, ----

tcrrn · c the wire nnd , pc ci fk

O B JE C T: To dc in . Fo.~ler 's brid ge
rcs 1Mnnce per 11nl1 lenHlh uf Corey
res is to llC l' 0 r the n1n1 crinl of 1le i:1vc11 Wire .
. .
I us in 8 Curey l·o
slc r's br idg e.
•
,
or , co pper strip
U S E D- · , rf1cos1n1. Oaucry el im in at
A P P A R A TU S · Cn rcy f:os1er ' 5• b rid ge lancc bo x.
ug key .ven wire wit . . tc nn in cd . re sis
go vnnomc1er, pl , gi sr,cc1fi c rc sis to ncc is 10 be de
' . osc
co nn ec t mg wire
s on d rew gouge.
sc

THEORY:
small resistances.
ft
e C ar ey Foster bridge .is an electrica l c· · th 0t can be used to measure very
Th irc uu . Q , R and S
. . b. . ur resistances, P,
works on the sam pn nc1ple as Wheatst , ridge. which consists or fo
e one s . values of
. . . lvanometer. If the
that ar e connect ed ro each other as show n below. In this c1rcu1t, G 1s a ga
ree of the
. eter, then if any th
che resistan ces ar e adJusted so that no c urrent Oows through the galvanom
be determined
by using the
resistances p Q R and S are known th e fiourth unknown resistance can
• • •
. Lm: p
re/a r1ons
p R
-= -
Q s

the same
th e m et er br idge , which also work on
fice box and
ou m ay be fam iliar with the post of e re si stors, Rand S, say, ar
e replaced
Y , tw o of th
eter bridge
ple as W he at st on e's bridge. In the m ar ea fixed on a meter
scale. Point
princi cr oss- se ct io na l
with unifonn
one m et er le ng th o fresistance wire, in g th e magnitudes of resist
ances
by a , thus va ry
ong the wire
ec trica l co nt ac t th at can be moved al in which the effective
length
D is an el e m et er br id ge
fonn o f th
Th e C ar ey fo st er Bridge is a modified ith each end of the wire.
This
Rand S. ce in se rie s w
ting a resistan
is co ns id er ab ly increased by connec t you will balance the C
arey
ofthe wire onning this ex pe rim en
ac cu ra cy o f the bridge. While perf
increases the
 .
h 1-k r hrid!!c h) n null tkl1c..-1in n mc:h 11il u, i11g ., g,1lvant1 mc1cr Y
- - -
uu " 111 I° I JclCI n1 111c 1
" '
--
he rc, i-.ia ncc
• un~no Wll
. ' . . . . . . ' . inc th e , al u c .,t an
' . 1li. n J ctc r in
Jk r 111111 kn g1h l>I lhc m :i1c r111I 11,ccl ln r the b rldl!l' " m:. nnd "1ll
rcsi !>tancc.

C!R(:'l 'IT DIAGn.•.M:

8 at1e r, "' •

p a

G~ nomei.1

labeled A. B. C and D in
The four points A. B, C and D in this figure exactly correspond to the points
effectiv ely works like a
the circuit diagram of Wheatstone's bridge. and thus the Carey Foster Bridge
E. then we can write the
Wheatstone's bridge. If the balance point is located at a distance 11 from
conditio n of balance as

po:.itio:-i:i o f X and Y arc

where a ,md 8 ue the en<! corre.:ti ons at th.: left and right ends. If the
found at a distanc e h from
interchanged. i.e., X is put in gap 4 and Y in gap I . and the balance point is
E, then the balance condition becomes
P R (Y+a+ / 2 µ)
Q = s =- {x + p + (1oo -1 ! )p}
we get
Combin ing above Equations then Adding I on both sides and simplif ying.

X-Y = p (h -li)

FORM ULA USED

.
to the diftierence be
The resistan ce per unit length of Carey' s Foster's bridge wire (p) is related tween
gaps of a Carey Foster' s bridge as,
two nearly equa.l resistan ces connected in the outer
X-Y = p (h-h) (I)
where X=Resi stance connec ted,
Y=Resi stance of copper strip connec ted to the right gap
.
I

-~ -
,, HcM~lnnn: I)\:r unit h:ni;1h ul II , b .., w11c before and
le riugc
Ii. I : length of hnlnn,c pninl on lhc bridge wire mca,L1rcd rroin the 1cr. reference t cro
nllcr inlcn:hnnninn lhc x 11011 y rcs1.s1once~. I
" " f 1hc fonnu a:
nic spec,·ri,c rcs1s11111cc
.
(~).or mn1crlol of n given wire can he colcula1cd rom

Rnr 2 121
le = _
L
where. R = rcsis1ancc of the given wire
L = length of lhe given wire
r = radius oflhe given wire.
The resislance of lhe given wire
R = X - p (/2' - Ii')
' ft r, nee zero before and
where, /1' and /2' are 1he length of balance points measured from Ie re ere
· hiingmg
afler ·m,~rc •
· 1l1e res1sw1o.:c •
introduce~ • wire
(X) and given ,-- strip (Y)
· ·,n i>·1ace of 1he ~opn.~r
'

PROCEDU RE

The method can be followed in the following steps:

