Welding International

ISSN: 0950-7116 (Print) 1754-2138 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/twld20

Real-time vision-based control of weld pool size

William Lucas , Dan Bertaso , Geoff Melton , Jeremy Smith & Chris Balfour

To cite this article: William Lucas , Dan Bertaso , Geoff Melton , Jeremy Smith & Chris Balfour
(2012) Real-time vision-based control of weld pool size, Welding International, 26:4, 243-250,
DOI: 10.1080/09507116.2011.581336

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09507116.2011.581336

Published online: 05 Oct 2011.

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Welding International
Vol. 26, No. 4, April 2012, 243–250
Selected from Przeglad Spawalnictwa 2009 (1) 11 – 16

Real-time vision-based control of weld pool size

William Lucasa, Dan Bertasoa, Geoff Meltona, Jeremy Smithb and Chris Balfourb
a
TWI, Abington, Cambridge, UK; bLiverpool University, Liverpool, UK

A computer vision technique based on the real-time measurement and control of the upper surface or ‘topface’ weld pool
size is discussed. The primary objective is to demonstrate the feasibility of using vision-based image processing to provide
measurements and subsequent control of a weld’s geometrical properties during the weld formation or molten phase. A novel
reference feature – a correlation-based image analysis algorithm – has been developed, which may be configured to operate
with a number of different welding processes. Upper surface weld pools with regulation via a simple classical feedback
control algorithm have then been demonstrated to show how this approach may be used to improve weld uniformity and
repeatability.

