the
water allow the continuous wastage of water.
3. Losses due to unauthorized and illegal connections.

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1. Introduction 18CV46

Problems:
1. Compute the fire demand for a city having population of (1, 00,000) using various formulae.

Authority Formulae, in thousands. Q,

1lakh,
population
American Insurance Association Q=4637 √𝑷(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏√𝑷) 41,760
(National Board of Fire Underwriters’ formula)
liter/minute
John R. Freeman’s Formula 𝐏 35,050
Q=1136 ( 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎)
liter/minute

Ministry of Urban Development Manual Formula Q=100 P, P>50,000 31,623

Kilo liter/day
Buston’s formula Q=5663√𝑷, liter/day 56,630
Kuichling’s Formula Q=3182√𝑷,liter/minute 31,800

2. Compute the fire demand for a city having population of 1, 40,000 using various formulae.

(05M, Dec 2013/Jan 2014)

Solution:

Kuichling’s formula gives satisfactory results;

Q=3182√𝑷

Where, Q = quantity of water in liters/min,

P = population of city in thousands.

Q =3182√𝟏𝟒𝟎

= 37,649.3 liters/minutes
or 37,650 litres/min

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1. Introduction 18CV46

3. Compute the fire demand for a city having population of 1, 40,000, using various formulae.

(08M, June/July 2013), (08M, June/July 2018)

Solution:
Authority Formulae, in thousands Q, for 1,40,000
population,
l/min
1 American Insurance Association Q=4637√𝑷(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏√𝑷) 48,374
(National Board of Fire Underwriters’
liter/minute liter/minute
formula)
2 John R. Freeman’s Formula 𝐏 43,167 liter/day
Q=1136.5 ( + 𝟏𝟎)
𝟓

liter/minute
3 Buston’s formula Q=5663√𝑷, liter/day 67,000 liter/day
4 Kuichling’s Formula Q=3182√𝑷,liter/minute 37,650
liter/minute

4. Briefly explain fire demand. Calculate the fire demand for 2 lakh population by different formula.

(08 M, Dec2016/Jan 2017)

Solution:

Authority Formulae, in thousands Q, for

2,00,000
population
1 American Insurance Association Q=4637√𝑷(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏√𝑷) 65,577.08 x
(National Board of Fire (1-0.01 x 0.1414)
liter/minute
Underwriters’ formula) = 56,304.48
2 John R. Freeman’s Formula 𝐏 568250
Q=1136.50 ( + 𝟏𝟎) liter/minute
𝟓

3 Buston’s formula Q=5663√𝑷, liter/minutes 80, 086.91

4 Kuichling’s Formula Q=3182√𝑷,liter/minute 45,000.27

t. v. manju Prasad, Asst. Prof., HMSIT, Tumakuru-572 104 Page 12

1. Introduction 18CV46

Per Capita Consumption:

If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per year and ‘P’ is
population of town, then per capita demand will be
𝐐
Per Capita Demand= 𝐏 ×𝟑𝟔𝟓 liters/day

Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like standard of living, number, and
type of commercial places in a town etc. for an average Indian town, the requirement of water in
various uses is as under,

1. Domestic purpose 135 l/c/d

2. Industrial use 40 l/c/d
3. Public use 25 l/c/d
4. Fire demand 15 l/c/d
5. Losses, wastage and thefts 55 l/c/d
Total = 270 l/c/d
The total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be 270 multiplied with the total,
in liters/day.

Factors affecting Per Capita Demand:

The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the town;
1. Climatic condition,
2. Size of community,
3. Living standard of the people,
4. Industrial and commercial activities,
5. Pressure in the distribution system,
6. System of sanitation, and
7. Cost of water.

1. Climatic Condition: The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places more than cold
countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns,
gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of clothes and bathing etc. but in very
cold countries sometimes the quantity of water required may be more due to wastage, because
at such places the people often keep their taps open and water continuously flows for fear of
freezing of water in the taps and use of hot water keeping the rooms warm.
2. Size of Community: Water demand is more with increase of size of town because more water
is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.
3. Living Standards of the People: The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard
of living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of
lawns, use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
4. Industrial and Commercial Activities: As the quantity of water required in certain industries is
much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously increase per
capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water required by the industries has no
direct link with population of the towns.

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1. Introduction 18CV46

5. Pressure in the Distribution System: The rate of water consumption increase in the pressure of
the building and even with the required pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of water
will automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water freely by
the people as compared when they get it scarcely and more water loss due to leakage, wastage
and thefts.
6. System of Sanitation: Per capita demand of the town having water carriage system will be more
than the town where this system is not being used.
7. Cost of Water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is more, less
quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is low.