( I) Method for Determination of the Resistance per Unit Length of the Bridge Wire
I. The standard resistance is kept in 1he outer left gap for X and thick copper strip in the outer
right gap for Y (fig (I)). The ratio arms P and Q can be obtained by connecting the lower
tenninals of the rhe-0stat to the points A and C and its upper tenninal kept at the middle and
connected to the sliding contact to the galvanometer G.
'
2. The key (K) is closed and the jockey is then made to touch the bridge wire near its ends. The
t
deflections in the galvanometer in the two cases must be in opposite directions. However, if
J only one-sided deflection is observed then the connections should be rechecked and screws
properly tightened, seeing that the ends of the connecting wire are perfectly clean.
3. Introduce some resistance X in the resistance box and by sliding the jockey null point is
obtained. The distance of null point h from left reference zero ends is noted.
)
4. Now interchange the position of resistance box and the copper strip. Again the balance is
obtained for the same applied resistance in the box. Let the null point from the left reference
zero be h.
5. Change the value of X by Iohm and obtain different sets of observation as described in above
steps.
6. Calculate the value of p separately by taking Y=O for each set using the formula:

7. Obtain the mean value of p.

 --- ---

<2 > Method For Dctermi ninit the Resistan ce of the Given Wire: .
· •he
·:s ~ pcatd cxoctly in the sumc :r.anncr as stated :ibove by rep1aci;-ig · op~cr str;p
• " 1
·
,··he expc nm~nt
· , wire R . is then
"' · ven
with the .,, · ond re111m111g
. wire .
. . the snme res .istance X. ..I he resistanc e o f t hc g1vei,

ca lculated by the value o fp by.

R = X - p(J' 2 -t 1 )

Take difTercnt sets by changing the value of resistanc e in the resistanc e box.
(J) Determination of the ungth and Diameter of the Ginn Wire:-
a meter scale a nd its
I. The length of the resistanc e wire between the tenninals is measured by
in two mutually
mean radius is obtained by measurin g its diameter at two-thre e places
perpendi cular direction s by a screw gauge.
2. equation ( 2 ) given
Having obtained the values of the specific resistanc e is calculate d by using
above

OBSERVATIONS: IAI Observations for Determination of p:

I 1 -~ I ..V
s. Stand.:. Distance of null point from the left end ('2-1,)
p=
02-/1)
resistan ce
No. of bridge wire cm.
used (X) ficm·•

I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The mean value of p = ..........fi cm·'
!Ill Observ11tion~ for Oeterm•oati'ln of the Resi<lt11rr.e ofGive"l w :re:-
-- -
- Distance of null point from left
end of the bridge wire
Resistance in
I
Resistance X in Resistance of the wire
Standa rd the right gap (/\ -/'.)
the left gap and R = X - p(/\ -1'. )fi
No. resistan ce and given cm.
used (X) given wire in the
wire in the
right gap
left gap
( /\ cm).
(/\cm)

I.
2.
3.
4.

5.
 J

-- -- -- -- -- --- --
Thr mron ,•aluo: or M., ....... n
ICI Obscrntions for ~ ngth ind Diameter ofGh·cn Wirr:-
L1:ng1h of1he given wire (L) .. .....cm

LcaSI count of thc screw gnuge =Pitchllolal no of circular scale divisions = .......mm
Ob5crvtd dlamrtrr or thr wire in Mun
I S.No (a ;•b)/2
One dlrtttio n Perpendicular direction

I.
-
2.
3.
4.
-~
-
M ran diamet er_ .....cm

RESUL T:-

Resistance per unit length of Carey Foster's bridge wire = ........n cm·
1

Specific resistance of the marerial of the given wire ...........0 cm.

.j SOURCES OF ERROR AND PRECAUTION:
made.
I. A key should be used and it should be closed only while observations are being
~:,
While checking the null point the cell key should be closed first and then the jockey
2. should
...... be made to touch the bridge wire.
.. 3. The jockey should be pressed gently and momentarily. It should not be dragged
along the

length of wire otherwise it will spoil the bridge wire.

~
be smaller
4. While determining the value of p the value of the standard resistance should
~ .
than the resistance oitne ori<igt wire, otht:rwise null point shail not be oolaineJ
.j

,
~

MAXIMUM PROBABLE ERROR:

~
Specific resistance (k) is given by:
-j k = irr2RJ L

➔ Taking log on both sides:

~ log k = logR + 2 log r • log I

~ Differentiating and taking maximum:

--
~

"":}
 )

Ex pe ri m en t no .-6
Di sp ers ive po we r
· · I O f a prism with the help ofa
OBJECT·
- · fo determine the dispersive power of the matcna
spectromct<·r.
. f h'It li••ht eye piece. sprit
App ARA TUS: Spectrometer, glass pri•.m. reading lens. a source w c c •
O

level.

THEO RY:

.gh • 'dent on a P rism it emerges refracted

.
Aggie o(dcy1.1tpon · When a ray of single wavelength h I inc1
the angle of deviation
from its original direction of travel by an angle 6 called
A

,j

~
p
-♦
~

"
~ The minimum deviation angle Om can be achieved by adjust
ing the incident ray perpendicular to one of
prism to be parallel to the bottom of
the prism's sides which leads that the ray passing through the
~
ting angle.
the prism and the incident angle becomes equal to the refrac
j
In that situation. from Snell's law of refraction we get:

' . (A+2om)
Sm
' µ= --- --" -
Sin(~)
'
~
Apgyjar disoersjop: It is produced by a prism for white light and
is the difference in the angles of
~ . Now, the deviation through a thin prism
deviation of two extreme colors i.e., violet and red colors

,• of refracting angle A is

~
 c)· = (JI - I) A
6,. = (p,. - I ) A
,me/ t5, = (µ,. - I ) A
~ - <>'r = (p,. -I) A - (,u, - I) A

= (µ,. - I - p, + I ) A
(~. - 8, ) = (J.I,· - p, ) A

Obviously. angular dispersion produced by a prism depends upon (i) angle of prism (ii) nature of
material of the prism.

