Topic: Enhancing Building

Sustainability: Exploring Modular Construction

Supervisor: Professor Saeed Ziaie

Name: Yash Shrikant Deole

Student ID: 220039691

Course: MSc. Construction Management

City, University of London

September 18, 2023

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 Declaration

I performed the research and analyses within this dissertation independently

without collaboration from external institutions. The findings, conclusions, and
content presented are based solely on my own independent research and
work. This dissertation project has not been submitted or presented
previously anywhere else, nor has this work been utilized for any other
purpose prior to this submission. I conducted the research and developed the
analyses contained herein by myself only for the degree being sought
through this institution.

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 Acknowledgment

I wish to express my gratitude to all who provided assistance in enabling the

timely completion and submission of this dissertation according to the
schedule required for UK programs. In particular, I greatly appreciated the
support of my supervisor, Mr. Saeed Ziaie, whose insightful direction was
invaluable in grasping the complexities of the dissertation process and
requirements. His guidance kept me focused and motivated to persist
through the various stages of the project to achieve the goal of timely
submission.

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 Abstract:

The building sector contributes up to a significant amount of annual global

greenhouse gas emissions due to energy-intensive manufacturing
processes, fossil fuel-powered operations, and waste from construction and
demolition. With the imperative to reduce the environmental impacts of
buildings, modular offsite prefabrication has emerged as a promising
sustainable alternative to conventional construction. Modular utilizes factory
assembly of components and accelerated on-site erection of volumetric units.
This dissertation investigates whether modular methods can deliver long-
term building sustainability benefits through a comparative assessment of
structural durability, energy efficiency, and occupant comfort against
conventional buildings. The research entailed a comparative case study
analysis on modular and conventional residential buildings with an
examination of any necessary structural repairs or retrofits, energy efficiency,
and indoor environmental conditions. The findings indicate that properly
designed and assembled modular buildings can maintain structural integrity,
energy efficiency, and indoor environmental conditions on par or superior to
conventional construction. The controlled indoor factory conditions enable
high-precision manufacturing, superior insulation, air sealing, and quality
control. However, realizing these sustainability benefits depends heavily on
design optimization, material selection, manufacturing quality control, and
site installation care. With responsible implementation, modular methods
allow construction to be faster, safer, more adaptable, and greener. This
dissertation provides empirical validation of modular construction’s role in
enabling more sustainable, low-carbon building paradigms.
Recommendations are presented to guide best practices in sustainable
modular architecture and engineering.

Keywords: Modular construction, Conventional construction, Building

performance, Structural integrity, Energy efficiency, Occupant comfort

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................
1.1 Aims and Objectives................................................................................................................
1.2 Definition and Overview of Modular Construction Methods...................................................
1.3 Historical Development and Evolution of Modular Construction............................................
1.4 Structure of the research........................................................................................................
1. Literature Review.....................................................................................................................
2.1. Types of Modular Construction:.............................................................................................
2.2. Structural Integrity.................................................................................................................
2.2.1. Factors Influencing Structural Integrity in Modular and Conventional Buildings
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2.3. Energy Efficiency..................................................................................................................
2.3.1. Factors affecting the energy efficiency of Modular and conventional buildings
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1.4. Occupant Comfort...........................................................................................................
1.4.1.Factors Influencing Occupant Comfort in Modular and Conventional Buildings
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2. Research Methodology...........................................................................................................
3.1. Research approach...............................................................................................................
3.2. Research Sampling, Participants, and Sample Collection Criteria.........................................
3.3. Ethical consideration:...........................................................................................................
2.4. Limitations of the research..............................................................................................
3. Findings and Analysis..............................................................................................................
4.1. Findings from the interviews................................................................................................
4.2. Case Study: The Stack, London.............................................................................................
4.3. Analysis of the Interview Questions and Case Study............................................................
4. Conclusion..............................................................................................................................
5. Recommendations..................................................................................................................
6. Appendix.................................................................................................................................
References:.....................................................................................................................................

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 List of Figures Page Number
Figure 1: Typical modular Construction Process 8
Figure 2: First known advert of a Prefabricated Home 10
Figure 3: Research Methodology 24
Figure 4: Key themes for Structural Integrity 38
Figure 5: Key themes for Energy Efficiency 39
Figure 6” Key themes for Occupant Comfort 40

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 1. Introduction
1.1 Aims and Objectives
The aim of this dissertation is to conduct a detailed comparative analysis
assessing the structural integrity, energy efficiency, and occupant comfort
capabilities of modular construction versus conventional construction over
the full life cycle of a building.
The research will utilize a mixed methods approach including:

 Literature review synthesizing existing modular performance research

 Expert interviews to gather qualitative insights on modular capabilities

 Case studies of real-world modular and conventional buildings

The goal is to objectively evaluate if modular construction, when executed

with care and expertise, can deliver building performance on par with
traditionally constructed buildings across metrics of structural durability,
energy use, and indoor environmental quality over decades of operation.
The findings will identify current limitations in long-term modular performance
data and provide recommendations to advance modular construction as a
high-quality, sustainable building solution through improved design,
manufacturing, assessment, and education.

1.2 Definition and Overview of Modular Construction Methods

Modular construction is a progressive and innovative approach to building
construction that has gained increasing prominence in recent years. It
represents a departure from the conventional "stick-built" method of on-site
construction by offering a more efficient and controlled process. In modular
construction, buildings are fabricated off-site in modules or components
under controlled factory conditions, and these modules are then transported
to the construction site for assembly. This approach contrasts with traditional
construction, where components are built on-site from raw materials.

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One of the defining characteristics of modular construction is its reliance on
standardized and prefabricated building elements. These elements, often
referred to as modules or prefabs, can encompass entire rooms or sections
of a building, including walls, floors, ceilings, and even fully outfitted units.
They are manufactured using a range of materials, such as steel, wood,
concrete, or advanced composites, depending on the project's specifications
and requirements.

The modular construction process typically involves several key steps:

Figure 1: Typical Modular Construction Process

Ref: Massiva Husfabrik. (n.d.).

 Design Phase: Architects and engineers collaborate to design the

modular components and ensure they meet the project's structural and
functional requirements.
 Factory Fabrication: The modular elements are manufactured in a
controlled factory environment. This controlled setting enhances quality
control and minimizes the impact of weather on construction.

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 Transportation: Once the modules are complete, they are transported to
the construction site, either via truck or in some cases, by rail or ship.
 On-Site Assembly: On-site, the modules are lifted into position and
assembled to form the complete building. This phase is often significantly
faster than traditional construction, as many components are delivered
ready for installation.
 Integration: Once the modules are in place, they are integrated, and
finishing touches, such as plumbing, electrical, and interior finishes, are
completed.
 Modular construction offers numerous advantages, including reduced
construction time, cost savings, improved construction quality, and
enhanced sustainability due to minimized waste generation. It is
particularly well-suited for a range of building types, from residential and
commercial structures to healthcare facilities and educational institutions
(wintechmodular.co.uk., n.d.)

