Didactics:

- comes from Greek ‘didasko’ or ‘didacticos’, it means ‘I’m teaching’;

- the first sign of didactics is connected with Socrates and Plato. Socrates was teaching by asking people questions. Plato thought learning is sth more than
memorizing, education is a life-long process. The practice in the classroom is not enough, we should talk about the science and the theory of the process;

- learning and teaching process in general

- is the art and the science of the process of learning and teaching (John Comenius “Didactica Magna”)

- in 17th C the term was used for the first time by the German linguist Ratke.

- Comenius was talking about effectiveness and the speed of the learning process, everybody can learn sth and has a potential; he was talking about
techniques like: using imitation instead of rules, have students repeat after you, limitation of vocabulary at the beginning, teaching through pictures to make it
meaningful, the need to help students practice speaking and reading

Competences of the teacher:

- Be the master, proficiency in the language (also know the culture)

- Good teaching skills
- Be up to date with technology, methodology, theories
- Learner-focused (pay attention to student’s emotions, take a look at learning process through the eyes of the student, have full knowledge of the student,
his/her possibilities, way of acquiring the knowledge, difficulties, interests)
- Not stuck to the coursebook, prepare their own materials, be creative
- Remember that we are different and we learn in different ways
- Create the best conditions for the learner and the learning process
- Is a guide, advisor who shows the way

Glottodidactics (=foreign language didactics):

- self and independent discipline
- is a science that tries to understand the phenomena of learning and teaching foreign language
- is a wide term which contains all the things like language methodology, applied linguistics, second language acquisition
- 3 stages: pre-scientific, scientific, emancipation
 Applied linguistics is a vast interdisciplinary field that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to real-life problems related to language and
communication (verbal or non-verbal). In terms of language studies, for example, linguists can be focused on the practical applications of teaching, translation,
and speech therapy.