PisPCaiYr oowrc: Dispersive power of prism is defined as the power of a transparent medium
to separate different colors of light by refraction as measured by the difference in refractivity for
two specified widely differing wavelengths divided by the refractivity at some specified
intenncdiite wavelength 1 ·'.~nce the dispersive power of a r f s:n is given as th'! ratio of ang11'~~
dispersion to the mean deviation produced by the prism. It is represented by

angular dispersi:Jn
mean cieviution
Ad" . power = w = -~-~
s 1spers1ve -
6
V-lu -
µr)A
w = (p-1)A
µu -µr
w=
µ-1
Clearly, ro depends only on nature of material of the prism

FORMULA USED: The refractive index of material of prism is given by the formula:

Sil.(~-1~)
µ= A
Sin {z-)

where A is angle of prism and Om is the angle of minimum deviation for particular line
of spectrum.

Dispersive power (ro) for the prism can be given as

2
 ..~· '
• .,__>
~ \

teri11 l o f prism
W he re. = dispe rsive po we r o frh e ma
•' ' w

_·',, ' \
µg =- ref rac tive ind ex
µr
o f gre en light
= refrac tive ind ex of red lig
ht

•, .
'-,
... µy = ref rac tiv e index
o f ye llo w light.

•, ,
EC TR OM ET ER :
AD JU ST M EN T OF SP
shc uld be done:
The following a~Justments
•
'-X:<t I) Th e op flc al ax es of tel esc op e an d co Ui ma tor sh ou ld be pe
sam e point .
rpe nd icu lar to the ax is
of

I ion of the tur n tab le an d sh ou ld me et at the

ro tat
~ by the manufacturer.
Th is ad jus tment is done

'"
~
II) Ad jus tm en t of the
tur n table:

1· Th e prism table is lev ele d wi th the he lp of

scr
three screws beneath the
ew s an d the tw o screws are
prism tab le. A spirit
moved till the air
the lin e joi nin g the
lev el is pla ced alo ng rpe,,<licular to the
lc.. No w pla ce. 1he spi rit level alo ng a line pe
dc!
bu bb :e mo ves in iht mi the air bubble ap pe ars in
the mi dd le.
scr ew suc h tha t ag ain
t the thi rd
pre vio us line an d ad jus ew s should no t be touch ed
thi s time.
red tha t firs t tw o scr
be rem em be
, He re one thing sh ou ld
Th e pri sm tab le is no w lev
ele d.

sm tab le. In thi s

ne ral ly use d is op tia l leveling of the pri
wh ich is ge
2. The sec on d me tho d wi th its ref rac tin g ed ge at the
cente r of the
ce d on the pri sm tab le
me tho d the prism is pla og the tw o lev eli ng
op aq ue su rfa ce pe rpe nd icu lar to the lin e joi nf
its
pr ism tab le an d on e of
n in fig l (a) .
sc rew s P an d Q as sh ow

Fig 1(a)
 ihnl rc fruc1ing edges .
AB and AC lace lowa,d
l(b ,,~ •
bl c in such LI way rcnccrcd from both lhe sides as in fit ).
. • /ly
J Now rotnrc rhc prism on
111
rhe prism is usun Ille face AU and lh e le~,,.
l
. . .
. the lighl renccled fro.m ,
collimator and hght tbl
hng cope . ''t
one side ro receive . rh e cent ra l fie ld of view of lhe teles . Ag a,11 1
m oved 10 the . . aining lh' ~ l
The rclcsco pt• is e rn AC and rem
ed to ob1a,n imag • I' ht re ne cte d fro m face lrd Ser
just . l
ope. The prism lab/c ;
t\\-
screws p and Qare ad he r sid e 10 receive ,g view of 1h1 ~ telesc
.
the or . nrral field of s /lo\1
telescope is mo\'Cd ro l
t,ecomcs '" cc
R is adjusred rill image
1e.~1ed.
O"" and collim
ator: . . J
th 1esc ,-- ,m m um deviario n
Il l) Schusttr's mtth
od for focusing e It• table and then adjusted for m
placed on the pnsm
a) First ofall prism is telescope.
. now seen through the ¾I v
1s ~a y fall on the face AB
position. The spectrum m the co llim at or
light fro
is rotated such that the w, if / J
(Nore: The rum table ible ~n th e fie ld of v1e~v of th~ te~escope. N0
e AC so that rhe s~ tr
um i~ vi~ J
emerge through the fac till th e sp ec tru m 1s obtamea. The SJJecrnan
her d1rect1on
the prism table is sli
ghtly rotated in me eit retrace the path from aCtt
tain J
d it be gi ns to
e direction an
the table moves in on the rays suffer j
during the rorarion of sa m e di recti on . A t this position,
ion is still continued
in the
position when the rotat 1
viat ion.) d sp ectrum is
minimum de collimator an
sligh tly aw ay fro m this position towards the J
b) The prism table
is rotated
.
viewed focusing colli
mator on the spectrum /'
um de vi ation po sitio n i.e. towards the
r side of minim J
c) Again rotate the
prism table on the othe tru m .
of the sp ec
escope for best image of prism :t
telescope and focus tel ue d till the slight rotation
d tel esco pe is co nt in
sing the collimator an the collimalor and r1r ~
d) The process of focu cus. Th is m ea ns th at bo th
image to go out of fo
table does not make the
y :;et for parallel rays.
t~!escope arc :-:ow :r.c!id:Jual!