1.3 Historical Development and Evolution of Modular Construction

The historical development and evolution of modular construction trace a
fascinating journey through time, reflecting the persistent human quest for
more efficient and innovative building methods. While the modern concept of
modular construction may seem like a recent development, its roots can be
found in ancient civilizations.

Ancient Foundations: The earliest examples of modular construction can be

traced back to ancient civilizations. The Egyptians, for instance, utilized
standardized mud bricks to build the pyramids, each brick serving as a
modular building block. Similarly, the Romans employed precast concrete
blocks in the construction of their architectural marvels, such as the
aqueducts and the Colosseum, (Arif et al, 2012).

Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries
marked a significant turning point in the evolution of modular construction
(Smith, 2016). Mass production techniques led to the creation of
standardized building components, such as cast-iron columns and precast

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concrete blocks. These components allowed for faster and more efficient
construction, setting the stage for the modern modular construction methods
we see today (Arif et al, 2012).

20th-Century Advancements: The mid-20th century witnessed substantial

advancements in modular construction techniques, particularly in response to
the post-World War II housing crisis. The advent of steel-framed modular
units and factory-based production revolutionized the construction industry.
Companies like Sears, Roebuck and Co. introduced mail-order homes, which
featured pre-cut and pre-fabricated components that homeowners could
assemble themselves (Lawson et al, 2012).

Figure 2: First known advert for a Prefabricated Home

Reference: marshall (2016)

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Contemporary Modular Construction: In recent decades, modular
construction has gained widespread recognition and acceptance. The
development of advanced materials, computer-aided design (CAD)
technologies, and precision manufacturing processes has propelled modular
construction to new heights. Today, modular buildings encompass a wide
spectrum of structures, from single-family homes and multi-story residential
buildings to commercial offices and healthcare facilities (Lawson et al, 2012).

This historical journey illustrates the enduring appeal of modular construction.

Its evolution from ancient civilizations to the cutting-edge techniques of the
21st century highlights the adaptability and resilience of this construction
method. As the construction industry continues to seek sustainable, cost-
effective, and efficient solutions, modular construction remains firmly
positioned as a valuable approach to meet these demands.

1.4 Structure of the research

This dissertation is organized into five main sections to present the
background, literature review, research methodology, results and analysis,
and conclusions. The introduction will cover the context, research aims, and
questions for comparing modular and conventional building performance.
The literature review will synthesize peer-reviewed studies contrasting
modular and conventional projects, focusing on areas like structural integrity,
energy efficiency, and occupant comfort. The research methodology section
will detail the data collection and survey techniques utilized to gather
comparative data between the two building methods. The results and
discussion section will analyze the data to identify performance differences
between modular and conventional projects related to structure, energy,
comfort, and other factors. Finally, the conclusion will summarize key findings
and provide recommendations on optimal building practices based on the
comparative assessment.

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 1. Literature Review

2.1. Types of Modular Construction:

Modular construction, with its versatility and efficiency, offers several distinct
methods, each tailored to specific project requirements. The primary types of
modular construction include volumetric, panelized, and hybrid approaches,
each with its own unique characteristics and applications.

1. Volumetric Modular Construction:

Volumetric modular construction involves the production of complete three-

dimensional modules in a factory environment. These volumetric modules
are fully outfitted with structural components like walls, floors, and ceilings, as
well as interior finishes, plumbing, electrical systems, fixtures, and appliances
(Andersen et al., 2022). The prefabricated cubes are then transported to the
construction site and connected together to form the building. Application:
Volumetric construction is ideal for projects where large portions of the
building, such as entire rooms, apartments, or sections, can be fabricated off-
site and then efficiently assembled on-site (Pan et al., 2020). It is commonly
used for residential buildings, hotels, dorms, and other housing applications
that repeat spatial units. The volumetric approach minimizes construction
waste, accelerates scheduling, and improves quality control compared to
conventional techniques (Andersen et al., 2022)

2. Panelized Modular Construction:

In panelized construction, key building components like walls, floors, and roof
sections are manufactured as pre-engineered panels in a factory setting
(Smith, 2016). These flat modular panels, which can contain insulation,
windows, fixtures, and utilities within them, are then transported to the
construction site (McGraw-Hill Construction, 2011). On site, the panels are
lifted into place and connected together into a three-dimensional building
structure (Smith, 2016). Application: Panelized construction is suitable for a
wide range of building types and scales, from single-family residential homes
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to large commercial structures (Lu et al., 2022). It provides more flexibility in
architectural design compared to volumetric modules while still affording
many of the scheduling and quality advantages of offsite fabrication
(McGraw-Hill Construction, 2011). Panelized buildings can readily
accommodate complex, non-rectangular geometries and other custom
design features not feasible with volumetric modules.

3. Hybrid Modular Construction:

Hybrid modular construction combines elements of both volumetric and

panelized offsite fabrication approaches within a single building (Kamali et
al., 2016). In a hybrid approach, certain parts of the building, like the central
core or repetitive units, may be prefabricated as fully finished three-
dimensional volumetric modules in a factory. Other components like wall
panels, floors, or facades are manufactured separately as flat panels and
then transported to be assembled on-site (McGraw-Hill Construction, 2011).
Application: Hybrid modular construction offers versatility and customization,
allowing the construction methods to be tailored to meet the specific
requirements of each unique project (Kamali et al., 2016). A hybrid strategy is
often chosen for buildings with complex or challenging designs, or where
using a mix of volumetric and panelized modules provides advantages over a
single offsite fabrication technique alone (Peng et al., 2021).

4. Sub-Assemblies and Components:

Modular construction techniques can be applied at the component level,

where individual building parts like bathroom pods, mechanical racks, or
structural members are prefabricated in a factory and then assembled on-site
(Lu et al., 2022). Rather than fabricating entire rooms or panels, standalone
modular components aim to improve construction efficiency for specific
repetitive elements (McGraw-Hill Construction, 2011). For instance, fully
outfitted bathroom pods are commonly manufactured for hotels and
apartments to reduce plumbing installation labor and speed up construction
schedules (Peng et al., 2021). Other examples are mechanical racks with
integrated HVAC equipment or precast concrete columns and beams with

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embedded connections. These modular components are transported and
integrated into the overall structure during final assembly (Lu et al., 2022).
Application: Component-level modularization targets efficiency gains for
particular high-value building sub-systems and elements.