SLA  Second Language Acquisition – it is any language learned after your first. SLA is connected with: education, psychology, theoretical linguistics,
anthropology, neuroscience, 1LA, sociology and language teaching.
 Pre-scientific era (ancient times to mid
19th C)
Classical Greek/Classical Latin as lingua franca,
taught orally; one-by-one; no schools; intuitively;
No particular science connected with FLT
Invention of printing press in renaissance;
16th C French, Italian, English grow in popularity;
John Comenius and his book about teaching;
19th C The Grammar-Translation method by Carl
Ploetz  grammar is essential
In the mid-19th C  Claude Marcel, Thomas
Prendergast (how babies learn the language),
Francois Gouin (teaching language in context by
images, gestures, no L1)
The end of pre-scientific era  German philosopher
Wilhelm von Humboldt “a language cannot be
taught. One can only create conditions for learning
to take”.
METHODS:
Grammar-translation method
- instructions in L1
- little or no use of L2 in communication
- focus on grammar analysis
- early reading of difficult texts
- a lot of translation from L1L2 and the other way
round
- teacher doesn’t have to speak L2
Scientific (end of 19th C)
Started with the reform movement.
Pre-reformers gained the popularity and were treated
seriously by the scientific world. Phonetics came to light;
Other disciplines like linguistics, psychology, pedagogy
appeared and had an impact on how we teach;
Spoken language should be taught at first;
Phonetics practice needed to improve pronunciation;
Usage of dialogs and texts for conversational phrases;
Inductive approach to teach grammar;
Using L2 in the classroom
The II World War changed a lot and people had to learn
languages quickly. This led to linguists who invented the
Audiolingual method. (Ferdinand de Saussure, Leonard
Bloomfield, Fries)  they were talking about unique
patterns in the language and distinct grammatical
structures, and also habits to learn this
Chomsky’s cognitive revolution said goodbye to
Audiolingual method and Oral and Situational Approach.
Chomsky said that grammar is programmed inside us!
METHODS:
The Direct Method
- no L1
- lessons begin with dialogues and anecdotes
- actions and pictures used for showing the meaning
- grammar learnt inductively
- reading for pleasure
- teacher = native speaker
Popular in the USA, Mr Coleman concluded his study of
the method as impractical and recommended a reading-
based approach.
The Reading-Approach
Post-method era/The
Emancipation (1970s/80s/90s till
now)
The Council of Europe creates a national-
functional syllabus for language learners
e.g. immigrants, guest workers. It was based
on Firtian’s document (list of vocabulary) in
which language was viewed as conveying
meaning in social context.
The focus on what learners can DO with a
language.
FOCUS ON COMMUNICATION
LANGUAGE IS A SOCIAL TOOL
Other people apart from scientists were
trying to find a good method and we have
several teaching methods which were not
supported by any scientific research:
Suggestopedia, Silent Way, Total Physical
Response)
METHODS:
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
- language is a social tool
- must be meaningful, purposeful
- grammar should be descriptive
- teaching culture and social functions is
necessary and important
- motivation and engagement in learning
process is important
- group work, role plays, drama techniques
 use the language in different contexts
- authentic class materials
- reading comprehension is the only skill emphasized
- only the necessary grammar for reading is taught
- translation is OK
- vocabulary is based on usefulness at the beginning
- the teacher doesn’t have to be a native speaker
The Audiolingual Method:
-habit formation, memorization, drills
- usage of dialogs, imitation, repetition
- teacher is an orchestra leader
- NO L1
- oral-based approaches based on drills and repetition in
order to teach grammatical sentence patterns without
stopping to think, automatically
- actions, pictures, realia used in the classroom
- focus on spoken language and communication in target
language
 in Britain sth similar appears The Oral and Situational
Approach (meaning, context, situation)
- start with spoken language
- only L2 in the classroom
- only useful vocabulary presented
- grammar from simple to complex structures
- repetition, drilling, choral practice
- new items introduces situationally
AGE OF METHODS:
Affective-Humanistic Approach
- L2 as the process of self-realization and relating to other
people
- integrated skills
- teacher facilitates and then correct
mistakes
- teacher fluent in the language
The Silent Way – the Designer Method
- the teacher should be as silent as it is
possible
- student should be encouraged to produce
as much language as possible
- focus on discovery, creativity, problem
solving
- learning is facilitated by showing real
objects
- teacher = facilitator, observer, get out of
the way
- student = independent, autonomous,
responsible, active, involved in verbal
interactions
- sound-colour charts
Suggestopedia
- the teacher creates a comfortable
environment before starting a lesson e.g.
music, stretching exercises, breath deeply
- active presentation of the material with
music accompaniment using drama
techniques
- second presentation of the material with
music but without drama
Community Language Learning – the
Designer Method
- learning happens when students don’t feel
threatened, teacher similar to a counsellor
Lexical Approach (Michael Lewis) 1990s
- no boundary between lexis and grammar
- spend more time on stock phrases, teach
collocations and combination of words
- Learner’s feeling and emotions are important
- meaningful communication is at the first place Chaos Theory (Diane Freeman)
- work in pairs and small groups - language is a dynamic system that
- class atmosphere is very important constantly changes and evolves. It grows
- teacher is facilitator and should be proficient in L1 and and organizes itself from the BOTTOM UP in
L2 an organic way.
Comprehension-Based Approach
- see the language acquisition as occurring IF and ONLY IF Language as Emergent Phenomena (Scott
the learner understands the meaningful input. This Thorbury)
approach is based on research in 1LA in which 2LA is - provide the possibility for language to
believed to mirror. develop (emerge) by creating a rich
- focus on listening classroom environment full of possibilities
- learners speak when they are ready - do sth with the language in order to
- correction of mistakes unnecessary develop: report, record, recycle, reward it
- learners respond to meaningful speech non-verbally at et.
first - draw student’s attention to features of the
- language input must be clear language they may not notice
- rule learning may raise the awareness of the language
but will not lead to acquisition
Natural Approach
- language as a vehicle for communication
- as much clear input as possible
- rejection of grammar-based instructions
- great study of vocabulary, but syntactic structures are
not so important
- focus on listening and reading, speaking when student is
ready
- content must be interesting to student
- relaxing atmosphere in the classroom
- no correction of the mistakes
- meaningful communication!