•1'
, I

1 '
'
4 ' '
 .,-~·-
\
_)

·,• .
•

•"- ·
PR OC ED UR E:
fra cti ng ed ge a l

,'i
(A )
of fh c an gle o f prism . . laced with ils re
·A. Mcasurt'mcnf . .
.. .. Afler the ab ov e ad jus lm enls, slir is ma de na rro w .T he pr ism IS P
fl
. t11 fi
ro n
1 co lli ma to r is in cid en t on
I. ch 1h01 a par1 o ig
• ce nrr c of rhe tum rab le in such a way su
rhe
face AC as in fig b.,., face A 8 · Th e re/ es
co pe
rest is incident on rhe
,", II.
the
Th e
fac
rel
e
es
AB
co pe
wh
is
ile the
lumed rill we gel im
age is coinc ide d
age of the sli t as ref
wi th the inr ers
lect ed ,ro m Ih c

• 1·18hr
s.
ection of cro ss wi re from ot he r re fle cr rn g
.

'"-~ is clamped and the im pe

.
1 s tur ne d to receive
. tab le. rel es co
.
W11hout movmg rhe
prism on the
Ill.
...._\ ocedure is repeated. ng le ofpr ism .
su rfa ce an d same pr eq ua l to tw ice th e a
...
tw o po sition s is
n the readings in rhe
IV. The difference betwee
tion( 4,, )
of th r an gl e of m in im um devia AB an d en:ierg e
B. Mcasu re m rn t
co lli ma tor ma y fall on the fa ce e
ed such that the light
fro m th e es co pe . No w. rf th
The ru m table is rotat vis ib le in the fie ld of vi ~w of th e tel ch an ge s.
that the sp ec trum is en ce o n th e fa ce AB
through the face AC so ed in the eit he r di rec tio n the an gl e of in cid tation of th e ta bl e
prism table is slightly
ro tat e sp ectrum du ring th e ro
wh en th e rotation
is ob tai ne d. Th is
of slit (spectrum) m a ce rta in po sit ro n
Th e refracted image rer rac e the pa lh fro io n. Th e c ro ss -
in on e direc tio n an d it be gin s to the ra ys s uf fe r mi ni mu m de vi at
~ ov es is position , e ve rn ier s is ta ken .
sa me direction. At th e re ad in g of both th
st!II continued in the lin e. sa y red . Th
wi re s ar e co in cid ed
with an y spectral n th e fac e AC an
d
e so th at the ra ys ar e no w in cid en t o
Th e table is now ro
tated on the other sid e rea di ngs on
I. d as in (/) .T he di ffe re nc e be tw ee n th
re pe ate
an d the pr oc ed ur e is
em er ge through AB um de vi at io n.
ve s do ub le th e an gl e of m in im
df rec t ra y gi he r s pe ct ra l
th e eW ,er sid e of the vi ati on ar e a /so re corded fo r the ot
ni mu m de
fo r th e an gl e of mi
ll. Similar ob se rv ati on s
let)
lors.(say gr ee n and vio
lines oftw o ot he r co

5
 OBSERVATIO NS:
IAf Least count of spectrometer =
IBI Readings for determination of A:

t
No
IVernier Position of the lm.;;ae
Rs!le -::ted frorr. AB
Rr'"lected from /Ar;
Total
l '~=(X-Y)
(in
M.S Vernier
M.S Vernier Total
reading reading(i Reading reading{Y) degrees)
reading Reading
n (In (In
(In (In (X)(in
) dearees)
deareesl degrees) dearees) degrees) dearees -
V1
1 V2 -
r,.,te-an 2A= riegrees

(CJ READINGS FOR DETER MINAT ION OF ow,

Color Vernier Readings for minimum deviation

Light incident on face AB Light inciden t on face AC
Of
Vernier Total M.S Vernier Total 2 om =u.v
the line M.S
Readin g reading
readln Readln reading reading (in
g (U) (in (in (V) degrees)
g
(in (In (in degrees) degrees) (in

degree degrees) degrees) degrees)

s)

Red
-
V1
V2
I I

Yell'>W V1
V2
Green V1
V2 -

CALCULATIO NS:
Mean value of A= degrees
Now using the following relations:

µ=S in(~ )
Sin(~)
 be given as
Dispersiw power (1tJ) for 1lw pri~m ~1111

We get:
Menn value of 0111
• f'or red line =-
• f'or yellow line =
• f'or green line =

prism =
Dispersive power (ro) of the material of the

RESULT:
The refractive index of material of prism :

a) for red line ( µ, ) =

b) for yellow line (I'},) =

c) for green line ( µ.,) =

prism =
Dispersive power (ro) of the material of the

PRECAUTIONS:
1) Both the telescope and the colli
mator should be fixed for parallel rays.
cross-wires.
2) The eye-piece should be focused on the
should be made narrow.
3) While taking the observations, the slit
ence
4) Both the verniers should be read whic
h eliminates the error due to non-coincid
of rotation of the table.
of the center of graduated circle with the axis

SOURCES OF ERROR:
.
I. The spectrometer is not properly adjusted
2. Error may be due to paraJlax.
spectrometer.
3. If the reading is not taken overhead the
of precautions.
4. Reading may not be taken taking care
 '~
-
,.-6
MAX IMUM PROB ABLE ERRO R ·,,
I

',,
I

Taking equation \ I
I
Sir. (~ .±i~) ·,,
I

µ = Stn(~ ) ~
Taking log ,nboth sides
I ~
logµ = tugStu - -6m\ + l11,1Sin
(A+2-J (A) -)
2
(in above equation we att using + sign instead of·, since we arc calculatin
Differentiating both sides g ma.ximum probat, \)
lccnu.1
\)
dµ d(~+
- = -~...,... ~) d(~),-
.,--=-~+ --"=.,
" Tan ( A + 6 m) Tan(~)
2
Maxim um probabl e erro1 ,or µ can be giveil as \)
"
6µ 6(~) 6(~)- +6(~)
-.. -- ~~....,.+....--=
,A+ 6) --
~ Tan ~--r Tan (A)
" ,)
(in above equation for tnc error in A ai,u o.., w1: use two lea:., coum:. 2
sinoe wear~ ..wni, ,111:dSur.:mcn..,, tru,.. ;_,, and rigin
sides for both A and &.)
From above equatio n we will find out the values of 6µ , 6µr '
9 , 6µ 1 by substitu ting corresponding
values of 6m andµ \

Similar ly we can find maxim um error in dispers ive power

w '
t,.w t,.µg fl1Lr 6.µ 1
-=-~-+---+--
"' Ilg - #Lr Ilg - #Lr lly - 1
.)

