LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

LECTURER: C.M. MATARA

COURSE: HIGHWAY PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

COURSE OUTLINE

 Lecture 1; Pavement Materials: Manufacturing, origin, properties, types, storage,

standards, classification, cost and testing of: soil, aggregates, crushed stone, cement,
lime, slag, pulverized fuel ash (PFA), concrete admixtures, bitumen, tars, and asphalts.

 Lecture 2: Stabilization, methods of stabilization, feasibility and selection of suitable

agents for cases, mechanical modification, methods of modification, feasibility

 Lecture 3: Highway Maintenance; routine maintenance, cracks sealing, patchwork, minor

rehabilitation, rejuvenating, texture treatment, resealing, chip and spray, premix overlay,
major rehabilitation-recycling and rebuilding

 Lecture 4: Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation: condition surveys; definition and

concepts of condition, PSI Index, skid resistance, Economics; maintenance cost versus
rehabilitation, Methods of measuring Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP)

 Lecture 5: Pavement Management: work programs, maintenance, budgeting

 Lecture 6: Environmental Impact Control: Environmental Monitoring, Coordinating

Agency(EMCA), National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), Landscape,
noise, air pollution;

REFERENCES

1. Bent Thegasen, Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries

2. Martin Rogers, Highway Engineering

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

1.0 LECTURE 1 PART 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PAVEMENTS AND PAVEMENT COURSES
A highway pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it from traffic moving
over it. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the environment. It should be strong
enough to resists the stresses imposed on it and it should be thick enough to distribute the
external loads on the earthen subgrade, so that the subgrade itself can safely bear it. For
satisfactorily performing the above functions, the pavement should have many desirable
characteristics. These are:

1. It should be structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it.

2. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stresses to a safe value
on the subgrade soil.

3. It should provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrasion action
of wheels (pneumatic and iron-tired) does not damage the surface.

4. it should be dust-proof so that traffic safety is not impaired.

5. Its riding quality should be good. It should be smooth enough to provide comfort
to the road users at the high speeds at which modern vehicles are driven.

6. The surface of the pavement should develop as low a friction with the tyres as
possible. This will enable the energy consumption of the vehicles to be low.

7. The surface of the pavement should have a texture and adequate roughness to
prevent skidding of vehicles.

8. The surface should not produce excessive levels of sound when travelling.

9. The surface should be impervious so that water does not get into the lower layers
of the pavement and the subgrade and cause deterioration.

10. The pavement should have long life and the cost of maintaining it annually should
be low.

Some of the requirements enumerated above are conflicting. A good pavement should be a
compromise among such conflicting needs

1.1.1 Pavement Courses and Types

A pavement consists of one or more layers. The topmost layer is the surfacing the purpose of
which is to provide a smooth, abrasion resistant, dust-proof and strong layer. The base, which
comes immediately next below, is the medium through which the stresses imposed are distributed
evenly. Additional help in distributing the loads is provided by the sub-base layer. The subgrade
is the compacted natural earth immediately below the pavement layers. The top of the sub-grade
is also known as the formation level.

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In a concrete MATERIALS
road, the concrete slab itself acts as the wearing surface and distributes the load.
The slab may be directly placed on the subgrade, or, in case of weak soils, a base and sub sub-
base may be interposed between the slab and the subgrade.

c) British Practice

d) Kenyan Practice: Road Design Manual part III

Fig. 1-1. Pavement layers.

In American practice, the top course in a flexible pavement is itself composed of the surface
course and a binder course beneath it. In U.K. practice, the surfacing is similarly composed of the
wearing course at top and a base course beneath it. Kenya Road Design manual adopted the
American standard.

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1.1.2 Flexible Pavement Courses

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat,
binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural
sub-grade

Figure 1.1 Typical layers of a Flexible Pavement

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.

Tack Coat:: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted
with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat:: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent
surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two
layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a
water tight surface

Surface course: Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent
the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base
and sub-grade,
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.
 To perform as a structural portion of the pavement, To resist the abrasive forces of
traffic.

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Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose
is to distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates
having less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a
part of the surface course by the binder course results in more economical design.

Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of
binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface
drainage It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized
materials. In summary, the functions of the base course are :

(i) To act as the structural portion of the pavement and thus distribute the loads.

(ii) If constructed directly over the sub-grade„ to prevent intrusion of sub-base

soils into the pavement.

(iii) Contributes to the sub-surface drainage

Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and
the primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the
intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open
graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and
the base course A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement
constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a
sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided. In summary, the
functions of the sub-base layer are:

(i) To provide additional help to the base and surface courses in distributing the
loads.

(ii) To prevent intrusion of fine-grained road-bed soils into base courses.

(iii) To minimise the damaging effects of frost action.

(iv) To facilitate drainage of free water that might get accumulated below the
pavement.

Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses
from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content

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1.1.3 Rigid pavements Courses

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider
area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown below.

Figure 1.2 Typical cross section of a rigid pavement

Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-
grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of
material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base
course.

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium

. Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed
by plate theory instead of layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation.
Plate theory is a simplified version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium
thick plate which is plane before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab
due to wheel load and temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

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1.2 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Pavements are a conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated properties,

and their interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement. Thus, a good
understanding of these materials, how they are characterized, and how they perform is
fundamental to understanding pavement. The materials which are used in the construction of
highway are of intense interest to the highway engineer. This requires not only a thorough
understanding of the soil and aggregate properties which affect pavement stability and
durability, but also the binding materials which may be added to improve these pavement
features. In the following section we shall study pavement materials in detail.

1.2.1 SOILS OVERVIEW

The wide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it obligatory
on the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils. Soil types such as gravel,
marram and naturally occurring soft aggregates, which can be used in road construction. Broadly,
the soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil, Murram / red soil, Desert sands, Alluvial soil,
Clay including Black cotton soil.

 Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no
fines contributing to cohesion of materials.
 Murram: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock.
Visually these are similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.
 Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to clay, and exhibit little
cohesion. When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and tapped a
shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatancy is a specific property of such soil.
 Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry,
and show no dilatancy. Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and
shrinkage properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves
stain, which is not observed for silts.