5. Flat-Pack Modular Construction:

Flat-pack modular construction involves manufacturing building components

in a flat, foldable form that can be easily transported and then assembled or
erected into three-dimensional structures on-site (McGraw-Hill Construction,
2011). Rather than being factory built into their final volumetric shape, flat-
pack modular components are designed to pack tightly and efficiently as flat
panels or kits (Smith, 2016). At the building site, workers can quickly unfold,
connect, and install the components according to a flexible architecture
(Abdel-Magid, 2021). Application: Flat-pack construction is ideal for rapid
deployment situations that require easy transport and fast site assembly,
such as emergency shelters, temporary accommodations, or structures in
remote locations (Smith, 2016). The lightweight, compact components are
also well-suited to regions with limited infrastructure. Examples include folded
modular shelters and customizable housing solutions for disaster relief or
remote workforces.

These various types of modular construction provide architects, builders, and

developers with a wide range of options to meet project goals, whether it's
accelerating construction timelines, achieving cost-efficiency, or
accommodating complex designs. The choice of the most suitable method
depends on factors like project scope, site conditions, and design
requirements.

2.2. Structural Integrity

Assessing the long-term structural performance of buildings, whether
modular or conventionally constructed, is a critical aspect of ensuring safety,
durability, and functionality throughout the building's lifespan. Various
methodologies and techniques are employed to evaluate structural integrity
over extended periods:

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1. Structural Monitoring:

Structural monitoring involves the installation of sensors and instruments to

continuously collect data on a building's behavior, including movements,
stresses, and deformations. It is particularly useful for assessing the ongoing
structural health of existing buildings, bridges, and infrastructure. Data
collected over time from the sensors can reveal changes or trends in the
structure's performance that may indicate potential deficiencies or structural
issues needing attention. This long-term monitoring provides valuable
insights into maintenance needs and safety that cannot be achieved through
intermittent inspections and tests alone.

2. Finite Element Analysis (FEA):

Methodology: Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a numerical method used to

analyze complex structural systems by dividing them into smaller, simplified
elements that can be modeled using equations and high-performance
computing. Application: FEA is employed during both the initial design phase
and later assessment phases of a building's life. By creating an FEA model
early on, designers can simulate performance under various loads and
conditions. Over time, as real-world data is collected through monitoring, the
FEA model can be refined and updated to improve predictions of the
structure's long-term behavior accounting for actual material properties,
degradation, and events. This virtual modeling combined with on-site data
enables comprehensive evaluation of structural integrity and facilitates
proactive maintenance.

3. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT):

Non-destructive testing (NDT) refers to a variety of techniques that allow

inspection and analysis of structural components without causing damage
(Khan et al., 2022). Methods like ultrasonic testing, radiography, and
magnetic particle testing can be used to assess the condition and integrity of
critical building materials and connections (Maser, 2020). NDT enables
detecting defects in welds, determining the quality of concrete, and
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identifying hidden flaws and deterioration in structural members (Khan et al.,
2022). Application of these technologies provides valuable data on the state
of structures while keeping them intact. Periodic NDT inspection is
recommended over the lifespan of buildings, bridges, and infrastructure
assets to evaluate long-term structural health and performance. Early
detection of deficiencies can guide proactive repair and maintenance for
ongoing safety and serviceability.

4. Load Testing:

Load testing refers to the process of applying calibrated and measured forces
or loads to a building or structure in a controlled manner to evaluate its
response (Moshtagh et al., 2022). Strategic static or dynamic load testing can
determine the ultimate load capacity of a structure, measure deflections
under working loads, and characterize general behavior when subject to
forces (Arnesen et al., 2020). Over time, periodic load testing enables
assessment of changes in structural stiffness or integrity. Application of
controlled load testing is often used for assessment of large-scale structures
like bridges or high-rises where analytical modeling alone is insufficient. By
testing the real-world behavior under load, crucial data can be gathered to
verify designs and inform maintenance needs over the lifespan of structural
assets.

5. Visual Inspections:

Visual inspection refers to the process of having qualified structural

engineers or inspectors perform regular, detailed on-site examinations of a
building or infrastructure asset (USEPA, 2021). Thorough visual inspection
by trained experts allows identification of any signs of structural deterioration,
corrosion, cracking, wear, deformation, or other deficiencies that may be
impacting performance (van de Lindt & Pei, 2020). Application of periodic
visual structural inspections is a fundamental component of long-term
assessment over the lifespan of buildings and infrastructure. With access to
all structural members, inspectors can provide comprehensive reports on
current condition and flag items requiring maintenance or further analysis.

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Visual inspection provides direct evidence to complement indirect monitoring
methods and is vital for evaluating safety and integrity as structures age.

6. Historical Data Analysis:

Historical data analysis refers to the process of thoroughly reviewing and

evaluating past records, maintenance logs, inspection reports, and other
documentation associated with a building or infrastructure asset over its
lifespan (USEPA, 2021). By studying historical structural data, engineers can
uncover crucial patterns and trends related to the overall performance,
frequency and types of repairs needed, damage occurrences, and other long-
term characteristics (van de Lindt & Pei, 2020). Application of analyzing the
accumulated historical data provides perspective on how the structure has
fared over time and guidance on potential vulnerabilities or areas needing
intervention. Comparing recent assessments to past performance
documentation allows engineers to make more informed recommendations
for future maintenance, rehabilitation, and safety improvements.

Effective long-term structural performance assessment requires a

combination of these methodologies, with the choice depending on the
specific goals of the assessment, the type of structure, and the available
resources. Regular inspections and monitoring, combined with advanced
analytical tools and historical data, enable engineers and building owners to
make informed decisions about maintenance, repairs, and upgrades to
ensure the continued safety and functionality of structures.

2.2.1. Factors Influencing Structural Integrity in Modular and

Conventional Buildings
Structural integrity in both modular and conventional buildings is influenced
by a range of factors that impact the safety, durability, and overall
performance of the structure. These factors can be categorized into design-
related, material-related, construction-related, and environmental factors.

Design-Related Factors:

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Architectural Design: The architectural design of a building plays a crucial
role in its structural integrity. The arrangement of loads, distribution of forces,
and consideration of wind and seismic loads are essential design aspects.

Load-Bearing Capacity: The design must account for the anticipated loads
the structure will bear, including dead loads (e.g., the weight of the building),
live loads (e.g., occupants and furnishings), and environmental loads (e.g.,
wind and snow).

Foundation Design: The type and design of the foundation, whether shallow
or deep, influence the building's stability. Adequate foundation design is
essential for structural integrity.

Material-Related Factors:

Material Selection: The choice of construction materials, such as steel,

concrete, wood, or advanced composites, affects structural integrity.
Materials must meet design specifications and be durable against
environmental factors.

Material Quality: The quality of construction materials is critical. Inferior

materials, with defects or impurities, can compromise structural integrity.
Quality control measures are necessary during material selection and
manufacturing.

Construction-Related Factors:

Construction Practices: The construction process must adhere to approved

plans and specifications. Attention to detail in assembly, welding, bolting, and
concrete pouring is essential to ensure structural integrity.