Introduction However, a disadvantage of this solution is that the camera

For arc welding automation, a number of methods were
prepared from utilizing an artificial intelligence method,
via automated selection of welding parameters, and finally
to use control sensors and welding process monitoring,
as well as advanced control strategies designed to process
information from sensors1 – 7.
In any sensor-based regulation system, obtaining
stable measurements is often difficult due to the welding
arc producing both heat and intense light.
Therefore, a universal approach was discussed here
relying on a computer possessing a high-quality image of
the upper weld, the aim of which would be to provide
real-time, credible measurements of upper welding pool
width which may be used in the process control system.
The welding control system was designed to regulate
the upper pool’s surface width to obtain more homogenous
welds in their changeable arrangement conditions.
Possible sources of disturbances in an uncontrolled
welding process include heterogeneous heat absorption
caused by the welding clamp arrangement, differences in
base material features, and systematic declination in the
welding process, as well as unstable arc ignition
parameters.
A key factor in configuration of a successful vision
sensors system is generation of stable, high-quality
welding process images, which may be analysed by the
operators. Figure 1 shows a simplified diagram of an upper
pool surface sensor arrangement.
In front of the welding clamp and wire feeding
components, a CCD camera with an IR bandpass filter is
fitted. The filter’s operational duration is similar to the
camera’s wavelength, so most of the arc’s light is blocked.
Also, the camera is arranged at an angle to the welded
component’s plane; therefore, the amount of arc light to
which the camera’s sensors are exposed is further limited.
Such a sensor configuration, i.e. limiting the range of the
arc’s light transmission in order to illuminate the observed
weld area, may produce high weld pool quality in the
‘turned-on arc’ state. This eliminates the necessity of using
an additional light source to illuminate the weld pool.
ISSN 0950-7116 print/ISSN 1754-2138 online
q 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09507116.2011.581336
http://www.tandfonline.com
arrangements, arc light stability, as well as weld and native
material’s properties, such as the surface conditions, will
all affect the created images’ quality. In order to deal with
these issues, a series of tests should be performed to ensure
that the camera’s arrangement to the welded component is
optimal from the point of view of coherence of the
provided images.
This paper describes how images from the weld face
may be processed in order to perform real-time geometric
measurements. Also, parameters selection and a closed
loop process system regulation type were presented, which
uses vision sensor measurements of upper weld pool
surface and processes them by applying a simple closed
loop regulation technique. Additionally, controller par-
ameters of closed loop welding process were presented in
which weld pool surface measurements are done by using
a traditional control technique.
Digitization and image processing
Figure 2 shows the diagram of a simplified image
registration and processing. A combined video signal from
the CCD camera is registered and processed into a digital
form by either TV interface or a WinTV card installed in
any PC, usually with the Microsoft Windows 2000
Wire
feeder
Welding clamp Camera
Video
signal
Weld
Arc
Filter
Welded sheet
Figure 1. Topface sensor arrangement for arc welding.
244 W. Lucas et al.
Control computer
Video
Camera signal
PCI card
C++ Software
Digital video signal
Frames
analysis
algorithm
Frames
processing
Processed
frames
dimensions
display
generation
Figure 2. Image capture and processing.
operating system. This card effectively generates a stream
of digital video images from the camera.
The analysis algorithm was made in Microsoft Visual
Cþ þ to provide real-time, frame-by-frame digital video
flow processing by means of the Video for Windows
(VFW) software8,9. The addition of diagnostics infor-
mation to the processed video frames before displaying
them on the computer’s screen allows monitoring of the
image analysis algorithm’s operation. Usually, this
information will contain cursors indicating that the
measured weld pool edges’ arrangements before the
processed frame appear. Thus, a visual presentation of
the processing algorithm’s operations may be created.
The final stage of the camera processing cycle is the
generation of the weld pool’s width measurements. The
generated measurements may then be sent to a process
control system to allow weld pool width control
implementation within a closed loop. The image analysis
system may process an analogue image into a digital one
(digitizing it) and process the registered images at the
camera’s maximum frame rate, which is usually 25 Hz for
standard interlaced video.
If the image algorithm analysis operates between
subsequent video frames, then measurements may be
performed with the output results updated at a speed equal
to the camera’s frame rate. The image analysis technique
used is based at an eight-bit grey-scale intensity correlated
with gathered characteristics from experimental and
featured images10. This technique was combined with a
series of simple calibration procedures that were used in
order to limit the amount of image data needed to be
processed in each frame. Figure 3 presents this method
using upper face images of Inconel 718 alloy. The imaging
camera is arranged between the weld clamp and the
welded component in such a way that the processing
software can analyse just a specific area of the weld pool.
Algorithm calibration is then made feasible using a
Pool width
measured
from the
Required arc side
Welder
controller
software-generated cross, which is centred in the
registered weld pool image, as presented in Figure 3(a).
Subsequent images’ processing starts from a left
horizontal calibration position. This allows to exclude the
major registered image part from processing, thanks to
which the algorithm efficiency is significantly improved.
The second stage of the processing algorithm’s configur-
ation phase involves sampling of a pair of characteristic
edges’ features with a single-dimensional matrix of
these features’ image intensity values, as presented in
Figure 3(c), (d). The cross on the left side in Figure 3(b)
indicates the centre of the weld pool’s left edge’s features,
and the two vertical belts on each side of the cross show the
limits of these features.
Similarly, the cross and vertical belts on the right side
of Figure 3(b) show right edge features’ placement.
Figure 3(c), (d) shows a reference feature graph for the
Inconel 718 alloy, which refers to the weld images in
Figure 3.
After the delivery of the initial configuration
information, software can be used to process the live
video images through the focus position in the processed
image, finding the best fit with previously stored features
of the reference images, using the formula
X
Fs
F me ½i
¼ jRf ½j
2 I m ½i þ J
j for 0 # i , I w ; ð1Þ
J¼0
where Fme is a matched characteristic or correlation error
matrix value, Fs is a reference feature’s size in pixels, Rf is
a single-dimensional matrix storage of a feature’s intensity
values, and Im is the pixel intensity of a real-time image,
both in position and while moving from left to right in the
horizontal.
Upon completion of matching error calculations, the
matching error matrix of Fme searches for a position where
the smallest correlation error occurs, which corresponds to
 Welding International 245

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
250 250
Light intensity

Light intensity
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Pixel number Pixel number

Figure 3. Image feature correlation: (a) calibration; (b) feature extraction; (c) left extracted feature graph; and (d) right extracted feature
graph.