AASHTO soil terminology comes from AASHTO M 145, “Classification of Soils and Soil-
Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes”. Aggregate terminology comes from
AASHTO M 147, “Materials for Aggregate and Soil-Aggregate Subbase, Base and Surface
Courses”. Basic terms include:

 Boulders & Cobbles: Material retained on a 75-mm (3-inch) sieve.

 Gravel: Material passing a 75-mm (3-inch) sieve and retained on a 2.00-mm (No. 10)
sieve.
 Coarse Sand: Material passing a 2.00-mm sieve (No. 10) and retained on a 0.475-mm
(No. 40) sieve.
 Fine Sand: Material passing a 0.475-mm (No. 40) sieve and retained on a 0.075-mm
(No. 200) sieve.
 Silt-Clay: Material passing a 0.075-mm (No. 200) sieve.
 Silt Fraction: Material passing the 0.075 mm and larger than 0.002 mm.
 Clay Fraction: Material smaller than 0.002 mm.

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
Silty: Material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve with a PI ≤ 10

Clayey: Material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve with a PI ≥ 11

Coarse Aggregate: Aggregate retained on the 2.00 mm sieve and consisting of hard,
durable particles or fragments of stone, gravel or slag. A wear requirement (AASHTO T
96) is normally required.
 Fine Aggregate: Aggregate passing the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve and consisting of natural
or crushed sand, and fine material particles passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve. The
fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than two-thirds of the
fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve. The portion passing the 0.425 mm (No.
40) sieve shall have a LL ≤ 25 and a PI ≤ 6. Fine aggregate shall be free from vegetable
matter and lumps or balls of clay.
Note that these definitions are AASHTO definitions and are slightly different than those of the
Unified Soil Classification system (ASTM).

1.2.1.1SUB GRADE SOIL

Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the disintegration of
rocks or decay of vegetation,that can be excavated readily with power equipment in the field or
disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory. The supporting soil beneath
pavement and its special under courses is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the
pavement is called natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by
controlled movement of heavy compactors. The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a
highway material are

i. Stability
ii. Incompressibility
iii. Permanency of strength
iv. Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and
ground water
v. Good drainage, and
vi. Ease of compaction

1.2.1.2 Classification of Kenyan Soils

For a rational approach to pavement design/ the most important characteristic of the subgrade is
its elastic modulus. However, the measurement of this modulus requires fairly complicated and
time-consuming tests. However, it has been proved that there is good correlation between the
California Bearing Ratio and the elastic modulus of Kenyan soils. Since the CBR test is a fairly
easy and widely used test, it has been decided to retain it as the quantitative means of evaluating
the subgrade bearing strength. A survey of Kenyan subgrade soils, described in Materials Branch
Report No. 345, has shown that they can be grouped into the following 6 bearing strength classes.

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Subgrade Bearing Strength Classes

The above CBR ranges correspond to the results actually obtained on materials of the same
type along sections of road considered homogeneous. They reflect both the variations of the
characteristics of the soil which inevitably occur, even at small intervals, and the normal scatter
of test results.

The following points should be noted:

 No allowance for CBR's below 2 has been made, because it is, technically and
economically, out of the question to lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing capacity.
Such weak soils are saturated expansive clays, saturated fine silts or compressible
(swampy) soils, e.g. mud, soft clay, etc. Moreover, the measurement of the bearing
strength of such soft soils is most uncertain and CBR's below 2 are of little significance.
 The use of Class SI soils (CBR 2-5) as direct support for the pavement should be avoided
as much as possible. Wherever practicable, such poor quality soils should be excavated
and replaced, or covered with an improved subgrade
 The CBR range of Class S5 is fairly wide. This is because Class S5 is either gravelly
material or unsoaked soil, the CBR's of which always show considerable scatter.
Furthermore, the difference in the pavement thickness required is comparatively small
when the subgrade bearing strength varies from the lower to the upper limit of this class.
 Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a CBR over 30 and which comply with the
plasticity requirements for natural materials for subbase (See Chart SB1). In such cases,
no subbase is required. No class of higher bearing capacity has been considered as such
subgrade materials are extremely rare and as a roadbase is always necessary to provide
a homogeneous and uniform layer.
 It will be noted that the subgrade categories overlap. For any one section of a road the
average (CBR should be higher or equal to the mean of the subgrade class selected for
design, and no individual result shall be below the lowest valve of the range for that
subgrade class.
 Where the subgrade CBR values are very variable the designer should balance the cost
of having very short sections of different subgrade categories against a conservative
design taking account of the worst conditions encountered over longer sections.

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 In order to minimize construction costs, natural materials should be used as much as

possible. Every endeavor should be made to use the cheap local materials before
considering the importation of material from some distance. It is therefore of prime
importance to make a complete inventory of all available roadmaking materials, such as
stone, gravel, sand and clayey sand at the investigation stage.
 Kenya has abundant resources of hard stone. Detailed information regarding the various
types of stone available and their roadmaking characteristics can be found in Materials
Branch Report No. 336.
 Many different sorts of gravels exist in Kenya: lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels,
calcareous gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone, coral rag, etc. Various
types of sand and silty or clayey sands are also found. Detailed information concerning
these materials and their engineering properties can be found in Materials Branch
Reports No. 343 and 344.
 It will be useful for the design engineer to consult all relevant documents, such as
materials reports, geological and pedological maps and reports

The following materials cover almost all the subgrade materials encountered in Kenya, and they

may be classified on the basis of bearing strength, as shown in Table 1.2.

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1.2.1.3 Kenya Specifications On Soils as Pavement Materials

Pavement Minimum Specifications (KRDM Part III)
Material
Subgrade  C B R at 100% MDD and 4 days’ soak more than 5
 Swell at 100% MDD and 4 days’ soak less the 2%
 Organic matter content by weight less than 3%
 Sub grade S1 cannot be used directly as support
Sub-base with
cement
improvement

Base with
cement
improvement

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1.2.2 TESTS ON SOIL

Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides the support to
the pavement from beneath. The sub grade soil and its properties are important in the design
of pavement structure. The main function of the sub grade is to give adequate support to the
pavement and for this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic
and loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting
tests.