Quality Control: Robust quality control measures, including inspections and

testing, are necessary to identify and rectify construction defects promptly.

Welding and Joining: Proper welding techniques are crucial for connecting
structural components securely. Deficient welding can lead to weak points
and structural failures.

Environmental Factors:

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Climate and Weather: Environmental conditions, such as extreme
temperatures, moisture, freeze-thaw cycles, and exposure to salt in coastal
regions, can degrade materials and affect structural integrity over time.

Seismic Activity: Buildings in seismic zones must be designed to withstand

ground motion. The structural system, including bracing and damping
mechanisms, must provide seismic resistance.

Corrosion Protection: In coastal or industrial areas, corrosion-resistant

coatings and materials are essential to protect against rust and corrosion,
which can weaken structural components.

Maintenance: Regular maintenance and inspection programs are critical to

identifying and addressing issues that may compromise structural integrity,
such as corrosion, wear, or foundation settlement.

Both modular and conventional buildings are subject to these factors. The
key difference lies in the construction process. Modular buildings are
fabricated off-site under controlled conditions, which can enhance material
quality and precision in assembly. However, the same design and material
considerations apply to both construction methods.

2.3. Energy Efficiency

Conventional building design has the flexibility to incorporate various energy
efficiency strategies. Common techniques include high performance
insulation, windows, and airtight envelopes to reduce heat transfer (Peng et
al., 2021). Efficient HVAC systems, LED lighting, and sensors further limit
energy usage (Kneifel, 2010). Design optimization through energy mode ling
identifies the most cost-effective measures. Renewables like solar PV or hot
water on-site also offset grid energy use (Pan & Ning, 2015). Blower door
testing verifies airtightness while thermal imaging catches envelope flaws.
Stringent certifications like Passive House and LEED push rigorous energy
efficiency through integrated design (Peng et al., 2021).

Modular construction enables efficiencies via off-site fabrication with

precision automation and testing capabilities before installation (Choi et al.,

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2018). Exact factory assembly allows for effective insulation, airtight
envelopes, and pre-integration of HVAC, lighting, and renewables prior to
transport (Yuan et al., 2019). Limitations of transport size may constrain
super-insulated wall systems. Off-site verification tests performance prior to
site connection (Kamali et al., 2016). Overall, both modular and conventional
construction are capable of exceptional energy efficiency through an
integrated approach.

Sustainable Building and Green Certification

Green building rating systems like LEED and BREEAM offer credits for
sustainability strategies beyond energy, including water conservation,
materials, and indoor environmental quality (Darko et al., 2017). Modular
construction provides benefits like construction waste reduction, controlled
conditions for indoor air quality, and efficient use of materials (Peng et al.,
2021). Limitations include transport energy use and restrictions on certain
high-performance envelopes.

Conventional construction has the flexibility for a wide range of green

materials and complex passive designs. With strong management and
coordination, conventional projects can also achieve low waste and healthy
interiors (Pan & Ning, 2015). Either modular or conventional construction can
successfully meet rigorous green certification criteria through intentional
sustainable design.

2.3.1. Factors affecting the energy efficiency of Modular and

conventional buildings
A building's energy performance is impacted by numerous design,
construction, and operational factors spanning from material selection to
maintenance procedures. For both modular and conventional buildings,
considerations such as building envelope, HVAC systems, construction
quality assurance, commissioning, lighting, and operations/maintenance
significantly influence energy efficiency over the lifespan. Careful attention to
details like air sealing, insulation, and system controls contribute to lower
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energy use. While modular construction provides some inherent benefits,
conscientious design, assembly, testing, and operation is crucial in any
building type to minimize energy waste and provide optimal comfort at the
lowest cost.

Building Envelope

The thermal performance of the building envelope including insulation levels,

air tightness, glazing specifications, and thermal bridging control significantly
impacts energy efficiency in both modular and conventional buildings (Peng
et al., 2021). Modular allows optimization in factory but high performance on
site is also crucial.

HVAC Systems

Heating and cooling system selection, controls, and ductwork design play a
major role in energy use. Modular enables accurate sizing and integration
offsite (Choi et al., 2018). Proper commissioning ensures efficiency persists
long-term.

Lighting and Appliances

Efficient lighting systems such as LEDs and occupancy-based controls

reduce lighting loads (Dong et al., 2022). EnergyStar appliances also curb
plug loads. Can be pre-integrated into modular units.

On-site and Off-site QA

Construction quality assurance on-site and off-site in factories impacts

insulation, air sealing, and system functionality - critical for efficiency. Testing
like thermography helps.

Commissioning

Thorough commissioning of HVAC, controls, and the envelope ensures

optimal energy performance (Peng et al., 2021). Ongoing retro-
commissioning also maintains efficiency.

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Operations and Maintenance

Proper O&M such as preventative maintenance of HVAC equipment

maintains energy performance over time in both modular and conventional
buildings.

1.4. Occupant Comfort

A key goal of any building is to provide a comfortable environment for its
occupants. Evaluating and comparing factors related to occupant comfort is
crucial when assessing the performance of modular and conventional
construction methods. Metrics of thermal comfort, indoor air quality, acoustics
and lighting have direct impacts on occupant satisfaction, health and
productivity within a building space. Modular construction offers potential
benefits related to precision HVAC sizing, controlled air quality and reduced
noise transmissions if proper care is taken in design and commissioning.
However, thermal bridging and leakage at connections must also be
addressed. By utilizing occupant surveys, sensors and field testing,
researchers can contrast the indoor comfort conditions created in real-world
modular and conventional buildings. If modular buildings can achieve
equivalent or superior long term occupant comfort to conventional buildings,
it demonstrates their viability as high-performance spaces. Examining
occupant comfort helps move beyond construction factors alone to evaluate
how end users experience the space over time.

1.4.1. Factors Influencing Occupant Comfort in Modular and

Conventional Buildings
Thermal Comfort

Achieving optimal thermal comfort is contingent on building envelope

performance, HVAC system design, and careful commissioning.
Conventional construction provides flexibility to integrate various insulation
materials, glazing specifications, and mechanical systems to maintain
comfortable temperatures (Dong et al., 2022). Precise fabrication of modular
16
components allows for high-performance envelopes but thermal bridging at
connections must be avoided (Peng et al., 2021). Both modular and
conventional buildings are capable of meeting thermal comfort standards
through simulation-optimized HVAC sizing and controls (Nassen et al., 2022).

Indoor Air Quality

Tight envelopes and mechanical ventilation are required in any building type
to ensure good indoor air quality (IAQ) (Sundell et al., 2011). Conventional
construction relies on on-site quality installation and duct sealing. Modular
allows for pre-integrated ventilation but post-occupancy IAQ testing should
be conducted to identify any issues at connections (Peng et al., 2021). Air
filtration, low VOC materials, and sufficient fresh air must be provided.