Fluctuations in Rate of Demand or Variations in Demand of Water:

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐡𝐬
Average Daily Per Capita Demand =
𝐏𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ×𝟑𝟔𝟓

If the average demand is supplied at all times, it will not be sufficient to meet the fluctuation. In
practice it has been seen that this demand does not remain uniform throughout the year but it varies
from season to season, even hour to hour.

1. Seasonal variation:
The demand peaks during summer, fire breakouts are generally more in summer,
increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.

2. Daily variation:
Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and
festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.

3. Hourly variations:
Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e., from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the
bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other quantity of water is required to be supplied
during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.

So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the
fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned.
The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must be designed to
meet the peak demand. The effect of monthly variations influences the design of storage reservoirs and
the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service reservoirs. As the population
decreases, the fluctuation rates increase.

Maximum hourly demand of maximum demand,

i.e., Peak demand = 1.5 x Average daily demand

𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐝𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝
= 1.5 x 𝟐𝟒
(𝟏.𝟖 × 𝐝𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝)
= 1.5 x 𝟐𝟒
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝
= 2.7 x 𝟐𝟒
= 2.7 x Annual average hourly demand

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1. Introduction 18CV46

Previous Year Exam Questions: 15CV64

1. What are the various types of water demand? Explain in brief?
(08 M, MQP)
2. Define per capita demand and design period? Explain the factors governing design period?
(08 M, MQP)
3. Enumerate points to be considered for water supply scheme.
(08 M, June/July 2018)
4. What is peak factor? Explain the factor governing design period.
(08 M, June/July 2018)
5. Explain the different types of water demand.
(06 M, Dec 2018/Jan 2019)
6. With the help of neat sketch, explain in detail the variations in demand of water and effect of these
variations on the design of various units of water supply scheme.
(08 M, Dec 2018/Jan 2019)
7. What is meant by per capita demand? List and discuss the factors that affect the per capita demand.
(10 M, Dec 2018/Jan 2019)
8. Explain the importance and need for protected water supply.
(06 M, June/July 2019)
9. Enumerate the fire demand in water supply.
(03 M, June/July 2019)
10. What is meant by per capita demand?
(02 M, June/July 2019)
11. Explain the need and importance of protected water supply to a community.
(05 M, Dec 2019/Jan 2020)
12. Explain briefly different types of water demand.
(05 M, Dec 2019/Jan 2020)
13. Briefly explain;
i. Factors affecting per capita demand of water.
ii. Factors affecting design period.
(06 M, Dec 2019/Jan 2020)
14. Discuss the need for a protected water supply.
(06 M, Aug/Sept 2020)
15. List the various types of water demand and explain any four only.
(10 M, Aug/Sept 2020)
16. Explain the term variations in demand of water.
(04 M, Aug/Sept 2020)
17. Write the needs of protected water supply
(04 M, Jan /Feb 2021)
18. Explain various types of water demands.
(06 M, Jan /Feb 2021)
19. Explain the factors affecting per capita demand.
(06 M, Jan /Feb 2021)
20. Explain the need of planned water supply scheme in present day.
(08 M, July /Aug 2021)
21. What are the different types of water demand? Explain any two of them.
(08 M, July /Aug 2021)
22. Explain the need of planned water supply scheme in present day community life.
(08 M, Feb./Mar. 2021)
23. Discuss the factors effecting the rate of water demand., (04 M, Feb./Mar. 2021)
24. Explain the factors affecting the design period, (10 M, Feb./Mar. 2021)
25.

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1. Introduction 18CV46

18CV46

1. Explain the various types of water demand. (06 M, Mar. 2022)

2. Discuss the factors that affect per capita demand. (06 M, Mar. 2022)
3. Calculate the fire demand for 2 lakh population by different formula.
(06 M, Mar. 2022)
4. What is population forecasting? List any eight methods of population forecasting. Explain the
incremental increase and comparative graphical method. (10 M, Mar. 2022)
5. The following is the population data of a city available from past census records. Determine the
future population of the city in 2040 by
1. Arithmetical increase method, and
2. Geometrical increase method. (10 M, Mar. 2022)
Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Population 25,000 28,000 34,000 42,000 47,000

t. v. manju Prasad, Asst. Prof., HMSIT, Tumakuru-572 104 Page 16