.,
, ------ ------
. ,--

) I
Experiment-I I

Cauchy's Cons.t~n.t

s wavelength
&oh I.To detennine the refractive indices of a glass prism al variou
of mercury light th
the dispersion curve for the given glass prism and calculate e
2. To plot
dispersive power of the prism 2
of n vs ( l lA )
3. To obtain the coetl1cient in Cauchy's equation from the graph
g lens,
Apparatus Required: Prism Spectrometer, prism, mercury lamp, readin
sprit level

Principle:
white light is split
It is based on the phenomenon of dispersion of light, in which
h a prism . Shorter
or dispersed in to different colors when it passes throug
(like red) bends
wavelength (like blue) bends the most while longer wavelength
the least.

TheoO':
The most general form of Cauchy's equation is
2 4
n= A + BIA + CIA + ..... ...... ..

etc., are coefficients

Where n is the refractive index, A is the wavelength, A, B, C,
measured refractive
that can be determined for a material by fitting the equation to
quoted for A as the
indices at know wavelengths. The coefficients are usually
use a two-term form
vacuum wavelength is micrometers. Usually, it is sufficient to
of the equation:
2
n =A+ Bl.\
 ~

Whrtll the W\!fllclc,u~ A 111111 ll 111c 1h:h:1111l11cd "flccillcully lt,r 1ltin r;,,,
11 0 1lhc
r-1111nll11n

/ DovlCJ:lor,
angle

Ihi~ I~ known IIA C'1111chy'n c1111111i1111, llte conHlunl A iH called lhc eoellicicn1 of
1d\ 11c1lon 11111111 In known un llte cocffaie11111f'diHperHio11. Cuuchy 's equation is an
11pp111x1n1111l1111 111111 11ppllen rc1111111111hly well too rnu11y 111111-uhsorhing malcrials in
1hr 11p11c11I 1cp.l11n. Wl1en II purnllcl hc11111 goeH lhro11glt lhe prism gelling refracted
1w1lc, Ilic r1m:rp.c111 hc11111 hcmlHthro1111.h Horne ungle with respect lo lhc ineidcnl
hc:11111 ·r hip unp.lc 111 culled lhc un~lc of' dcviution. 11 chungcs wilh lhc angle of
l11cldt11rc und 111 nil11l11111111 whc11 lhc Incident 1111d crncrgenl bcums make equal
1mp,lr,1 wllh Ilic cw·rc11pwull11,< refr11c1ing Hurli,ces. The angle of minimum
1lcvl111l1111 /1111 111 relulctl lo lhe 1111glc 111' priH111 A 1111d refruelive index (n) of the
1·1•,,..,1,,1 of lh· r•il•111111•1

11-

A 111u11,w hrnn1 of' ll!Jhl lh1111 Hpcclrul line soun·cs, which emits vi~ibk rn~iulion of
1'1111111l'lcil111lc 111111 k1111w11 w11vclc11µ.ll1, ls 11111dc i11cidc111 011 lhc prism. By measuring
IIH• 111lnl111tn11 1lcvlnll1111 cor1·c11p1111dl111-1 lo euch wuvclcngth we 11111y cslahlish the
~
fl rp1·111lt·1wr of' 11 11r,011A. The dlHpc1'Hivc power of n 111otcri11I is defined hy 1hc
1·q1t11l l(11i

wl,rrc. 1111d 111'0 l'cfh1ctlvc l111llccH of' 11111tcrl11l for hluc, ,·cd 1111d yellow lights
1n 1pccllv1Jly, 'l'hc rcclpl'11c11I of' 1lw 1ll11pc1·Hlvc power Is called dlHpcrsivc index and
II ll1•N hclwcc11 ZO 111111(101111· 11111NI 11ptlc11I µ.l1111NcN.

..~
Procedure:
Adjustment of the spectrometer:
1· Locate whici'. is collime.tor and which is telescope. The one next lo thP. lamp
is collimator. Adjust the spectrometer if needed. Take care not to pla~ with
any knob or screw without reason. The spectrometer is reasonably adJusle~
and you may only have to perform the checks to ensure it. Look al the sltl
through the collimator. It should be clear sharp, rectangular in shape. You
can increase or decrease the slit width to gel this. It should be narrow but the
whole rectangular area should be well illuminated. Now bring the telescope
in line with the collimator and look at the slit through the telescope. It
should be a sharp image at the center of the field of view.
2
· Level the prism table using a sprit level and three screws provided on the
table if necessary.
3
· See how the prism table using a sprit level and three screws provided on the
table if necessary
4
- See how the prism table can be rotated of locked. Also see how the
telescope can be rotated and the angle can be measured using Vernier scale.

pnwn , .,ble
lolating lablo b - table l odc-ec:row

ab!

l<nob
ad ru llsu-ew a o •1u 1,-,.
vom lor
- - l otoa:opo r ou»IJ on
II n tt adJ lnll kncb

ta l ..w:opo 1ot•II on
I od< c:..:i v,

rotating table bllm

tabl a bet1 l '"o
lldju~ lcnob
tel e!IOOpo 1001 r...:iw
t...c,

The measurement of the refracting angle Aof the prism:

1. Place the prism on its triangular base so that its refracting edge is at the
center of the prism table and points towards the collimator.
 \-; co
~u
2.
:um the prism table such that about half of the light f: II
ta~e. Lock the pri:;m table. You shculd be nble to a ~ o,! each refracting
ti ,,
~1th naked eye on renection from either face of the ~~~s~~ image nf th~ slit l "•
3. ?W rotate the telescope to receive the renected Ii ht on o .
pnsm. Do the same on the other side If the . t
th · ·
g . ne side of the
ms rument 1s corr ti 1
J."'•
~ '\j
e images from both side fal I at the center of the tel cc y eve led
~ecessary, adjust the entrance slit width of the colli~:~~~et crohss wire. If tI "•
image. 0 s arpen the
4
· Bring ~ne edge of the slit image into coincidence with the intersection of
ll '•
. ,.
~rosswire and lock the telescope. Record the reading using the vem · ~e ,,.
e same on the other side. Use same vernier each time. Fron:e~he 0
measurements c&lculate the refracting angle A c,f the prism. se ~,~

Angle of minimum rlevintfon and it;; measurement:

el"
j -•
1. Put the prism on the prism table such that the center of the base of the prism·
at the center of the prism table. Rotate the prism table so that the beam fro is
'1 ~
the collimator fall on one of the refracting surfaces and emerges through th:
other. The spectral lines should be visible with the unaided eye. Locate the ~~
spectrum with the telescope. On emergence you will see slit images of
different colors at different angles. l11e whole thing is called a spectrum.
Select a particularline in the spectrum for observation and note its colour and ~-:
the corresponding wavelength in your observation table.
2. Rotate the prism table slowly in steps and come closer to the direct path. If it
goes away from the direct path rotate the prism table in opposite direction.
You cannot bring the line closer to the direct path beyond a point. As you i;
rotate the prism table in either direction at this stage, the image will move ~
away from the direct path. This turning point is the position of the mir:umui:n
~
deviation for that particular wavelength. If you lock the telescope m this
position disturb the prism table a little bit. wd gradual~y rot~te it to tring it ~

back to the original position disturb the pnsm table a httle bit and gradually
rotate it to bring it back to the original position and continue in ~e same sense '! ~
r ~
the successive view that you will see in the telescope as shown m the fig.
l
image just
reaches centre image recedes
1~
s~ cross wire
®©®~
2 3 4 5
~I~

-t:~
I

\' I\''

' l \.'\\·' ''"'" '-' thl, l'''"hh,11 , .,." 1·111,•l\ 111, ,,, wil11•' ilw " " '"' iu\111111t111•nl ul'.1•w ,111
lh,, lr h.'S'-' 1'1"'• lh•,·,,l\l tlw ,~mll,,l\ 111 i11,,'v,,,·11 h,,. I ) \ll \ll lll ll l\1 1hl11 prn,lllun 1111
\
1
\ "' ~m,,,, '"''' :-.t' Wrnl \l11ws 1111,I ' ""'' 1111• uw ,·ntt\l m \11\11111111 tl\lvl111ln11 \HHiltli 111
~1-
.. l{,,,\\'{\t ,,,,, ~1\1\\t' l'"'l' -''""\I l\w 1111 1h1.• 11p1'1' \1'11I llm.111 111111 <. 1111 Ill' .,,.,.,,
1 1·k 111 IY
"'''''' ' nil ,,h.~c..•r,•nthm
. ,'m'\'t\111,1.
~ ~~"~''''l' th,· prism t11\\l ,,,111t'-' 'ttll.' 1\'11.•ll1·1,p1.•. 111 hl'l11H II 1ll1·,,u1ly 1111pwlll\· 111 \ht
""" ' '""'~"''" in 11 ~lrni~IH lhw. l\ 1111..· r th,· slll 111111.,,c 111 111,• 1·m t-1~ wlrl' 11ml rec.uni
1

thi~ p,,~iti,,11 \l~inii lht• vcm l,•1·. 'l' llll 1111w 111k,· itcvcrnl l'l:1ulln ~t-1 lo p,c l 1111
:we,~~"' Yah1c ,,r tlwsc 1l't\1 l"-'shl,,11 :-:. " " ,i,c 1111 ~k or 111ln l11n1111 tkv\1111011 fo,•
the j'" ~pt.'\'lml l111t_- "-i•\\,,

Ub§tl'\)Uion;

T1bk for lht auu:lt..(t\) or O~udim

-S. Tdl'~~op<: •~ndin~ ·fol~scopc 1'C11din~ for -

N v ~micr for ~fll'ction from rdkct ilm from l)itfo,-cnc Mann I\ Mc1111
'-'· first focc(n) O ther focc(h) 0 vIIlull I\
11-h .. 21\ "f 21\ dc~rccs
M.S. V.S. T.R M.S. v.s 'l'.R

-- L
,_
~
VI
- ---t- - ---·
'l VI
V2 - --
- --
s. Verni Dispc.•nied inu,g~ Tdllsrnpc in Tulcscop1.• rending for
N Colour er minimum dcvintim1 positi,m Dirccl im11i:;c \) iffcrcn Mc1111
o. Co 11-b l\cvil\\io
M.S. v.s. T.R M.S. v.s T .\{ I\
(Degre~
j
I. G~-en VI
\f1
2. Yellow VI
Y2
3 R~-d YI
 ---

Colour Wavelength Angle of Index of

).. (µm) Deviation Refraction
(n)
Green 0.5477
Yellow 0.5798
Red 0.6273

Calculation: n=

r1= ............ .

Result: Cauchy's constant A= ....... .