the best property match as presented in this equation:
Bm ! min{F me ½i
for 0 # i , lw };
where Bm corresponds to the best property match during
movement from left to right in the horizontal. Therefore,
the image vertical position, which is also represented by the
i value and which reflects Bm the lowest correlation error,
refers to the best processed feature match. The correlation
algorithm’s effectiveness is improved by searching only
for the location of a left property for the left calibration
position. A similar calculation method for the best probable
match of a right-side reference feature is undertaken for
locations, which are on the right of an image-processing
correlation position. Figure 4 shows the processed image
and corresponding surface error correlation graph.
Crosses on the left and right side of Figure 4(a) show
ð2Þ detected locations of the weld pool’s edges. A line made
across the bottom third of Figure 4(a) shows a normalized
single-dimensional presentation of the calculated corre-
lation error. The two lowest dimples in this line present the
smallest error correlation positions and, as a result, the best
match with the reference feature’s edges. Figure 4(b)
shows a 3D error correlation presented on a surface graph.
The best correlation points with edge properties
clearly appear at app. 100 and 500 image width pixels.
As presented in Figure 5, when welding the Inconel, high-
intensity variations were caused in the weld image when
using arc pulsing. Excessive intensity or high-impulse

(a) (b)

10000
Matching difference

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
60
40 400
Line number 20 200
0 0 Pixel number

Figure 4. Processed weld images: (a) pulsed DC TIG on Inconel 718 and (b) correlation surface plot.
246 W. Lucas et al.

Figure 5. Inconel 718 image quality variation due to arc pulsing: (a) low-pulse image and (b) high-pulse image.

image saturation, according to Figure 5(b), may cause
difficulties with credible data processing.
In order to solve this problem, the processing
algorithm was improved for the program to be able to
differentiate between high arc (pulse current) and low
pulse (base current) being processed. This was achieved by
calculating an average image-processing intensity, from
left to right, at a previously defined calibration position.
Then, in order to differentiate low pulses from high
pulses, a variable threshold was used. To take even more
stable measurements, depending on image quality, a high-
pulse from low-pulse processing exclusion was applied.
In the example presented in Figure 5, in order to
improve the results, only low pulses were processed. The
property correlation technique may be applied in various
welding methods through the configuration of a user-
defined series of parameters. This is illustrated in Figure 6,
which shows a set of reference features, a processed
image, and AC TIG on aluminium correlation plot.
When welding with aluminium, a transition in
intensity level around the edge location on the image,
present more or less half way along reference features, is
clearly visible (Figure 6(a,b)).
Reference features for Inconel 718 nickel alloy show a
tendency to higher intensity gradients without a clear
transition at weld pools’ edges (Figure 3(b,c)).
Figure 6 shows that images with various shapes of
edge reference features may be captured by the image-
processing algorithm and properly processed. When the
image-processing algorithm is calibrated and correctly
‘learns’ a specific processing image type, configuration
parameters such as edge size features, reference feature
intensity, processed calibration location, and pulsating arc
exclusion setup may be saved as data files for later re-use,
so a well-prepared algorithm may be loaded as soon as the

(a) 100 (b) 100

Light intensity

Light intensity

80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Pixel number Pixel number
(c) (d)