IN-SITU MOISTURE CONTENT: The actual moisture content of the subgrade soil under the road
pavement will depend on many factors, principally: Local climate, Depth of the water table, Type
of soil, Topography and the drainage, Permeability of the pavement materials, Permeability of the
shoulders

PROCTOR TESTS

COMPACTION TEST - PROCTOR TEST This test covers the determination of the mass of dry
soil per cubic metre when the soil is compacted over a range of moisture contents, giving the
maximum dry density at optimum moisture content. In this test, a 2.5 kg rammer falls through a
height of 300 mm giving 27 blows to each of three layers. Or if 4.9 kg rammer five layers, each
layer being given 55 blows of the 4.9kg rammer. The results are reported as follows:

 The compacted sample is weighed to determine its mass: M (grams)

 The volume of the mould is: V (ml/m3/cm3)
 Sub-samples are taken to determine the water content: w
 Bulk density Y (gamma) in g/ cm3of each compacted specimen should be
calculated from the equation,
Y(gamma) = W/ V
where, V = volume in cc of the mould.
 The dry density Yd in g/cc
Yd = 100Y/(100+w)
 The Dry density is plotted versus the moisture content to obtain the Maximum
Dry Density ( Ydry) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)

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i) Particle Size Distribution: This test covers the quantitative determination of the
particle size distribution in soil from the coarse sand size down to clay size. Grading
Test is normally used as grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The
geometric properties of a grading curve are called grading characteristics.

To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading curve.

D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight

The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:

1. Effective size = D10

2. Uniformity coefficient,

3. Curvature coefficient,

Both Cuand Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution of particles over a
wide size range.
Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow particle size range.

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CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test California Bearing Ratio is obtained by measuring the
relationship between force and penetration when a cylindrical plunger is made to penetrate the
soil at a standard rate.

CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm
or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned below. Therefore,

𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐂𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧

CBR=𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐂𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎

2.5mm penetration, Aggregate with 100% CBR=13.02KN

5.0mm penetration, Aggregate with 100% CBR = 19.9 kN

Standard force-penetration relationship (CBR = 100%)

The ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is used as the CBR. In some case, the ratio at 5 mm may be
greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this occurs, the ratio at 5 mm should be used.

Note: CBR values are rounded off as follows:

CBR ≤ 30% – round to nearest 1%

CBR > 30% – round to nearest 5%

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SOIL CONSISTENCY LIMITS; ATTERBERG TESTS

The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to its firmness, and it varies with the water content
of the soil.

A gradual increase in water content causes the soil to change from solid to semi-
solid to plastic to liquid states. The water contents at which the consistency changes from one
state to the other are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).

The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (WS), plastic limit (WP), and liquid limit (WL) as
shown. The values of these limits can be obtained from laboratory tests.

Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:

Liquid limit

 The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil in question
passes from the plastic to the liquid state.

It is derived using the cone penetrometer test. In it, a needle of a set shape and weight is applied
to the surface of a soil sample placed in a standard metal cup and allowed to bear on it for a total
of 5 seconds. The penetration of the needle into the sample is measured to the nearest tenth of
a millimetre. The moisture content of the sample is then determined. The process is repeated four
more times, on each occasion with a sample of differing moisture content. A relationship between
cone penetration and moisture content can then be established, allowing the moisture content
corresponding to a cone penetration of 20mm to be determined. This moisture content is termed
the liquid limit of the soil under examination.

Determination of Liquid Limit

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Plastic limit:

 The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content at which the soil in
question becomes too dry to be in a plastic condition.

The plastic limit test, as defined by BS 1377, involves taking a 15g soil sample, mixing it with
water, and rolling it into a 3mm diameter thread. (The rolling process will reduce the moisture
content of the sample.) This process is done repeatedly for different samples until the point is
reached when the sample just crumples when rolled into a 3mm diameter thread. The moisture
content of the sample in question can be taken as the plastic limit of that soil.

Plasticity index

• The plasticity index of a soil is defined as the liquid limit of a soil minus its plastic
limit:

Plasticity index (PI) = Liquid limit (LL) - Plastic limit (PL)

It denotes the moisture content range over which the soil is in a plastic state.

FIELD DENSITY TEST

Objective: The field density test of soil is conducted in the field to know whether the specified
compaction is achieved or not.

 Normally Sand Replacement Method is adopted for this purpose. Sand

Replacement Method is also known as Sand Cone Method.
 The basic principle of sand replacement method is to measure the in-situ
volume of hole from which the material was excavated from the weight
of sand with known density filling in the hole. The in-situ density of material is
given by the weight of the excavate material divided by the in-situ volume.
 The apparatus used in this field density test consists of a sand pouring cylinder,
with pouring cone at its base. There is a shutter between the cylinder and the
cone. The cylinder is first calibrated to determine the unit Weight of sand. For
good results, the sand used should be uniform, dry and clean passing a 1.0
mm sieve and retained on a 600-micron sieve

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1.3 AGGREGATES
1.3.1 AGGREGATES OVERVIEW
Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone
that are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to form
compound materials (such as bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete). By volume,
aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70 to 80
percent of Portland cement concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses for
both flexible and rigid pavements. Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural
aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock formations through an open excavation
(quarry). Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing.
Manufactured aggregate is often a by product of other manufacturing industries. The
requirements of the aggregates in pavement are also discussed in this chapter.

The maximum nominal aggregate size is determined from both the required thickness of the
material when put in place and the surface texture called for. The following are typical nominal
aggregate sizes used at different levels within a bituminous pavement:

Wearing course
 14mm dense wearing course macadam
 10mm or 6mm pervious macadam
Base course
 40, 28 or 20mm dense macadam

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1.3.2 Desirable properties
1.3.2.1 Strength
The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load, (ii)
Wear and tear, (iii) crushing. For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high
resistance to crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
1.3.2.2 Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the
movements of traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over the
aggregates exposed at the top surface.
1.3.2.3 Toughness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement
should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one particle
to another at different levels causes severe impact on the aggregates

1.3.2.4 Shape of aggregates

Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular,
flaky or elongated particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less
strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same
aggregate. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as
possible.

1.3.2.5 Adhesion with bitumen

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be
stripped off in presence of water.

1.3.2.6. Durability
The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities
there-in and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the
construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action

1.3.2.7 Freedom from deleterious particles

Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be clean,
tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay
balls and other objectionable material. Similarly aggregates used in Portland cement concrete
mixes must be clean and free from deleterious substances such as clay lumps, chert, silt and
other organic impurities.