B-=......... m2

Graph:

iD ,R
I
I
I

Q B=QR/PQ

A
>

---- -- - -
-- - - - - --------- -
r - - - - - - - - -- -- -

Sources of error and Precautions :

e.
and adjustme11ts s hou Id ·De properly don
1. Spectrometer leve ling
. . h Id be accurately
2. The slit should be sharp and vertical. s ou
3. The position of angle of minimum dev1at1on
h d ·th finger.
detennined. e WI
4. The refracting surface of the prism should not be touc

Viva voce question:

index? How refractive
1. What is refraction laws of refraction and refractive
'
index vary with wavelengths?
2. What is angle of minimum deviation?
3. Is it essential in your experiment to
place the prism m the minimum
. . . .
deviation position? If so, why? 10
4. Will the angle of minimum deviation
change, if the pnsm 1s immersed
water?
5. Does the angle of minimum deviation vary
with the colour of light?
6. Does the deviation not depend upon the
length of the base of the prism?
7. What is dispersion and angular dispersio
n?
8. What is dispersive power?
9. What do you mean by spectrum, impure
spectrum and pure spectrum?
10. Can you determine the refractive inde
x of a liquid by this method?
11. Which sour~e of light are you using?
Is it a monochromatic source of light?
12. Can you not use a monochromatic sour
ce (sodium lamp)?
. . ?
B. What 1s an eyepiece.
14. Which eyepiece is used in the telescope
of a spectrometer?
15. What is the construction of Ramsden
's eyepiece?
16. What are chromatic and spherical aberratio
n?
17. What is a telescope? What is its cons
truction?
18. . On what factors, the dispersive power
depends?
19. Why do you, often, use sodium lamp in
the laboratory?
 • I•
.EXPERIMENT NO. :-7
Dlffi•nctlon Grntlng
I' s of mercury Iil!hl by a r,lanc
ODJt-: CT : Tu 1lc1cnnl11e 1hc ,,,11vclc11l!lh ol'proml11c111 spcclrnl inc.
1m11:smis~i1111 gruling using 11om,11i l11cidcncc 111c1hod.

APPARA1'US ,
, : M crcury lnmp. Spcc1ru111c1cr, di llrnc11011 ·
l!rnllnl!, rcn d 111
' 1! 1e•ns· · eve-piece
, and
prism .

FORMULA USF.D: The wuvclenglh of 1111y speclrnl line con be ob1aincd by the following
fomtuln for nonnnl incidence.
(a+ b)sin 0 = n...t
,t =(a+ b)Sin0
or,
II

Where, a+ b = Grating element

a= width of the slit

b = width of the opaque space

0 = Angle of diffraction
n = Order of principal maxima
THEORY:
Diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure, which splits and diffracts
light into several beams travelling in different directions. A diffraction grating is made by making
many parallel scratches on the surface of a flat piece of transparent material. It is possible to put a
large number of scratches per inch or cm on the material, e.g., the grating to be used has I S000
li!les/inct: on it. The sc!"lltches are opP')l!e b•1t !he areas bP.tween thP. scratches can !ransmit light.
Thus, a diffraction grating becomes a multitude of parallel slit sources when light falls upon it. A
parallel bundle of rays falls on the grating. Rays and wavefronts form an orthogonal set so the
wavefronts are perpendicular to the rays and parallel to the grating as shown. Utilizing Huygens'
Principle, which is that every point on a wavefront acts like a new source, each transparent slit
becomes a new source so cylindrical wavefronts spread out from each. These wavefronts interfere
either constructively or destructively depending on how the peaks and valleys of the waves are
related. If a peak falls on a valley consistently (called destructive interference), then the waves
cancel and no light exists at that point. On the other hand, if peaks fall on peaks and valleys fall
 -2-
the light is made br· ht
on valleys cons istcnrly (called construc1ivc in1cdcrcncc). lhcn
point. ig er at th,11
I
I I
I I
I I
....eft'Of'J1a

Herc, d "' a+ b

d d d

- S"""S
- /
/ ·~
.Y
_) -~

""'~
diff.:t~-
ch, n & : n).

//- 00
~~
grating
Fig. (I) Schem atic of light diffraction by a plane transmission

the straight through line. Constructive

Consid er two rays which emerg e making an angle (} with
thc:ir two path lengths is an inlegral
interfe rence (bright ness) will occur if the difference in
n = I, 2, 3, ...
multip le of their wavele ngth (A.) i.e., differe nce = n A. where
(a+b) SmO = n ,-l
formu la (} is the angle of emergence
and this is known as the diffraction grating equation. In this
e between ~lits (note that (a+ b) = I/
at which a wavele ngth wi ll be brigl>t, (a + b) is the di~tanc
per unit length) and n is the "order
N if N, called the grating consta nt,_ is the numbe r of lines
repetition of the spectrum.
numbe r", a positiv e intege r (n = I, 2, 3, ...) representing the

A) Adjus tment or Spectr omete r

The follow ing adjustm ents should be done:
perpen dicula r to the axis of
I) The optica l axes or telesco pe and collim ator should be
rotatio n or the turn table and should meet at the same point.
This adjustm ent is done by the manuf acturer.
 - j -

II) Adjustm,nt or thl' turn t■ ble:

I.
The prism lnblc is leveled with the help of three screws beneath the prism table. A spirit
level i~ plnced nlo,,~ the line joinin11 the ~crews ond 1hr two screws are moverJ till the air
bubble moves in the middle. Now ploce the spirit level along a line perpendicular to th e
previous line nnd adjusl the third screw such that again the air bubble appears in th e
middle. Here one thing should be remembered that first two screws should not be touched
th is time. The prism table is now leveled.
2
· The second method which is generally used is optical leveling of the prism table. In th is
meth od the prism is placed on the prism table with its refracting edge at the centre of the
prism table and one of its polished surface perpendicular to the line joining the two
levelin~ ~ctt w:; P ~•1'1 Q as sl;own ir, fig. (2)

p
0

Fig. (2) Upper view of prism table having a prism ABC

Now rotate the prism table in such a way that refracting edges AB and AC face towards the
collimator and light tailing on the pnsm is usually reflected from both the sides. The telescope is
moved to the one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and the leveling screws P
and Q are adjusted to obtain image in the central field of view of the telescope. Again the
telescope is moved to the other side to receive light reflected from face AC and remaining third
screw R is adjusted till image becomes in central field of view of this telescope. The prism table
is now leveled.