BEHAVIORISM
(linguistics + structuralism)
PAVLOV/SKINNER/WATSON
Our mind is a blank state when we are born
Experts started to investigate how babies learn L1
 classical conditioning – helping learners to
respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and
reinforcement
 habit formation
 reinforcement which is a reward to a desired
behaviour
 Humans can be trained to response to specific
stimuli. All behaviour is learnt from the
environment.
Behaviorism is only concerned with observable
stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be studied
in a systematic and observable manner.
METHODS:
ALM AND S-R-R Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement
- imitation, practice, habit formation
- emphasis on mimicry and memorization
LEARNING THEORIES
INNATISM COGNITIVISM
Noam Chomsky believed that we are born with (cognitive psychology, linguistics)
‘language acquisition device’, we are programmed Chomsky revolutionized the way people looked at
from the beginning and without this inside device learning the languages. Language was no longer
we couldn’t get started as the language learners treated as a series of conditioned responses to
because it wouldn’t be possible to organize the external stimuli. Grammar is programmed inside
spoken language that we hear in various us. Language learning requires thinking and
grammatical ways. reflection for individuals , not habit formation!
- mental planning, goal setting, organizational
Krashen’s 5 hypothesis: strategies
1. learning hypothesis - learning involves activating previous knowledge
2. monitor and chunking info from previous experience
3. the natural order hypothesis - mind is a processor based on internal and
4. the input hypothesis external factors
5. the affective hypothesis - FOCUS on HOW info is received, organized, stored
Children are born with Universal Grammar and recalled from the mind
- SLA = skills learning
- focus on individuals (innate abilities to learn the
rules)
- grammar must be taught
- meaningful learner-centered instructions
- pronunciation is not so important, perfection is
unrealistic
-reading, writing and developing of vocabulary
once again important
- errors are inevitable, constructive in the learning
process
 CONSTRUCTIVISM
(linguistics, psychology, sociology)
Piaget, Vygotsky
- knowledge is constructed
- people actively make their knowledge
- reality is determined by one’s experiences as a
learner
- previous knowledge is a foundation/basis and
we build on it with new things we learn
- individual experiences in the process of
learning make us unique
- teachers should take into account that their
students bring their unique experience to the
classroom and their previous knowledge
determine and impact how they are able to
learn
1. knowledge is constructed
2. people learn to learn, as they learn
3. learning is an active process
4. learning is a social activity
5. learning is contextual
6. knowledge is personal
7. learning exists in mind
8. motivation is key for learning
METHODS:
The Silent Way
Community Language Learning
Constructivism has two brunches:
- cognitive constructivism (emphasis placed on
the importance of learners constructing their
own representation of reality)
- social constructivism (emphasizes the
importance of social interaction and
cooperative learning)
CONNECTIVISM HUMANISM
- learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions - a learner-centric approach in which
- learning is a process of connecting the potential is the focus rather than
- learning may reside in non-human appliances the method or materials
- the capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently - With the understanding that people
known are inherently good, humanism
focuses on creating an environment
Within connectivism, learning occurs when peers are connected and conducive to self-actualization. In
share opinions, viewpoints, and ideas through a collaborative doing so, learners’ needs are met and
process. Connectivism allows a community of people to legitimize they are then free to determine their
what they're doing, so knowledge can be spread more quickly own goals while the teacher assists in
through multiple communities. It empowers students and teachers. meeting those learning goals.
Connectivism suggests that students should combine thoughts,
theories, and general information in a useful manner.
Connectivism is the theory that students learn best if they are taught
to navigate and create social networks via technology and use these
networks to learn. For example, joining a science forum that
discusses mitosis and asking questions on the forum to learn from
other members.
GEORGE SIEMENS
Connectivism has been offered as a new learning theory for a digital
age, with four key principles for learning: autonomy,
connectedness, diversity, and openness.
From a learner-centered teaching perspective, Connectivism
provides opportunities for students to make choices about their
learning. Connectivism promotes group collaboration and
discussion, allowing for different viewpoints and perspectives to aid
in problem-solving, decision-making, and making sense of
information.
1. General didactics - its definition, basic terminology, the scope of research