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1.2.1 Aggregate tests

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests
are carried out:

Test Objective and methodology

Crushing Objective: Used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates.
Test  The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to
crushing under gradually applied crushing load.
 The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to
a compression test under standard load conditions
 The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied
at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute.

 Weight of passing material (W1) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the

total sample (W2)
 A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35
would normally be regarded as weak aggregates
Abrasion Objective: Used to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they
test are suitable for different pavement construction works.
(L.A.A)  Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and
length 520 mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated
 An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters
and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates
 Rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending
upon the gradation of aggregates.
 After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and
passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value
is called Los Angeles abrasion value.
 A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for water bound macadam base
course. For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.

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Aggregate Objective: To determine the toughness of the aggregates in resisting impact.

Impact Value  Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled
in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is
attached to a metal base of impact testing machine.
 The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25
number of blows.
 Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall
of 38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15
number of blows.
 The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm sieve

 The impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing

sieve (W1) to the total weight of the sample (W2).
 Aggregates for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30
percent, For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35
percent, For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum
permissible value normally defined as 40 percent

Soundness Objective: Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to

test weathering action, by conducting accelerated weathering test cycles.
 Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting
in a saturated solution of either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate
for 16 - 18 hours and then dried in oven at105-110 oC to a constant
weight.
 After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by
sieving out all undersized particles and weighing.
 The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with
sodium sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.

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Shape Objective: Determine if the aggregates will affect bond strength, workability and
tests stability of the mixes (Concrete or bituminous).
• Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher
workability and stability of mixes
• The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the
percentage of flaky and elongated particles in it.
 The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate
particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size.
 Elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of
particles whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than one and four-
fifth times (1.8 times or 9/5 times) their mean dimension. It is measured
on particles passing through mesh size of 63mm and retained on mesh
size of 6.3mm This test is applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm


Specific Objective: The specific gravity test helps in the identification of stone. Water
Gravity absorption gives an idea of strength of aggregate.
and water • Aggregates having more water absorption are more porous in nature and
absorption are generally considered unsuitable unless they are found to be
acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness
• The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road
construction ranges from about 2.5 to 2.9. Water absorption values
ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used
in road surfacing.
Bitumen Objective: To assess the bonding property of aggregates to bitumen
adhesion • Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided
test they are dry and free from dust.
• In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of
bituminous construction. Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate
is wet and cold. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of binder
from the coated aggregates. These problems occur when bitumen
mixture is permeable to water. Several laboratory tests are conducted to
arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an aggregate in
the presence of water.
• Static immersion test is one of the tests use whose principle to test
adhesion by immersing aggregates fully coated with binder in water
maintained at 400C temperature for 24 hours. The maximum stripping
value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

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1.4 BITUMEN
Bitumen is produced artificially from crude oil within the petroleum refining process. It is a basic
constituent of the upper layers in pavement construction. It can resist both deformation and
changes in temperature. Its binding effect eliminates the loss of material from the surface
of the pavement and prevents water penetrating the structure. Two basic types of bituminous
binder exist:

 Tar – obtained from the production of coal gas or the manufacture of coke
 Bitumen/Asphalt – obtained from the oil refining process.is a heavy, viscous material that
is semisolid at normal atmospheric temperatures

With the decreased availability of tar, bitumen is the most commonly used binding/water resisting
material for highway pavements.

The oil refining process involves petroleum crude being distilled, with various hydrocarbons being
driven off. The first stage, carried out at atmospheric pressure, involves the crude being heated
to approximately 250°C. Petrol is the most volatile of these and is driven off first, followed by
materials such as kerosene and gas oil. The remaining material is then heated at reduced
pressure to collect the diesel and lubricating oils contained within it. At the conclusion of this stage
of the process a residue remains which can be treated to produce bitumen of varying penetration
grades.

This is the material used to bind and stabilize the graded stone used in the top layers of a highway
pavement.

What are different types of bitumen?

Bitumen is classified in 5 categories as below:

Penetration Grade Bitumen: These grades of bitumen are classified due to their level of
hardness. Penetration grades of bitumen are bitumen 30/40, 60/70, 80/100, and 100/120. To
identify various grades of penetration bitumen, we enter a standard needle into our sample and
see how deep it can go within a given time.

Viscosity Grade Bitumen: These types of bitumen are the result of a highly accurate system of
classifying bitumen. After producing bitumen, we test them and measure their level of viscosity.
This testing system introduces four VG grades, including VG10, VG20, VG30, and VG40. The
higher the number, the harder the bitumen in the viscosity grading system.

Cutback Bitumen: Cutback bitumen is produced by adding solvents to bitumen, in order to

decrease the viscosity level. This procedure involves the addition of controlled amounts of p

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

petroleum extracts such as kerosene, naphtha, diesel oil, and furnace oil to bitumen. Cutback
bitumen doesn’t need heating. Bitumen

Emulsion: This type of bitumen is just like cutback bitumen, with one highly important difference.
Refinery workers reduce the viscosity of bitumen emulsions with water, not petroleum additives.
When we apply emulsions on the surface, water evaporates and the mix starts to set. As a result,
there is no need to heating the mixture.

Oxidized Bitumen: To make bitumen more resistant to temperature, we can blow air into bitumen
and produce oxidized bitumen. Known as blown bitumen, this type of bitumen is ideal for various
industrial purposes, including roof insulation, flooring, industrial mastics, pipe coating, and paints.
Modified Bitumen It is obtained when bitumen is combined with plastics like resin, ester or
synthetic resin. Modified bitumen is not heated to high temperatures, and the lighter oils are also
preserved to improve its flexibility and resistance to weathering.

1.4.1 Requirements of Bitumen

The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, Bitumen
should possess following desirable properties.

i. The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather
the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should
not become too brittle causing cracks.
ii. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be
adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by
heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
iii. There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and
aggregates used in the mix

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1.4.2 Tests on Bitumen

There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. Two of the most
prominent are the penetration test and the softening point test, both of which indirectly measure
the viscosity of a sample of bitumen. (The viscosity of a fluid slows down its ability to flow and is
of particular significance at high temperatures when the ability of the bitumen to be sprayed onto
or mixed with aggregate material is of great significance.) The following tests are usually
conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous materials.