Ill) Schuster's method for focusing the telescope and collimator:

I. First of all prism is placed on the prism table and then adjusted for minimum
deviation position. The spectrum is now seen through the telescope.
(Note: The tum table is rotated such that the light from the collimator may fall on the
face AB and emerge through the face AC sd that the spectrum is visible in the field of
 till the refracted image of slit (spectrum) is obtained. The spectrum during the rotation
c;ftJ-,c t.tule mo"~s i,·, .>i 1C direction dild it :,Cgins to re,: ..ct. tl,e path from a :c.rtain
position when the rotation is still continued in the same direction. At this position, the
rays suffP.r minimum deviation.)
2. The pri::rn hl~le ;~ rotated ~Egh!ly ~way from thi::; r ,.,sition tow:irds t'-e collimater B7lci
spectrum is viewed focusing collimator on the spectrum.
3. Again rotate the prism table on the other side of minimum deviation position i.e.
towards the telescope and focus telescope for best image of the spectrum.
4. The process of focusing the collimator and telescope is continued till the slight
rotatior. :>fprism table ~ Jt.S not make the ;mage to go c-r.: of focus. This means that
both the collimator and the telescope are now individually set for parallel rays.

I. Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line and the image of the grating is
focused on the vertical cross-wire.
2. The telescope is then rotated through 90° from this position.
3. The prism table is now rotated till the image of the slit, formed by reflection from the
grating is thrown on the cross-wire.
4. The turn table is then rotated through 45° or 135° from this position. The plane of the
grating thus be comes normal to the collimator axis.
(Figures 3-7, given in the last page)
After doing all the adjustments view the image of slit through telescope. Now remove
the grating keeping eyP.s on eye-piece. Image of the :;lit sh')!1ld remain in the same
place and should not shift in position.

PROCEDURE:
Readings for the angle of diffraction are taken as follows:
I. The telescope is rotated on one side (say left) of the direct image till red line of the
first order spectrum comes on the cross wire (fig7). The readings of both the verniers
are recorded. Similarly, readings of both the verniers are recorded for other spectral
lines (say yellow and violet).

2. Now rotate the telescope on the other side of the direct image and repeat the same
procedure as above.
 -5- .
J, Find out the difference in readings of the same kind of verniers for each spectral
line
0nd calculate angle of diffracti
on.

ORS ERVATIONS:

I. Observation for adjustment of the grating :

Least Count of the spectrometer = I/ 120 degrees

2· Observa
tions for the grating element :
Numbe r of lines per inch on the grating = 15,000

Grating element (a+ h) = 2.54 cm

number of lines per inch

= 0.000 1693 cm

3. Observations for angle of diffraction:

Color of Reading for the S~ctru m on Value of28 Value

Order S~ctru L.H.S. R.H.S. Vernier ofO
of m v, (a) V1 (b) V1(c) V1 (d) I ,1 ra Mean (In
Spectru m (in (in (In (in drgrtts)
a-c b-d (in
drgrra) drgrHS) dterus) dtertes)
(deg) (deg) degrees)
Green

... Yellow

Red - -

CALCU LATIONS:

A. = (a+ b)Sin0
n
 RF .SU LT : -6-

G,·~c u lin e
~ -:

Ye llo w Lin c A., C

Re d Lin c A., =

PR EC AU TIO NS :
I. Th e grating should not be
touched with hand or rubbed.
It should always be held by
me ans of fingers kept on the opp
osite edges of the grating.
l. Gr ati ng should be perfectly
normal to the axis of the collimato
r.
3. Th e tum - table must be lev
eled optically .
4. Wh ile recording observatio
ns the telescope should be rotate
d in the same direction in
ord er to avoid backlash error.
S. Th e slit should be as narrow
as possible.
6. All the preliminary adjust
ments of the spectrometer must
be made before starting the
experiment.
7. While tak ing observations
the tum table must remain clamped.
8. Both verniers sho uld be rea
d.

SO UR CE S OF ER RO R:
I. Th e spe ctr om ete r is no t pro
per ly adjusted.
2. Err or ma y be du e to parallax.
~- If the re'.l~in is r.ot tak~r. C-\'c:h
6 ead the spe,;~o:n~~e~.
4. Re adi ng ma y no t be tak en taking
car e of precautio ns.

MA XI r.1 UM PROBABL!!:
ER RO R:

(a + b)S in0
... t= ~-..c....--
n
Ta kin g log of bot h sid es and the
n differ entiating we get:
dl dB
;., tan 0
d(} =least cou nt of circular scale of spectrometer
in ten ns of 0
0 = any on e value of 0 dur ing obs
erv ati on
 - 7-

ADJUSTMENT OF GRATING FOR NORMAL INCIDENCE

Stc11 I

Telescope Collimator

Fig. (3)
Step 2

Collimator

Telescope

Fig. (4)

Step3

' , Collimator

Telescope
 - 8.

~~ -~ -
Teleacope Collimator

Fig. (6)

Step S

Collimator

Telescope

Fig. (7)