Didactics is one of the science of education. It deals with the process of learning and teaching. It concentrates mainly on HOW teacher, learner and knowledge
interact and support one another. Didactics refers to: the principles, phenomena, forms and laws of teaching with no subject in particular. Didactics term comes
from the Greek (didásco – I teach) and stems from the German tradition of theorizing classroom learning and teaching.

Didactics deals with: - aims, - subject matter, - methods, - frameworks of teaching and learning

Terminology:

Teacher, learner, learning (“a relatively permanent change in the behavior of an individual based on his/her experiences or discoveries”), curriculum (contains:
objectives, content, different methods, approaches, techniques), syllabus (descriptive list of topis divided into components: speaking, listening, reading, writing;
gives details on schedule, education, practice, teacher training, aims, methods

The scope of research:

1. WHAT should be taught and learned? (CONTENT ASPECT)

2. HOW do we teach and learn? (THE ASPECT OF TRANSMITTING AND LEARNING)
3. TO WHAT PURPOSE AND INTENTION should something be taught and learned? (THE AIM/GOAL ASPECT)

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF DIDACTICS

1.The first signs of didactics are associated with Socrates in ancient times. Socrates is known for gathering people and teaching them. The way of teaching was via
asking well-designed questions to his students. He is seen as the first great teacher because of his effort to engage students in finding answers on their own.

2. Plato was Socrates’ pupil and he thought learning is something more than memorizing things. Plato valued education and the way it changes people. He was
known for thinking about ideal government and society. Education was the KEY to establish a stable state and the rules which only educated people would obey.
Education was a life-long process.

3.Saint Augustine – followed Plato and Socrates in his theories. Education was the task of monks in the church. He applied what had been known in religious
settings. During that time, education was privilege of rich and powerful.

4. In the 17th century a German linguist Ratke used the name ‘didactics’ for the first time and he gave the first definition (1613). He stressed the role of psychology
and the absence of pressure.

5. His pupil -John Comenius defined didactic in a better way. He wrote the book “Didactica magna”, which was written in Latin. He believes that teaching and
learning should be characterised by speed and effectiveness. He structured didactics and separated it from pedagogy. He also believes that every person has the
potential to learn everything. He emphasizes that didactics is both an art and a science. Teaching should have as its main aim the learning of everything by
everyone. FROM THE TIME OF COMENIUS WE TALK ABOUT THE INDIVIDUALIZATION OF THE EDUCATION.

6. In the 20th C didactics started to be separate discipline of learning and teaching. Self-standing discipline separated from psychology, pedagogy, biology,
sociology and anthropology.
7. Today we know that didactics is the art (the process, practice) and science of education (rules, principles). In 21 st C we concentrate on evaluation and
implementation of t&l process, social practice, analysis of problems stemming from teaching.

3. Didactics in the context of the education sciences

Didactics is one of the Sciences of Education. In particular, it deals with the processes of teaching and learning. It is different from other Education Sciences in that
it concentrates specifically on how teachers, learners and knowledge interact and support one another. Because of this reason, it is a key subject in the teacher
education curriculum. Given its emphasis it acts as a hinge between the general education subjects and the subject-specific disciplines, which make up the core of
a teacher's knowledge.

Psychology helps teachers understand how students learn so they claim that Didactics is part of Psychology. For the same reasons, Pedagogy is concerned with
how people are educated and they also claim that Didactics is part of Pedagogy.

We can divide didactics into psychology (how students learn), pedagogy (how people are educated), sociology, biology and anthropology.

Didactics has 3 main perspectives:

- Traditional (emphasizes on a technical and prescriptive view of the process of teaching),

- Cognitive (the discipline is a problem solving approach to the task of turning knowledge into and object of teaching),

- “New dimension” (analyses the process of teaching and learning through specific curriculum contents).