Test Objective and Methodology

Objective The penetration test is in no way indicative of the quality of the bitumen but
Penetration it does allow the material to be classified.
Test  Involves a standard steel needle applying a vertical load of 100g to the top of
a standard sample of bitumen at a temperature of 25°C. The depth to which
the needle penetrates into the sample within a period of 5 seconds is
measured. The answer is recorded in units of 0.1mm.
 Thus, if the needle penetrates 10mm within the five second period the result
is 100 and the sample is designated as 100 pen. The lower the penetration the
more viscous and therefore the harder the sample

The Objective: The determination of softening point helps to know the temperature up to
softening which a bituminous binder should be heated for various road use applications
point test
• Involves taking a sample of bitumen which has been cast inside a 15mm
diameter metal ring and placing it inside a water bath with an initial temperature
of 5°C. A 25mm clear space exists below the sample. A 10mm steel ball is
placed on the sample and the temperature of the bath and the sample within
it is increased by 5°C per minute. As the temperature is raised, the sample
softens and therefore sags under the weight of the steel ball. A 25mm clear
space exists below the sample
 The temperature at which the weakening binder reaches the bottom of
the 25mm vertical gap below its initial position is known as its softening
point

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Ductility test Objective: The ductility test gives a measure of adhesive property of bitumen and
its ability to stretch/ undergo deformation or elongation.
 In flexible pavement design, it is necessary that binder should form a thin
ductile film around aggregates so that physical interlocking of the
aggregates is improved.
 Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample
or briquette of the material will be elongated without breaking.
 Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square.
 The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed
on a plate. These samples with moulds are cooled in the air and then in
water bath at 27oC temperature. The excess bitumen is cut and the surface
is leveled using a hot knife. Then the mould with assembly containing
sample is kept in water bath of the ductility machine for about 90 minutes.
The sides of the moulds are removed, the clips are hooked on the machine
and the machine is operated. The distance up to the point of breaking of
thread is the ductility value which is reported in cm.
 A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified

Specific Objective: In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use.
gravity test • In most cases bitumen is weighed, but when used with aggregates, the
bitumen is converted to volume using density values. The density of bitumen
is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in aromatic type
mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.
• The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given
volume of bitumen of known content to the mass of equal volume of
water at 270C. The specific gravity can be measured using either
pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid
state. The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

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Objective: conducted to determine viscosity of a fluid which is the property by

Viscosity test which it offers resistance to flow.
 Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a
measure of resistance to flow. At the application temperature, this
characteristic greatly influences the strength of resulting paving mixes.
 Low or high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been observed to
result in lower stability values. At high viscosity, it resists the comp active
effort and thereby resulting mix is heterogeneous, hence low stability values.
And at low viscosity instead of providing a uniform film over aggregates, it
will lubricate the aggregate particles.
 Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid
binders like cutbacks and emulsions. The viscosity expressed in seconds
is the time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass through the
orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions and specified
temperature. Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0
mm orifice at 250C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 400C.

Flash and fire Objective: The flash point tells the critical temperature at and above which suitable
point test precautions are required to be taken to eliminate the danger of fire during heating.
This temperature, however, is well below that at which the bitumen will burn. The
latter temperature is called the fire point.
• At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave
out volatiles. And these volatiles catch fire which is very hazardous and
therefore it is essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade.
• The flash point is the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen
momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions.
• The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified test
conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.

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Water Objective: It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent
content foaming of the bitumen when it is heated above the boiling point of water and to
test prevent that sufficient water content in bitumen is essential.
• The water in bitumen is determined by mixing known weight of specimen in
a pure petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling of the water.
The weight of the water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage
by weight of the original sample.
• The allowable maximum water content should not be more than 0.2% by
weight.

Loss on Objective: The loss on heating test measures the mass of volatile content in
heating bitumen. This amount is important in the industry, especially in the paving industry.
test A bitumen with a high amount of loss on heating will be hardened. As a result, it
becomes less flexible and brittle
• About 50gm of the sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of 1630C
for 5hours in a specified oven designed for this test. The sample specimen is
weighed again after the heating period and loss in weight is expressed as
percentage by weight of the original sample. Bitumen used in pavement mixes
should not indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but for bitumen having
penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed

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1.4.3 Surface dressing and modified binders

Surface dressing involves the application of a thin layer of bituminous binder to the surface of the
pavement slab followed by the spreading and rolling into it of single sized stone chippings. In
order to apply the binder effectively, its stiffness must be modified during the construction phase
of the pavement. Two such binder modifications used during surface dressing are cutback
bitumen and bitumen emulsion.

1.4.3.1 Cutback bitumen

Bitumen obtained from the refining process described briefly above can be blended with some of
the more volatile solvents such as kerosene or creosote to form a solution that has a viscosity far
below that of penetration grade bitumen and will act as a fluid at much lower temperatures.

 However, when the solution is exposed to the atmosphere, the volatile solvents evaporate
leaving solely the bitumen in place. Such solutions are termed cutbacks and the
process of evaporation of the volatile solvents is called curing. The speed at which
it occurs will depend on the nature of the solvent. The classification of cutbacks is based
on the following two characteristics. The viscosity of the cutback itself and the penetration
of the non-volatile residue.
 Three common grades for cutback have viscosities of 50, 100 and 200 seconds.

Cutback bitumen is used in surface dressing. In this process, it is sprayed onto a weakened road
surface and chippings are placed on it and then rolled. It serves to provide a non-skid wearing
surface to the pavement, makes the surface resistant to water and prevents its disintegration.
From the environmental point of view also cutback bitumen is preferred. The solvent from the
bituminous material will evaporate and the bitumen will bind the aggregate.

Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road construction and maintenance. The
distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen are naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and furnace
oil.

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There are different types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC), and
slow curing (SC).

 RC is recommended for surface dressing and patchwork.

 MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates.
 SC is used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates.