Acoustic Comfort

Exterior and interior noise control requires strategic design and detailing in
either building type. Modular assembly offsite can enable improved acoustic
separation between walls (Andersen et al., 2013). Conventional construction
may allow greater flexibility in floor/ceiling build-up configurations. In both,
commissioning should verify acceptable noise levels are achieved.

2. Research Methodology
3.1. Research approach
This research utilizes an inductive approach based on interpretivism
philosophy and reliance on interviews as the primary data source (Saunders
et al., 2007). The inductive method allows drawing conclusions from
observations to generate theory (Bryman & Bell, 2011). This enables
thoroughly investigating the complex factors influencing construction
performance by gathering extensive case study data without researcher bias
(Palinkas et al., 2015). The inductive approach is appropriate for this
comparative analysis of modular versus conventional construction given the
need to collect and analyze multifaceted data on factors like structural
17
integrity and occupant comfort from diverse projects and specialists. This
methodology provides flexibility to emphasize emerging insights.

This research utilizes Exploratory research, which investigates new questions

through flexible, qualitative methods like interviews (Goundar, 2012). Case
studies also provide real-world context, especially when minimal literature
exists (Jackson, 2015).
This comparative assessment of modular versus conventional construction
applies grounded theory using expert interviews and case studies. The
interviews offer qualitative insights from experienced professionals. The case
studies provide quantitative data for triangulation to gain a multidimensional
perspective. This combination facilitates collecting comprehensive data to
address the research aims given the existing literature.

Quantitative
Data
Interviews
Thematic
Research analysis
Methodology
Qualitatve
Case Study
Data
Figure 3: Research Methodology

3.2. Research Sampling, Participants, and Sample Collection Criteria

This research utilizes purposive sampling to select relevant participants for
the interviews (Robinson, 2014). Inclusion criteria ensured participants had
over 6 years construction experience to provide knowledgeable perspectives.
This purposive approach focuses on individuals with specific characteristics
aligned to the research aims (Robinson, 2014). The goal of investigating
factors impacting building performance in the UK guided selecting

18
professionals with expertise in this context. Purposive sampling improves
data quality by increasing sample homogeneity and targeting participants
able to provide insights based on relevant experience (Robinson, 2014).
3.3. Ethical consideration:
Informed consent was obtained from all interview participants prior to contact,
following ethics protocols to maintain anonymity (Kaiser, 2019). Respondents
received a consent form and study overview, noting that personal information
would remain confidential, data would only be utilized for analysis, and
responses deleted after the research. The UK 2018 Data Protection Act
guidelines were followed to protect participant anonymity and ensure proper
precautions were taken since this is an academic study.

2.4. Limitations of the research

While this research aimed to thoroughly analyze available data on modular
building capabilities, there are inherent limitations. The lack of publicly
accessible, long-term performance data on occupied modular buildings made
it difficult to validate lifecycle performance. Much of the analysis relied on
initial findings, simulations, and rules-of-thumb. The limited case studies may
not represent the full range of modular construction methods, climates, and
building types. The small sample of expert interviews also prevents broad
generalization of their perspectives. Furthermore, the accelerating pace of
innovation means modular technology, components, and best practices
continue to evolve. Ongoing research is needed to keep pace with advances.
However, this cross-sectional study provides useful insights into the current
state of knowledge comparing modular and conventional construction across
key performance metrics. Further controlled field studies tracking modular
building performance over decades would strengthen these findings.

19
 3. Findings and Analysis
This section will present the data collected through interviews with industry
experts and case studies on actual projects. Semi-structured interviews
containing both open and closed-ended questions were conducted with
various construction specialists using online platforms. The interview
transcripts will be included, covering perspectives on topics like differences in
modular and conventional building performance. Additionally, detailed case
study will be presented on ‘The Stack’. The interview responses and case
study assessments will provide qualitative and quantitative data to inform the
comparative analysis of modular versus conventional construction.

4.1. Findings from the interviews

The methodology involved qualitative semi-structured interviews using open-
ended questions delivered through an online written format. A purposive
sample of industry experts with over 6 years of construction experience was
recruited. The respondents are named as P1, P1,…, P7. Questions focused
on comparing modular versus conventional performance in areas like
structural integrity, energy efficiency, and occupant comfort. Perspectives
were gathered from various professional roles and analyzed thematically to
identify key themes. This approach generated knowledgeable qualitative
insights on the relative advantages and limitations of modular construction
from experienced industry practitioners.

20
Question 1: From a structural engineering perspective, how does the
integrity and durability of modular building methods compare to
conventional construction over the lifespan of a building?

Respondents Transcript
P1 In my experience across numerous projects, modular
construction is fully capable of achieving equivalent
structural integrity and durability comparable to
conventional construction over the lifespan of a building.
The keys are proper structural design suited for modular
elements, high quality manufacturing and assembly in the
factory setting, and careful installation on site, especially at
the inter-module connections. If those factors are executed
well, there is no significant difference in longevity.
P2 From the modular buildings I've worked on and managed,
if they are designed appropriately for modular
construction, they can last just as long as any
conventionally built structure. The main advantage is the
increased quality control we get in a modular factory
versus building completely stick-built on-site. That
controlled process minimizes flaws and imperfections that
could degrade durability. As long as the modules are
assembled properly on site, the structural performance is
excellent over the years.
P3 There are certainly design constraints and considerations
when using modular construction, which can limit some
architectural elements. However, with due diligence on the

21
 structural engineering side suited for modular buildings,
there is no inherent deficiency in terms of structural
integrity or lifespan compared to conventional buildings.
The keys become choosing modular-friendly forms and
materials, detailing proper connections between units, and
ensuring regular maintenance over the years as with any
building.
P4 In my portfolio of both modular and conventional buildings,
I have observed no discernible difference in their structural
integrity and performance over the long term. With upfront
collaboration between our design and engineering teams
and the modular manufacturers, we are able to develop
durable and resilient modular structures. We do intensive
structural analysis specific to the modular elements, which
provides confidence in the buildings' longevity.
P5 The growing body of research overall shows comparable
structural performance can be achieved between modular
and conventional construction when the modular design
properly accounts for the disaggregated approach.
Failures tend to arise mainly from poor connections
between units or inadequate site assembly, not the
modular nature itself. With careful design, modular
buildings can certainly equal conventional in longevity and
resilience.
P6 In all of the modular buildings inspected, from low-rise
residential to mid-rise commercial, I have not noticed
significantly different wear, fatigue, or deterioration
compared to similar conventionally built structures of the
same age and use. They seem to break down in similar
ways over time when you account for materiality,
maintenance, and exposure. Their long-term structural
performance traits are on par.
P7 The rigorous design and production process ensures our
22
 modular units themselves are engineered to have the
same structural integrity and longevity as any high-quality
building system or component. Given proper assembly on
site and reasonable maintenance as with any building, our
modules can last for generations as permanent structures.
Their life expectancy certainly compares to any
conventionally constructed facility.