8000
Correlation error

6000

4000

2000

40
400
20 200
Line number 0 0 Pixel number

Figure 6. AC TIG on aluminium: (a) left pool edge reference feature; (b) right pool edge reference feature; (c) processed image; and (d)
correlation surface plot.
 Welding International
Set pool Difference Set welding current
width Process
+ Welding clamp
– contoller Set wire speed
Image
processing
Measured algorithm
pool width
Figure 7. Closed loop process control schematic.
set-up is ready for processing. The calibration and learning
procedure described earlier is necessary only when image
processing of non-standard classifications is required.
Welding process control
In order to present a closed loop control process, a PID
Digital Controller was used 11. Figure 7 shows a simplified
diagram.
Control of fundamental activities involves comparison
of the width of a weld pool’s upper face from the image
processing algorithm with a set value. If there is a
difference between the set and measured pool width,
process control is applied, which can adapt both welding
current and wire feeding speed. This active adjustment of
current and wire feeding speed allows balancing of
differentiations in the weld pool’s size. Process control
requires use of two independent PID controllers as shown
in Equations (3) and (4).
The PID equation is introduced to the software by a
separate program that works simultaneously with the
image processing software on the control computer. The
CAN serial communication protocol is used to adjust
welding current and wire feeding speed12. This requires
use of a pair of built-in microprocessor systems acting as
process-operated CAN nodes. The fundamental operation
of the nodal points is to compare (deduct) the set value
Figure 8. VEE and visual Cþþ image processing software.
247
Welder
controller Camera
Wire
Weld
feeder
Welded material
Weld image
with the analogous welding current signal and wire
feeding speed of the welding device13.
ð
V trimI ¼ K PI ebw þ K II ebw þ K DI ðebw 2 ebw21 Þ; ð3Þ
where Vtriml is the welding current adjustment, ebw is the
weld pool width being the difference between the set
and measured pool width, KPI is a proportional current
increase, KII refers to integral current increase in the last x
samples, where x is an integer ranging from 1 to 100. KDI is
a differential current increase, and ebw – 1 is the previous
pool width error:
ð
V trimWFS ¼ K PWFS ebw þ K IWFS ebw þ K DWFS ðebw 2 ebw21 Þ;
ð4Þ
where VtrimWFS is the wire feeding speed adjustment, KPWFS
is the proportional wire feeding speed increase, KIWFS
refers to the integral wire feeding speed increase in the last x
samples, where x is an integer ranging from 1 to 100, and
KDWFS is the differential wire feeding speed increase.
A real-time process control system requires an Agilent
VEE/14 graphical user interface. A typical Control
computer screen is presented in Figure 8.
The VEE software has a display panel containing
dialogue boxes, which are presented on the left side
(Figure 8), allowing the following operations: equation
248 W. Lucas et al.
parameter selection for the PID System Controller, general
data configuration, and user log-in process controls.
A series of graphic presentations including a pie chart
of a measured pool width are used to illustrate information
on both current welding and feed wire values. Image
processing software, presented on the right side in Figure 8,
is controlled with the VEE user interface and operates as a
simultaneous control computer process. By means of the
TCP/IP protocol, measurements from the image proces-
sing software are transmitted to the VEE system using the
client – server model15.
Experiment’s course and results
The first stage of our experiment required a series of tests,
which were conducted to determine the optimal camera
arrangement for viewing the pool’s liquid top face. As a
result, two separate camera configurations were applied:
One for aluminium and the other for Inconel alloy. As
presented in Figure 9(a), the camera as arranged on the
weld pool’s edge and below the wire feeding level created
more stable images with TIG welding of AC aluminium.
For welding of the Inconel alloy, the best results were
obtained with the camera mounted behind the weld clamp,
as presented in Figure 9(b).
According to the schedule of our experiment, a series
of tests were then carried out to assess whether pool width
measurements based on image processing data would be
stable/constant. Measurements performed after welding,
presented in Figure 10(a), are compliant with the
automated measurements in Figure 10(b), and each
graph shows a nominal pool width value of 8 mm. An
uncontrolled hardfacing on the Inconel alloy was then
(a) (b)
Wire
feeder
Camera
Torch
Figure 9. Practical weld imaging arrangements: (a) AC TIG welding with aluminium and (b) Inconel welding.
(a) 16 (b) 16
14 14
Pool width (mm)
Pool width (mm)
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Weld length (mm)
Figure 10. AC TIG on aluminium weld measurements: (a) manually measured upper pool width and (b) automated upper pool width
measurement.
performed using the parameters presented in Table 2 in
order to illustrate the problems, which may be encountered
when using a pulsing arc.
The graphs in Figure 11(a) compare manually
measured upper weld pool width after welding, with
automated measurements taken from the image processing
software.
In order to demonstrate the measurement technique
used, the first stage involved post-weld comparisons of
manually measured parameters with upper weld pool
surface measurements performed by means of image
processing. Measurement graphs made for uncontrolled
hardening of the AC TIG aluminium by means of
parameters shown in Table 1 are presented in Figure 10.
The graph in Figure 11(b) shows the effect of pulsed
arc welding on automated measurements’ stability, where
the measured pool size shows an increasing tendency to
synchronization with the arc’s pulse frequency. This
occurs most of all in relation to high deviations of camera
image intensity during the application of the pulsating arc.
In order to avoid this problem, an automated measurement
with high arc pulse exclusion was used. This required an
image-processing software configuration that gave pool
measurements only during the low pulse of the base
current intensity. As a result, a more stable measurement
was obtained, which is presented in Figure 11(c), which
complies with the manual pool width readings as shown in
Figure 11(a).
The final stage of the experiment required use of a
closed loop control process. A pair of 2-mm Inconel sheets
with a 1.4-mm transition lip somewhere in the middle of
the sample was selected for this purpose.
Wire
feeder
Torch
Camera
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Weld length (mm)
 Welding International 249

(a) (b)
10 10

Pool width (mm)

Pool width (mm)

8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Weld length (mm) Weld length (mm)

(c) 10

Pool width (mm)

8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Weld length (mm)

Figure 11. Inconel 718 measurements: (a) manually measured upper pool width; (b) automated upper pool width measurement; and (c)
automated measurement with high-pulse exclusion.