1.4.3.2 Bituminous emulsions

Bitumen can be made easier to handle by forming it into an emulsion where particles of it become
suspended in water. In most cases, their manufacture involves heating the bitumen and then
shredding it in a colloidal mill with a solution of hot water and an emulsifier. The particles are
imparted with an ionic charge which makes them repel each other. Within cationic emulsions the
imparted charge is positive, while the charge is negative in anionic emulsions. When the emulsion
is sprayed onto the road surface, the charged ions are attracted to opposite charges on the
surface, causing the emulsion to begin ‘breaking’ with the bitumen particles starting to coalesce
together. The breaking process is complete when the film of bitumen is continuous. Bitumen
emulsions are graded in terms of their stability or rate of break on a scale of 1 to 4, with 1 signifying
the greatest stability (stable = rapid acting). Rate of break depends on the composition of the
emulsion and the rate at which the emulsion evaporates. The grading of the aggregate onto which
the emulsion is applied is also important to the rate of break. Dirty aggregates accelerate it, as
will porous or dry road surfaces.

 Cationic emulsions tend to break more rapidly than ionic ones.

The UK code, BS 434 (BSI, 1984), also designates cationic emulsions as K and ionic as A.
Therefore, K3 denotes a slow acting cationic emulsion, K2 a medium acting one and K1 a rapid
acting one. Three types of bituminous emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting (RS),
Medium setting (MS), and Slow setting (SC).

 Rapid setting emulsions are used for surface dressing work.

 Medium setting emulsions are preferred for premix jobs and patch repairs work.
 Slow setting emulsions are preferred in rainy season.

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1.4.4 BITUMINOUS MIXTURES

A bituminous mixture is a combination of bituminous materials (as binders), properly graded
aggregates and additives. Since tar is rarely used in bituminous mixtures in recent years and
asphalt is the predominant binder material used, the term “asphalt mixture” is now more
commonly used to denote a combination of asphalt materials, aggregates and additives. Asphalt
mixtures used in pavement applications are usually classified by (1) their methods of production,
or (2) their composition and characteristics.

1.4.4.1 Classification by Method of Production

Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is produced in a hot asphalt mixing plant (or hot-mix plant) by mixing a
properly controlled amount of aggregate with a properly controlled amount of asphalt at an
elevated temperature. The mixing temperature has to be sufficiently high such that the asphalt is
fluidic enough for proper mixing with and coating the aggregate, but not too high as to avoid
excessive aging of the asphalt. A HMA mixture must be laid and compacted when the mixture is
still sufficiently hot so as to have proper workability. HMA mixtures are the most commonly used
paving material in surface and binder courses in asphalt pavements.

Cold-laid plant mix is produced in an asphalt mixing plant by mixing a controlled amount of
aggregate with a controlled amount of liquid asphalt without the application of heat. It is laid and
compacted at ambient temperature.

Mixed-in-place or road mix is produced by mixing the aggregates with the asphalt binders in
proper proportions on the road surface by means of special road mixing equipment. A medium
setting (MS) asphalt emulsion is usually used for open-graded mixtures while a slow setting (SS)
asphalt emulsion is usually used for dense-graded mixtures.

Penetration macadam is produced by a construction procedure in which layers of coarse and

uniform size aggregate are spread on the road and rolled, and sprayed with appropriate amounts
of asphalt to penetrate the aggregate. The asphalt material used may be hot asphalt cement or a
rapid setting (RS) asphalt emulsion.

1.4.4.2 Classification by Composition and Characteristics

Dense-graded HMA mixtures, which use a dense-graded aggregate and have a relatively low
air voids after placement and compaction, are commonly used as surface and binder courses in
asphalt pavements. The term Asphalt Concrete is commonly used to refer to a high-quality,
dense-graded HMA mixture. A dense graded HMA mixture with maximum aggregate size of
greater than 25 mm (1 in.) is called a large stone dense-grade HMA mix. A dense-grade HMA
mix with 100% of the aggregate particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve is called a sand mix.

Dense bitumen macadam: Dense bitumen macadam is well graded and is the most common
material used in the roadbase and basecourse of major roadways (trunk roads/motorways).

Heavy duty macadam: Heavy duty macadam is used in roadbases and basecourses for major
highways with high traffic loadings. It contains more of the finer material (filler) and uses a harder
bitumen grading (pen 50) than DBM. The result is a stiffer mixture that will provide greater
protection against cracking and deformation over the life of the pavement

Open-graded asphalt mixtures, which use an open-graded aggregate and have a relatively high
air void after placement and compaction, are used where high water permeability is desirable.
Two primary types of open-graded mixes are (1) open-graded base mix and (2) open-graded
friction course (OGFC).

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Open-graded base mixes are used to provide a strong base for an asphalt pavement as well as
rapid drainage for subsurface water. Open-graded base mixes usually use a relatively larger size
aggregate that contains very little or no fines. Due to the lower aggregate surface area, these
mixes have relatively lower asphalt content than that of a dense-graded HMA mix. Open-graded
base mixes can be produced either hot or cold in an asphalt plant.

Open-graded friction courses (OGFC) are placed on top of surface courses to improve skid
resistance and to reduce hydroplaning of the pavement surface. OGFC mixtures use aggregates
with a small proportion of fines to produce high air voids and good drainage characteristics. Even
though the voids content is higher, the asphalt film thickness is usually greater than that for a
dense-graded HMA, and thus a typical OGFC mixture has about the same or higher asphalt
content than that of a dense-graded HMA. A typical OGFC uses an aggregate of ½ in. (12.5mm)
maximum size, and is placed at a thickness of ¾ in. (19 mm).

Porous macadam: Known as porous asphalt, unlike conventional bituminous materials which
provide an impermeable layer and protect the underlying layers from the ingress of rainwater,
porous macadam is an open graded material containing a high proportion of voids whose
primary function is to allow the rapid drainage of water. The impervious nature of the lower
layers together with the camber of the road allows the rainwater to flow laterally through the
porous asphalt, thereby escaping quickly from the structure. This type of surfacing greatly
improves wheel grip on the road while also reducing water spray and substantially reducing the
general noise levels emanating from a highway. Due to its high voids content, this material is not
as durable as the more impervious macadams and should not be used in areas of particularly
high traffic loading. The bitumen in the mix can be stiffened by the addition of hydrated lime in
order to reduce the likelihood of the binder being stripped away from the aggregate

Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA), which was originally developed in Europe, was a special asphalt
mixture of improved rutting resistance and increased durability. SMA mixtures are designed to
have a high coarse aggregate content (typically 70–80%), a high binder content (typically over
6%) and high filler content (typically about 10%). Asphalts modified with polymers and/or fibers
are typically used. The improved rutting resistance of the SMA mixture is attributed to the fact that
it carries the load through the coarse aggregate matrix (or the stone matrix), as compared with a
dense-graded HMA, which carries the load through the fine aggregate. The use of polymer and/or
fiber modified asphalts, which have increased viscosity, and the use of high filler content, which
increases the stiffness of the binder, allow the SMA mixtures to have a higher binder film thickness
and higher binder content without the problem of draindown of asphalt during construction.