4. Glottodidactics - its definition, basic terminology, the scope of research

Glottodidactics (=foreign language didactics):

- self and independent discipline connected with research and studies on academic basis

- is a science that tries to understand the phenomena of learning and teaching foreign language

- is a wide term which contains all the things like: communication model, language methodology, applied linguistics, second language acquisition

- Glottodidactics: on different stages of our learning process we change our behaviour and mental approach; teaching is defined as creating conditions depending
on the learner and the conditions of learning

 communication model – system that consists of the source of info, the learner and the communication channel.

 Applied linguistics is a vast interdisciplinary field that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to real-life problems related to language and communication
(verbal or non-verbal). In terms of language studies, for example, linguists can be focused on the practical applications of teaching, translation, and speech therapy.

SLA  Second Language Acquisition – it is any language learned after your first. SLA is connected with: education, psychology, theoretical linguistics, anthropology,
neuroscience, 1LA, sociology and language teaching.

FLA  First language acquisition – it’s important to observe how people learn language
5. Glottodidactics - the development of a discipline (pre-scientific period, interdisciplinary period, autonomous period)

3 stages: pre-scientific (ancient times, one by one, one had knowledge/the other one wanted to gain it), scientific (the end of 19 th C to mid 20th , using other
disciplines to shape the practice), emancipation (we are now on this stage, looking for autonomy, looking for theories developing the status quo)

Didactics and glottodidactics, when it comes to the matter of the subject, they examine something different, but they developed in a similar way and the stages
were the same.

6. An overview of second/foreign language learning theories in the past and today (behaviourism, innatism, cognitivism, humanism, constructivism (cognitive,
social), connectivism)

What Is Behaviourism?

Behaviourism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for establishing rules, especially for behaviour management.
Behaviourism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a behaviourist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that
should be provided with the information to be learnt. Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus leaning occurs. Learning is achieved when the
provided stimulus changes behaviour.

What is Innatism?

Noam Chomsky’s view of language and language learning is termed ‘innatism’. Innatism stated that humans are innately equipped with the power of language
learning. Chomsky stated that we humans are not born with a language, instead “our mind has the innate capacity to hypothesize and discover rules based on the
language we have received”. The ability to create new language depends on “intuitive knowledge of rules”. Given that children are exposed to ‘messy’ language in
use. It is notable that with some ‘Trial and Error’, in relatively short period of time, children are able to discover rules of language which are inevitably correct. This
realization led Chomsky to hypothesize about the existence of an innate ‘language acquisition device’ responsible for supporting the existence of a Universal
Grammar, which shapes all human languages in much the same way as we are born with the ability to learn to run.

What Is Cognitivism?

In contrast to behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with
behaviourism. There is still a behaviour change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information. In cognitive load theory, learning occurs
when the student reorganises information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones.

Cognitivism was coined by Canny. It came as a reaction to the behaviorist thought which ignores human’s innate capacity to acquire language which also neglects
the mental process of learning. Cognitivism argues that language is not just a learned habit devoid of creativity. It also suggests that humans are endowed with LAD
(language Acquisition Device) which helps them not only learn whatever language they want but also use them creatively and not just imitating what’s being said
around them, this is because they are constantly using their cognitive abilities to think and creatively manipulate language. Cognitivism emphasize the idea “of
making knowledge meaningful and helping learners to organize and relate the new information to the existing knowledge in Memory”.

What Is Constructivism?
Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas based on our own prior knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to
the individual learner. Students adapt their models of understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or resolving misconceptions. Students need to have a
prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum is a great example of constructivism in action.