The aim of this stage was to obtain a comparison measurements were taken upon the completion of each
between controlled and uncontrolled samples of welded weld made for both the heat source and joint penetration
materials showing a sudden change in thickness, to sides and are presented in Figure 12.
demonstrate closed loop process control activity. For controlled welds, the weld pool upper surface
A PI welding current controller was used to implement width regulation also decreased the degree of weld
regulation of weld pool upper surface width with penetration. This is clearly illustrated by the increased
controlled welds. A 6-mm weld pool width was set and homogeneity of the measurements in the graph for the
experimental tests were used to show that the proportional post-welding weld pool surface width from the top and
current increase KPI ¼ 1 and the integral increase bottom sides, presented in Figure 12(b), as compared with
KII ¼ 0.01 created acceptable results. Weld pool surface the appropriate measurements for uncontrolled welding
presented in Figure 12(a).
Table 1. Aluminium welding parameters.

Parameter Value
Conclusions
Method 100 Hz frequency TIG AC This image processing technique, based on the correlation
Material Aluminium 2024, 1.6 T4
Electrode Ø 3.2-mm zirconium – tungsten electrode
of spatial domain features, was developed, thanks to a
Shielding gas Pure argon, 15 l/min desire for unfailingly high-quality image processing of
Welding speed 3.3 mm/s upper weld pools. Use of the calibration procedure and a
Welding current 80 A pair of edge reference features from the sample images
Wire feeding Ø 1.2-mm 5356 wire, speed 15 mm/s allowed use of this innovative and efficient algorithm
analysis, which can perform real-time upper weld pool
surface width measurements. The image processing
Table 2. Inconel welding parameters. software is completely configurable, and so it is adjustable
and can learn how to deal with the images from various
Parameter Value welding processes. This was proved by the measurement
Method Pulsed TIG DC at 2 Hz frequency results for the Inconel alloy and the aluminium, which
Material 2.0-mm thick Inconel 718 confirmed acceptable (with regard to the results)
Electrode Ø 3.2-mm zirconium – tungsten electrode measurement techniques for TIG welding of various
Shielding gas Pure argon, 14 l/min
materials.
Forming gas Pure argon, 18 l/min
Welding speed 1.5 mm/s Further improvements to the processing algorithm
100 A impulse current (high); involved introduction of an average image intensity
Welding current 30 A base current (low) threshold. This allowed distinguishing of high-pulsing
Impulse times 250 ms high, 250 ms low welding arcs (impulse current) from low (base current)
Ø 0.8-mm Inconel 718, speed
arcs. The processing algorithm may, therefore, be
Wire feeding 10 mm/s
configured in such a way so as to exclude measurements
Notes: Translated into English from a Polish translation of an original English taken during high or low arc phases. This gives more stable
paper. Original Polish translation by Ilona Pawlik and Adam Jastrzebski at the
Instytutu Laczenia Metali (Institute for Joining of Metals) in Kraków, Poland. measurements by effective processing in only specific
image intensity ranges, and as a result the processing
250 W. Lucas et al.

(a) (b)
10 10

Pool length (mm)

Pool length (mm)

8 8
6 6
4 4
Pool width on heat source side Pool width on heat source side
2 2
Pool width on the joint penetration side Pool width on the joint penetration side
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Weld length (mm) Weld length (mm)

Figure 12. Post-weld pool width measurements: (a) uncontrolled weld and (b) controlled weld.

technique shows a higher tolerance to the large deviations References

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A change in metal sheet thickness was used as a final
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The discussed experiments were conducted with a PC
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method should allow testing for potential accommodation
of image quality deviations and detailed edge features, in
order to prepare a more tolerant measurement technique.
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