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1.4.4.3 Desirable Properties of Bituminous Mix

i. Stability
Enough resistance to deformation under sustained or repeated loads
ii. Durability
Resistance to disintegration by weathering or abrasive forces of traffic
iii. Flexibility
Ability of a bituminous mix to bend repeatedly without cracking and to conform to changes in
shape of the base course
iv. Skid Resistance
Offer enough resistance to the skidding of tyres
v. Impervious Layer
Should be highly impervious to water
vi. Sufficient workability for construction
vii. Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
viii. Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
ix. Economical mix

1.4.4.4 Bituminous Concrete Mix Design

The bituminous mix design aims to determine the proportion of bitumen, filler, fine aggregates,
and coarse aggregates to produce a mix which is workable, strong, durable and economical.
The requirements of the mix design and the two major stages of the mix design, i.e. dry mix
design and wet mix design will be discussed
Objectives of mix design
The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by proportionate various
components so as to have:
I. Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement,
II. Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at
higher temperature,
III. Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for
additional compaction by traffic,
IV. Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without
segregation,
V. Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated
bending by traffic, and
VI. Sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage
cracks.

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Constituents of a mix

 Coarse aggregates: Offer compressive and shear strength and shows good
interlocking properties.
E.g. Granite
 Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the binder. E.g.
Sand, Rock dust
 Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. E.g. Rock dust
 Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and gluing and offers
impermeability. E.g. Bitumen/Asphalt, Tar
Types of mix

 Well-graded mix: - Dense mix, bituminous concrete has good proportion of all
constituents and are called dense bituminous macadam, offers good compressive
strength and some tensile strength
 Gap-graded mix: - Some large coarse aggregates are missing and has good fatigue
and tensile strength.
 Open-graded mix: - Fine aggregate and filler are missing, it is porous and offers
good friction, low strength and for high speed.: Pervious macadam
 Unbounded: - Binder is absent and behaves under loads as if its components were
not linked together though good interlocking exists. Very low tensile strength and
needs kerb protection.
The design of an asphalt paving mixture usually involves selecting the aggregates, asphalt and
additives to be used, testing the asphalt mixtures at various different proportions of the ingredients,
and selecting the optimum mix design which would give the best anticipated performance in
service. Ideally, the mixtures to be tested should be prepared and compacted to as close to the
field condition as possible, so that they can be representative of the mixtures to be produced and
put in service. The properties of the mixtures to be determined should be good indicators of
performance of the mixtures in service, so that these properties can be used to determine the
acceptability of the mixtures and to select the optimum mix design to be used. A design procedure
for asphalt mixtures generally involves

(1) preparing and compacting the asphalt mixtures in the laboratory to simulate the field condition,
(2) characterizing the laboratory compacted specimens, and
(3) determining the optimum mix design based on the properties of the tested specimens and the
set criteria for these properties.
Different design methods generally differ from one another by
(1) the equipment and method used to prepare and compact the asphalt mixtures,
(2) the properties of the compacted specimens to be measured, and
(3) the criteria used for selecting acceptable and optimum mix designs.
There are four different mix design methods for dense-grade HMA mixtures, which include
x. the Marshall,
xi. Hveem
xii. Superpave and
xiii. GTM methods.
Emphasis is placed on the three main elements as described above, so that these different design
methods could be compared with one another in a more meaningful manner

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

1.4.4.5 Marshall Mix Design

The Marshall Mix Design method was originally developed by Bruce Marshall of the Mississippi
Highway Department in 1939. The main idea of the Marshall Mix Design method involves the
selection of the asphalt binder content with a suitable density which satisfies minimum stability
and range of flow values.The Marshall Test is a popular and proven method to measure the
load and flow rate of asphalt specimens, beginning with compaction into molds using manual
or automated Marshall Compactors, and conditioned in a Water Bath at the specified
temperature. The major features of Marshall method of designing mixes are to determine the
two important properties of strength and flexibility. Strength is measured in terms of the
'Marshall's Stability' of the mix which is defined as the maximum load carried by a compacted
specimen at a standard test temperature of 60 0C.
Significance of Marshall Test:
i. Comparing their resistance to deformation.
ii. To measure the load and flow rate of asphalt specimens
iii. The test procedure is used in designing and evaluating bituminous
paving mixes
iv. Strength is measured in terms of the ‘Marshall’s Stability’ of the
mix which is defined as the maximum load carried by a compacted
specimen at a standard test temperature of 600C. This is a
temperature that is the weakest condition for a bituminous
pavement in use.
v. The flexibility is measured in terms of the ‘flow value’ which is
measured by the change in diameter of the sample in the direction
of load application in the interval of the start of loading and the
time of maximum load.
vi. In this test we can mad attempt to obtain optimum binder content
for the aggregate mix type and traffic intensity.
vii. . To determine the density – voids analysis for the given
bituminous mixture;
viii. To determine the suitability of the bituminous mixture to meet the
specified criteria for the surface course

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

1.5 MATERIALS IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

A rigid pavement consists of a subgrade/subbase foundation covered by a slab constructed of
pavement quality concrete. The concrete must be of sufficient depth so as to prevent the traffic
load causing premature failure. Appropriate measures should also be taken to prevent damage
due to other causes. The proportions within the concrete mix will determine both its strength and
its resistance to climate changes and general wear. Joints in the concrete may be formed in order
to aid the resistance to tensile and compressive forces set up in the slab due to shrinkage effects.

1.5.1 Cement
Cement is manufactured by heating a mixture of limestone, iron ore, gypsum, clay and other
ingredients. Two processes, namely dry process and wet process are followed while
manufacturing cement. In the dry process, the raw materials are mixed in dry state, whereas in
the wet process raw materials are mixed in presence of water to form slurry . After pre-heating,
the raw material is passed through rotating kiln inclined with a small angle with the horizontal line.
The kiln is progressively hotter towards its lower end, where the raw material gets molten. From
this clinkers are formed when cooled, and after grinding the clinkers, cement is produced.

The Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most popular, all-purpose cement. There are various
other types of cements (for example, natural cement, Portland pozzolanic cement, high alumina
cement, expansive cement, quick setting cement, high performance cement, sulphate resistant
cement, white cement etc.) and are manufactured to serve specialized purposes. For concrete
pavement construction, OPC is most commonly used

1.5.2 Aggregates
Aggregates are naturally available pieces of rocks. The aggregates could be igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic type depending on its origin. Details are discussed above.

1.5.3 Water
Water participates in the hydration process; also it provides desirable level of workability. About
one third of the water added is utilized in the hydration process, rest forms the pores of concrete,
and thereby developing porosity to the concrete. Excess porosity reduces strength of the concrete,
and however presence of porosity is good for the situations where there is a freeze-thaw problem.

1.5.4 Concrete slab and joint details

As the strength of concrete develops with time, its 28-day value is taken for specification purposes,
though its strength at 7 days is often used as an initial guideline of the mix’s ultimate strength.
Pavement quality concrete generally has a 28-day characteristic strength of 40N/mm2, termed
C40 concrete. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is commonly used. The cement content for C40
concrete should be a minimum of 320kg/m3. Air content of up to 5% may be acceptable with a
typical maximum water cement ratio of 0.5 for C40 concrete.

The effects of temperature are such that a continuous concrete slab is likely to fail prematurely
due to induced internal stresses rather than from excessive traffic loading. If the slab is reinforced,
the effect of these induced stresses can be lessened by the addition of further reinforcement that
increases the slab’s ability to withstand them. This slab type is termed continuous reinforced
concrete (CRC). Alternatively, dividing the pavement into a series of slabs and providing
movement joints between these can permit the release and dissipation of induced stresses. This
slab type is termed jointed reinforced concrete (JRC). If the slab is jointed and not reinforced, the
slab type is termed unreinforced concrete (URC). If joints are employed, their type and location
are important factors. Joints are provided in concrete pavements for a variety of reasons.

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Typical Concrete Joints

 The contraction joints for example, are provided to relieve tensile stresses resulting from
contraction and warping of the concrete slab. Dowel bars are used for load transfer across
the joints.

 Expansion joints are provided, in the form of clear breaks in the concrete slab, to allow for
expansion. Again, dowel bars are used for load transfer across the joints.

 Construction joints mark the end of a day's construction work and are normally of the butt
type with dowel bars provided for load transfer.

 Hinge and warping joints are used to control cracking along the centreline of the concrete
pavement slab

1.5.5 Reinforcement
Reinforcement can be in the form of a prefabricated mesh or a bar-mat. The function of the
reinforcement is to limit the extent of surface cracking in order to maintain the particle
interlock within the aggregate. In order to maximise its bond with the concrete within the slab,
care must be taken to ensure that the steel is cleaned thoroughly before use. Because the
purpose of the reinforcement is to minimise cracking, it should be placed near the upper surface
of the pavement slab. A cover of approximately 60mm is usually required, though this may
be reduced slightly for thinner slabs. It is normally stopped approximately 125mm from
the edge of a slab, 100mm from a longitudinal joint and 300mm from any transverse joint.
Transverse lapping of reinforcement within a pavement slab will normally be in the order of
300mm

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LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS

1.6 OTHER ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS USED IN PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

1.6.1 Slag
Slag is an industrial by-product of metal working processes and although there are many
types of slag, the two most common are blast furnace slag and steel slag. Blast furnace slag
is considered to be a by-product rather than waste material due to its high value. Blast furnace
slag is widely used as a coarse aggregate in asphalt production.. However, their use occurs
primarily in rural areas close to the remote locations where these slags are produced, at least in
North American (University of New Hampshire, 2008). Steel slag is also considered a by-product
and is produced from the manufacture of steel from pig-iron. Similar to blast furnace slag, steel
slag is commonly used as coarse aggregate in asphalt especially in thin surface courses where it
provides good skid resistance (HA et al., 2004). It is also noted that steel slag undergoes
weathering to ensure volumetric stability before being used in pavement applications. In particular,
the weathering process involves hydration reactions of any lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO), which
can cause potential swelling of steel slag aggregate (Reid, 2011). There are numerous studies
which show that slag performs well as coarse aggregate material used in asphalt mixtures and
HBMs (Rockliff et al., 2002; Dunster, 2001.

1.6.2 Coal fly ash (CFA) / Pulverised-fuel ash (PFA)

Fly ash is extracted from the burning of coal in coal-burning power stations and, when
refined into pulverised-fuel ash (PFA), is similar in fineness to cement (HA et al., 2004).
Historically, fly ash has been used as bulk fill for highway embankments. A typical example is the
upgrading of a motorway junction outside Reading in the south of London where 85,000 tonnes
of fly ash was used in the embankments (Reid, 2011). Fly ash is a siliceous material and does
not swell when exposed to moisture. Some of the limitations of using fly ash are that it is a difficult
material to compact especially when wet, and when compared with materials such as expanded
clay, polystyrene or tyre bales, reduction in density is poor.

1.6.3 Concrete Admixtures

Admixtures are generally of two types, chemical admixture, and mineral admixture. Air
entrainer, retarder, accelerators are examples chemical admixture, and, fly ash, silica fume are
the examples of mineral admixtures. One of the important concrete admixtures used in pavement
construction is the air-entraining admixture.

 Air entraining admixtures are derived from natural wood resins, fats, sulfonated
hydrocarbons and oils etc. Air-entraining admixtures provide durability against freeze-
thaw situation.
 Plasticizers may be used for concrete pavement construction purposes which maintain
workability without having increased the water-cement ratio. Calcium chloride is also used
sometimes, as accelerating agent, which renders an early strength of concrete.

1.6.4 Lime
Lime is added to a reactive soil to generate long-term strength gain through a pozzolanic reaction
through soil stabilization. This reaction produces stable calcium silicate hydrates and calcium
aluminate hydrates as the calcium from the lime reacts with the aluminates and silicates
solubilized from the clay.

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