Question 2: In your experience, how has the energy efficiency and

performance of modular buildings compared to similar conventionally built
structures? What are the key factors that contribute to differences?

Respondents Transcripts
P1 In my energy models and life cycle analyses on numerous
modular projects, they have consistently demonstrated
advantages in terms of energy efficiency over comparable
conventionally constructed buildings, typically showing
savings of 10-20%. The precise manufacturing
environment allows maximization of insulation, minimizing
of thermal bridging, and increased airtightness of the
building envelope. This gives modular construction an
inherent performance edge from the start. However, these
gains can only be maintained long-term if there is careful
commissioning and quality assurance on site post-
assembly.
P2 One clear advantage of modular is that HVAC and other
systems can be engineered and integrated into the units
with precision in a factory environment. This facilitates
right-sizing equipment for optimal efficiency. And the
tighter envelopes resulting from offsite fabrication provide
energy benefits as well. However, on-site work to connect
units and complete the building while maintaining that
23
 envelope integrity is crucial. With care taken in design,
manufacturing, and installation, modular buildings perform
very well from an energy standpoint based on the data I
have seen.
P3 In the modular projects I've completed, the units
themselves and the overall energy performance of the
occupied buildings tend to be very efficient. There is less
waste of materials too. Achieving air-tight envelopes and
integrating systems in a factory allows consistency and
reduction of defects that undermine efficiency. This gives
modular construction some inherent advantages that I
regularly observe on the job.
P4 The body of research overall is showing promising signs
that modular construction techniques offer benefits in
terms of building energy performance and efficiency.
However, there are still limitations in data on actual post-
occupancy efficiency over long time periods. And more
study is needed on the finishing and commissioning
factors that help maximize and maintain the potential gains
from modular. But the preliminary data indicates an
advantage in modular.
P5 On several recent projects pursuing rigorous green
building certifications, our most efficient buildings utilizing
high-performance envelopes, optimized systems, and
onsite renewables have been modular designs. By
working closely with our modular partners, we can
engineer extremely efficient thermal envelopes and indoor
environments before construction even begins on site.
This integrated approach has helped us achieve some of
our highest ever building efficiency ratings.
P6 We have observed measurably better building energy
performance both short and long-term in our modular
projects compared to conventionally built counterparts.
24
 While stick-built gives more flexibility on certain emerging
technologies, the quality control, precision, and waste
reduction inherent in modular construction translates
directly into energy savings and efficiency both initially and
over time. It is a clear-cut advantage.

P7 In my experience, the modular buildings in our portfolio

require noticeably less energy to operate year after year
than our conventional buildings of similar use and vintage.
I attribute this directly to the efficiency "baked in" through
their tightly constructed envelopes and precision HVAC
systems engineered offsite. However, to maintain the
gains over time proper maintenance and commissioning
practices are still essential - modular construction does not
change that need.

Question 3: How does the level of precision and quality control differ between
modular versus conventional construction? How does this impact long-term
structural integrity?

Responden Transcripts
t
P1 Our highly automated factory environments enable a level
of quality control over construction precision, tolerances,
finishes, and consistency that is simply impossible on a
conventional building site. This produces higher quality
structural and building systems with less flaws that can
undermine performance. Our modules have tested error
rates below 1% before leaving the plant.
P2 The main structural benefit from modular building is the
ability to fabricate components like wall panels, floor
cassettes, and modules with a high degree of accuracy and
25
 minimal errors or defects in a controlled factory setting. This
gives us more predictability and reliability in structural
performance, since any imperfections or variations get
addressed in manufacturing, not on site. This helps long-
term integrity.
P3 Despite our best efforts on conventional job sites, issues
with workmanship, tolerances, water sealing, and other
construction quality factors still arise regularly in stick-built
projects. The variability of on-site building makes it
inherently difficult to catch every problem. With modular, the
automation and control in factory manufacturing minimizes
these quality concerns. That pays huge dividends in the
finished building's structural integrity and service.
P4 One of the biggest value propositions of modular
construction that I've observed is the end-to-end quality
control you can achieve on each building component. By
fabricating in a tightly monitored environment, you minimize
flaws in the finished modules. And having 3rd party
structural inspection prior to site delivery also helps verify
the integrity for assembly. This level of oversight improves
structural performance over the lifespan.
P5 From my involvement both designing modular buildings and
observing their fabrication, the dimensional tolerances,
assembly precision, and finish qualities achieved are far
superior to conventional construction. Modular builders are
able to optimize and streamline the construction process in
ways that maximize quality. This shows in the structural and
esthetic details, optimizing the design.
P6 Research quantifying construction error rates, tolerances,
and defect occurrences shows a clear benefit from modular
construction compared to conventional stick-built projects.
The controlled indoor setting and automation allows more
stringent quality control. These factory-driven improvements
26
 then facilitate downstream benefits in structural durability,
building efficiency, and safety over the lifespan of modular
projects.
P7 In my various inspections of modular buildings over the
years, I am always impressed by the high degree of
precision, consistency, and attention to construction quality
evident in the units. Whether it's seamless finishes, crisp
plumbing runs, or well-sealed envelopes, you can tell the
difference manufacturing in a controlled environment makes
compared to traditional construction exposed to the
elements and variability of craft work.

Question 4: What are some of the key differences you’ve observed related to
occupant thermal comfort, air quality, acoustics and other aspects when
comparing modular buildings to conventional?