Jean Piaget is considered the pioneer of this learning theory. Schemata_ the things a child already knows, Ss connect new knowledge to an existing schema. Also Ss
learn by doing rather than by being told.  Constructivism states that learners of language should construct knowledge of language by themselves through
exposure to the world or people and to languages (experiences and interaction), in this way the learners improve their linguistic knowledge. Therefore, we can say
that people learn from one another and not in isolation from others. Discovery approach (inductive), a teacher should not give knowledge to students but let them
find it out by themselves. So, a teacher here is just a Guide.  Development precedes learning: humans need to develop their cognitive abilities then they can learn,
in other words, until a learner reaches a cognitive stage in which s/he has certain mechanisms that will enable him/her to understand the language very well.
According to Piaget, children shape their own conceptions of reality through continuous interaction with their environment.  Piaget carried out his studies with
children and adolescents and concluded that Learning is a matter of two interrelated processes: Assimilation & Accommodation.

Constructivism has two brunches:

- cognitive constructivism (emphasis placed on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality)

- social constructivism (emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning) - Vygotsky posited that children lean their first languages by
interacting with more linguistically knowledgeable people, that is to say they learn by interacting with people who knows language better than children do, and
through engaging within society.

What is Humanism?

Humanism is a learner-centric approach in which the potential is the focus rather than the method or materials. With the understanding that people are
inherently good, humanism focuses on creating an environment conducive to self-actualization. In doing so, learners’ needs are met and they are then free to
determine their own goals while the teacher assists in meeting those learning goals.

What is Connectivism?

Connectivism is the theory that students learn best if they are taught to navigate and create social networks via technology and use these networks to learn. For
example, joining a science forum that discusses mitosis and asking questions on the forum to learn from other members. GEORGE SIEMENS

Connectivism has been offered as a new learning theory for a digital age, with four key principles for learning: autonomy, connectedness, diversity, and openness.
What is the difference between an approach, a method, a technique and methodology?
a. Approach - An approach is a set of assumptions, beliefs and theoretical views about the nature oflanguage (Brown). In lay words, it’s
Generally, a theory that attempts to explain how languagesare learned. For example, behaviorism is a language learning theory that suggests
that learninglanguage occurs through a process of stimulus/response and reinforcement.
b. Method - A method is a set of techniques or procedures that are used systematically with the aim ofreaching efficient learning. A method is
often based upon the premises of an approach (es). Theaudio-lingual method is an example of teaching method; it is based on the
premises ofbehaviorism. “How to conduct teaching and learning?”
c. Technique - PPP (presentation, practice, production) is one of the famously known and most widelyused techniques in language teaching. This
Technique is characteristic of audio-lingual method.It is therefore one of the many techniques of the audio-lingual method. If a method is a
set oftechniques/procedures that are intended to make the process of learning fruitful, a technique isone single technique of a method. “It is
a way of carrying out a task”. For instance; spider map,mind map, brainstorming, jigsaw…
d. Methodology - A methodology is a set of classroom techniques, procedures irrespective of theparticular method the teacher is
using. A methodology is related to the teacher’s style and choice,it's personal and flexible and designed and adopted by the teacher
according to theclassroom circumstances, so the latter is using various techniques from diverse methods i.e. hedoes not stick to one specific
method. A method is official and designed by the experts. It includes a set of procedures andstrategies which are fixed. A method has a
specific technique for example Audio-lingual methodhas its own techniques no more no less, so the teacher cannot modify or add anything.

Learning styles:
A Learning style refers to an individual’s natural, habitual and preferred ways of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills.
Learning styles persist regardless of teaching methods and content areas. Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning.
a. Auditory learners: best understand new content through listening and speaking in situations such as ‘lectures and group discussion’.
b. Visual learners: prefer the use of images, maps and graphic organisers to access and understand new information.
c. Kinaesthetic learners: best understand information through tactile representations of information. These students are “hands-on learners” and
they learn best through figuring things out by hands (e.g. understanding how a clock works by putting one together). They learn through moving,
doing and touching…
d. Read & Write learners: Ss with a strong reading/ writing preference learn best through words. These Ss may present themselves as copious note
takers or avid readers, and are able to translate abstract concepts into words and essays.
e. Social & Solitary learning: Social learning Solitary learning