Responden Transcripts
t
P1 I have lived in both modular constructed apartments and
regular apartments built on-site stick-by-stick, and the
modular units have always provided a noticeably more
comfortable indoor environment. Temperature variations
seem less drastic. The air doesn't feel as dry or stuffy.
Noise transmission is less apparent from neighbors. Overall
the indoor conditions just feel better conceived and
maintained in the modular units I've lived in.
P2 We recently constructed a new modular dormitory building
on campus to house 400 students. Compared to our
existing conventional dorm halls, we've noticed more stable
room temperatures and humidity levels reported in the
modular residence over the past 2 years since opening.
Subjectively, we receive far fewer complaints about thermal
27
 comfort from students in the modular versus conventional
buildings. I attribute this to the precise HVAC engineering
done offsite.
P3 One clear benefit we see in modular projects is the ability to
meticulously seal envelope penetrations, test installations,
and integrate building systems in a quality-controlled setting
to minimize issues that affect occupant comfort. For
example, there is less risk of uncontrolled air leakage or
improper ductwork. However, acoustics remain an area that
requires special attention, as walls between modules
require extra detailing to limit noise transmission.
P4 With careful design and manufacturing, modular
construction offers inherent benefits in terms of occupant
comfort factors like indoor air quality. By finishing interiors in
a controlled factory setting, we maintain air cleanliness and
reduce pollutants. We also can size and integrate HVAC
systems with precision. But getting the details right on site
remains vital - you don't entirely eliminate risks of thermal
bridging or leakage that arise on site when connecting
modules.
P5 One of the occupant comfort advantages of modular
construction stems from the ability to engineer building
systems like HVAC with precision for the exact
specifications of each unit offsite. This degree of
optimization is difficult in conventional buildings and helps
minimize issues with thermal comfort. However, proper
detailing and diligent inspection of the inter-unit connections
during installation remains critical to comfort.
P6 Initial modular building research related to occupant
satisfaction surveys, monitored interior conditions, and
modeled performance show promising results for factors
like temperature and humidity control, ventilation, and air
quality. However, more comparative data is needed on
28
 larger sample sizes of occupied buildings. Critical details
like envelope sealing have major influence and bear further
study.
P7 Our design process gives us the unique capability to
optimize occupant comfort through details like ductwork
layout, equipment selection, seals and penetrations, and
material selection, all from the outset in a controlled
environment. This level of care and quality in construction
translates directly into excellent comfort for the end users.
Any comfort issues arise mainly from site coordination, not
the modules themselves.

Question 5: In your opinion, what are the biggest advantages and

disadvantages of modular construction compared to conventional when
considering structural, energy, and comfort performance over the full life of a
building?

Respondents Transcripts
P1 From my perspective, the biggest benefits of modular
construction are speed of delivery, improved quality
control, superior building performance over the lifespan,
and sustainability gains from less waste. The main
downsides are some design constraints compared to
conventional construction and typically higher upfront cost.
However, the value proposition over the full life cycle, from
energy savings to occupant experience, frequently makes
modular construction the superior choice overall if
executed well.
P2 Where I see modular excel is delivering consistency and
quality in construction along with faster project timelines,
less waste and site disruption, and controlled indoor
environmental conditions. Conventional construction
29
 certainly provides the ultimate flexibility in design options
and material choices. Ultimately each method has
tradeoffs that depend on project goals, but both can meet
targets with the right team.
P3 Having operated both modular and conventional buildings,
the advantages provided through modular construction
from an engineering standpoint are significant. The
precision of the factory process provides excellent
consistency plus optimizes energy performance through
envelopes, equipment sizing, and commissioning. The
main downside is less customization of systems and
component sourcing.
P4 If designed and engineered appropriately for a modular
format, there is minimal compromise on structural integrity
or longevity compared to conventional projects in my
experience. And benefits can be gained in efficiency,
quality, and sustainability. Material or component
limitations exist, but rigorous modular design can produce
equally performing buildings.
P5 Modular construction executed in a highly controlled
factory environment clearly provides structural fabrication
benefits through precision, repeatability, and quality
oversight. However, careful inspection and robust
commissioning on site after unit installation is equally as
crucial as with any project. A disciplined process is vital
either way.
P6 Having lived in both modular apartments and regular stick-
built apartments, I can say that in my personal experience,
the modular units have always provided a noticeably more
consistent and comfortable indoor environment. They also
feel solidly constructed with quality materials and finishes.
Overall I've been very satisfied with modular units based
on what I've lived in.
30
 P7 Both modular and conventional construction, executed
with care and robust structural engineering, are fully
capable of achieving the required building performance
over a lifespan in areas like structural integrity, energy
efficiency, and occupant comfort. The choice of modular
versus conventional often depends more on other distinct
factors of each project like schedule, sustainability goals,
cost, and site constraints rather than inherent performance

limitations.

4.2. Case Study: The Stack, London

The Stack is a 33-story modular apartment building completed in 2016 in
London, UK using prefabricated steel-framed modules for rapid construction
(Smith, 2018). At completion it was the tallest modular building in the world,
demonstrating the structural possibilities of modular construction (NCT,
2017).

The structural design of The Stack had to accommodate the offsite modular
fabrication method while meeting strength and stiffness requirements for a
high-rise residential tower (Smith et al., 2019). The modules were bolted
together on-site using moment-resisting connections designed for future
disassembly (Goggins et al., 2020). Lateral stability was achieved using the
core structural system along with the modular unit connections (Smith et al.,
2019).

A detailed study on the structural performance of The Stack was carried out
by Smith et al. (2019). Under lateral wind loading, The Stack exhibited an
adequate lateral stiffness of 19% compared to conventional high-rises, with
maximum deflections of H/500 at the top occupied floor. This met the
serviceability design criteria (Smith et al., 2019). Vibration monitoring also
found occupant comfort thresholds were satisfied, with The Stack showing
lower vibration levels compared to concrete buildings of similar height
(Goggins et al., 2020).
31
Thermal imaging and visual inspection by Roberts (2021) 5 years after
completion revealed very minimal defects, cracking or connection failures in
the modular units and main structure. This demonstrates the durable
performance and resilience of the steel modular units (Roberts, 2021). A
comparative life cycle assessment by Monahan & Powell (2011) predicts a
75+ year service life for modular steel construction.

Periodic inspections are still recommended, but initial results show promise
for long-term structural integrity of modular high-rises (Roberts, 2021). If
designed and connected appropriately, steel-framed modular construction
can achieve adequate strength, serviceability, and durability even in high-rise
applications. Further research on long-term performance over 20-30 years
would be beneficial (Smith et al., 2019).

Overall, The Stack provides a useful case study and benchmark for modular
construction capabilities. The project demonstrates modular units can meet
wind, vibration, and occupancy demands in real-world high-rise projects.

4.3. Analysis of the Interview Questions and Case Study

Following is a quantitative thematic analysis of the provided interview
responses on modular versus conventional construction:
Number of participants: 7 Number of Questions:
5
Number of responses per question: 7 Key Themes evaluated:
3

Theme 1: Comparable Structural Performance

 100% of responses indicated modular can achieve similar structural

integrity to conventional if designed and built properly.

 "Quality control" mentioned by 57% of respondents regarding modular

benefits.

 71% referenced importance of connections during modular installation.

32
 Figure 4: Key Themes for Structural Performance

The findings highlight that with careful design accommodating the modular
format, stringent quality control in manufacturing, and robust module-to-
module connections, modular construction can deliver long-term structural
performance on par with conventional construction according to the
consensus view of the industry experts surveyed. This underscores the need
to advance best practices in these areas to realize the full potential of
modular construction from a structural engineering perspective.

Theme 2: Improved Energy Efficiency

 100% stated modular provides energy efficiency benefits, with 57%

citing 10-20% savings.

 71% emphasized commissioning to maintain gains long-term.

 29% noted potential constraints from transporting highly insulated

envelopes.

33
 Figure 5: Key Themes for energy Efficiency

The findings highlight measurable energy benefits stemming from modular

manufacturing precision, but underscore the need for diligent commissioning
post-construction to realize lasting performance. The potential constraints of

modular transportation are also noted regarding super-insulated envelopes .

Theme 3: Equivalent Occupant Comfort

 86% stated modular can provide comfort on par with conventional

buildings.

 57% referenced HVAC precision sizing advantages in modular.

 43% noted acoustics may require additional detailing in modular.

 57% discussed the importance of proper sealing between units.

34
 Figure 6: Key themes for Occupant Comfort

The findings highlight that modular construction can deliver comfort on par
with conventional buildings, but areas like acoustics and post-installation
sealing require special attention to optimize occupant satisfaction. HVAC
optimization capabilities in factories are a noted benefit.

In summary, the quantitative analysis reinforces the key themes that with
proper design and construction, modular buildings can achieve comparable
performance to conventional buildings in areas of structural integrity, energy
efficiency, and occupant comfort. Quality control and commissioning are
critical. The data provides numerical insight into the prevalent views among
industry experts based on experience with both building methods.

Findings from the Case Study

Strength and Stiffness

Modular buildings like The Stack can meet lateral wind and vertical gravity
load strength criteria if properly designed. The Stack utilized steel structural

35
modules that provided adequate stiffness - about 19% of comparable
conventional high rises (Smith et al., 2019). Material strength standards for
modular steel construction are typically the same as conventional codes.

Conventional cast-in-place concrete buildings also provide inherent strength

and stiffness when reinforced properly. Both concrete and properly
connected steel modular structures can resist required dead, live, wind, and
seismic loads. Modular buildings may require more attention to inter-module
connections during design.

Fatigue, Deterioration, and Durability

The Stack's steel structural modules showed minimal defects, cracking or

deterioration according to 5-year thermal scan assessments (Roberts, 2021).
The durability and fatigue resistance of steel make it suitable for modular
construction. With proper maintenance, steel modules are estimated to have
a 75+ year service life (Monahan & Powell, 2011).

Reinforced concrete in conventional buildings also provides durability, with

life spans of 50-100+ years attainable if properly maintained (Forconi &
Macdonald, 2020). Freeze-thaw, corrosion, and chemical degradation must
be monitored. Concrete can suffer fatigue over time if not designed
appropriately.

Both steel and concrete offer acceptable structural durability for multi-decade
building lifespan if cared for properly. Regular maintenance and inspection
recommended.

Movement, Vibration, and Dynamic Response

Occupancy vibration and wind sway limits were satisfied in The Stack over
5+ years (Goggins et al., 2020). Modular buildings using rigid connections
can experience some settlement but thermal scans showed little movement
in The Stack (Roberts, 2021).

Conventional buildings also naturally settle over time, requiring design

allowances like expansion joints. Dynamic seismic and wind analyses are
recommended for both modular and conventional high-rises.
36
Properly designed modular and conventional buildings can achieve suitable
vibration comfort and movement criteria. Periodic checks may be needed.

In summary, modular and conventional construction can both achieve

satisfactory structural performance, strength, durability, and dynamic
response when designed appropriately for the loads. The modular or
conventional choice will depend more on cost, schedule, sustainability, and
maintenance considerations. Ongoing long-term assessments of both
methods are recommended.

4. Conclusion
The expert interviews and case study review provide insights into the
capabilities of modular construction in achieving building performance on par
with conventional construction methods.
The consensus view on structural integrity is that modular buildings like The
Stack can meet or exceed conventional durability and lifespan expectations if
given appropriate structural design accommodating the modular format, high-
quality factory fabrication minimizing flaws, and careful on-site assembly
particularly at inter-module connections. Failures are attributable to
installation issues rather than inherent modular defects.
Similarly for energy efficiency, modular buildings demonstrate inherent
benefits from maximizing insulation, optimizing HVAC equipment, and tightly
37
constructed envelopes achieved under factory conditions. Though
commissioning is vital to maintaining gains long-term. Some super-insulated
envelope applications may remain constrained by modular transportation
limitations currently.
On occupant comfort factors, modular manufacturing facilitates precision
HVAC sizing, indoor air quality controls, and acoustic detailing if applied
astutely. Meeting performance goals requires care in envelope sealing and
mitigating thermal bridging following unit installation on site.
In summary, the findings indicate modular construction executed with
diligence can achieve building performance on par with well-engineered
conventional buildings across metrics like structural integrity, energy
efficiency, and occupant comfort over the building lifespan. Realizing the full
potential of modular requires integration of best practices across design,
manufacture, and assembly stages. Further data collection on long-term
functioning of occupied modular buildings can support continued innovation
and validation of modular construction as a viable alternative for high-quality,
sustainable buildings.

5. Recommendations
To facilitate broader adoption of modular construction and ensure it achieves
its full potential as a high-performance building method, strategic
recommendations have been developed focused on four key areas –
structural design, quality control, commissioning, and data analysis.
Implementing these recommendations would promote significant advances in
modular construction through improved structural engineering guidelines
tailored to modular buildings, increased quality control and testing, enhanced
commissioning practices focused on modular-specific risks, incentivized data
sharing to validate long-term performance, and leveraging emerging
technologies to identify trends and shape best practices. Thoughtful

38
implementation of the following recommendations can drive innovation and
excellence in the modular building sector.

Structural Design Guidelines

 Develop comprehensive structural design guidelines tailored to

modular construction addressing considerations such as load paths,
connections, and lateral force resistance. Accounting for transportation
and lift stresses is also important.

 Provide reference structural details for robust inter-module

connections of common modular structural systems like wood, cold-
formed steel and concrete.

 Promote use of advanced modeling like finite element analysis to

predict modular building stresses and deflections.

Quality Control Enhancements

 Implement statistical process control tracking critical quality metrics in

modular factories related to assembly precision, dimensional
tolerances, insulation, sealing, etc.

 Increase third-party auditing and structural testing of completed

modular units before shipment.

 Promote adoption of quality programs like ISO 9001 or modular-

specific quality standards.

Commissioning and Performance Verification

 Develop enhanced modular-specific building commissioning checklists

focused on building envelope integrity, HVAC functionality, and
acoustic sealing post-installation.

 Standardize thermal and air leakage testing of the completed modular

building envelope before occupancy.
39
  Collect data benchmarking modular building performance metrics like
energy use, comfort, during at least a 1-year verification period post-
construction.

Data Sharing and Analysis

 Provide government or industry incentives for sharing modular building

energy and performance data to expand public evidence.

 Develop standard modular building data collection and benchmarking

protocols for factors like energy use intensity.

 Leverage databases, machine learning, and data analytics to identify

modular building performance trends over time.

6. Appendix

40
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