INTRODUCTION

Civil engineering consists of the design, construction, maintenance, inspection, and

management of diverse public works projects such as high-rise buildings, roads, railroads,
water and sanitation infrastructure etc. Their construction may be under or above ground,
offshore or inland.

Material properties

Property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific
imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material
shape and size.

Physical properties

Density, porosity, void content, moisture content, specific gravity, permeability and
structure (micro or macro).

Mechanical properties

Strength, a measure of maximum load per unit area,

Stiffness is the rigidity of an object — the extent to which it resists deformation in response
to an applied force.

Hardness is a measure of how resistant solidmatter is to various kinds of permanent shape

change when a compressive force is applied. Some materials, such as metal, are harder than
others. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds,
but the behaviour of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, there are different
measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness.

Hardness is dependent on ductility, elasticstiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness,

viscoelasticity, and viscosity.

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Chemical properties

Composition, potential reaction

Thermal properties

Coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity

Electrical properties

Electrical conductivity

Magnetic properties

Magnetic permeability

Acoustical

Sound transmission

Optical

Colour, light transition, light reflection

For each the above properties, there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of
provoking different responses;

 Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples

include elastic modulus and strength.

 For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the
stimulus is an electric field.

 The thermal behaviour of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and
thermal conductivity

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  Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a
magnetic field

 For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of

refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.

 Finally, deteriorative characteristics indicate the chemical reactivity of materials

and their mechanical response

In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in
the science and engineering of materials, viz. ‘‘processing’’ and ‘‘performance.’’ With regard
to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend on
how it is processed.

Furthermore, a material’s performance will be a function of its properties.

Thus, the interrelationship between processing, structure, properties, and performance

should be considered in totality when selecting materials for different civil engineering
purposes.

CHARECTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR UNDER STRESS

The common characteristics of building materials under stress are ductility, brittleness,
stiffness, flexibility, toughness, malleability and hardness. The ductile materials can be
drawn out without necking down, the examples being copper and wrought iron. Brittle
materials have little or no plasticity. They fail suddenly without warning. Cast iron, stone,
brick and concrete are comparatively brittle materials having a considerable amount of
plasticity. Stiff materials have a high modulus of elasticity permitting small deformation for
a given load. Flexible materials on the other hand have low modulus of elasticity and bend
considerably without breakdown. Tough materials withstand heavy shocks.

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Toughness depends upon strength and flexibility. Malleable materials can be hammered
into sheets without rupture. It depends upon ductility and softness of material. Copper is
the most malleable material. Hard materials resist scratching and denting, for example cast
iron and chrome steel. Materials resistant to abrasion such as manganese are also known
as hard materials.

MATERIAL SELECTION

Materials in civil engineering are selected primarily based on the physical and mechanical
properties.

The goal of an engineering design is to select the appropriate materials for the project.

Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many
thousands that are available.

Hence there is a need to study material so as to allow for optimal selection of materials
considering:

 Economics,
 The environment,
 Purpose of the infrastructure to be constructed and also the in-service conditions
under which the infrastructure will be used.
 Aesthetics, design life and safety aspect are other considerations that need to be
made when deciding on which material to use,
 deterioration of material properties

For confidence in selecting appropriate materials an engineer needs to be familiar with

material characteristics, structure-property relationships as well as processing techniques
of materials.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals,
ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic
structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are
some intermediates.

Civil Engineering materials

 Wood
 Cement and concrete
 Bitumen and bituminous materials
 Structural clay
 Steels
 Composites

SUMMARY

All the building structures are composed of different types of materials. These materials are
either called building materials or materials of construction. It is very essential for a
builder, may be an architect or engineer or contractor, to become conversant thoroughly
with these building materials.

The knowledge of different types of material, their properties and uses for different
purposes provides an important tool in the hands of the builders in achieving economy in
material cost. The material cost in a building ranges from about 30 to 60 percent cost of
total cost construction. In addition to material economy, the correct use of material results
in better structural strength, functional efficiency and aesthetic appearance

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STONES AND AGGREGATES

Building stones are obtained from rocks occurring in nature and classified in three ways.

1. Geological classification

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 2. Physical classification
3. Chemical classification

Geological Classification

According to this classification, the rocks are of the following types;

 Igneous rocks,
 Sedimentary rocks, and
 Metamorphic rocks.

Physical Classification

 Stratified Rocks: These rocks possess planes of stratification or cleavage and such
rocks can be easily split along these planes,
 Non stratified rocks: The structure may be crystalline granular or compact granular.
Examples: Igneous rocks and Sedimentary rocks affected by movements of the
earth.

Chemical Classification

According to this classification rocks are classified into three types;

1. Siliceous rocks: In these rocks, silica is predominates. The rocks are hard; durable
and not easily effected by weathering agencies. EG: Granite, Quartzite, etc.
2. Argillaceous Rocks: In these rocks, clay predominates. The rocks may be dense and
compact or may be soft. EG: slates, Laterites etc.

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 3. Calcareous rocks: In these rocks, calcium carbonate predominates. The durability to
these rocks will depend upon the constituents present in surrounding atmosphere.
Ex: Lime Stone, marble etc.

Uses of stones

1. Structure: Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors,
damp proof course etc.

2.Face works. Stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. Walls which
are of bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as composite
masonry.

3. Paving stones: These are used to cover floor of building of various types such as
residential, commercial, industrial etc. They are also adopted to form paving of roads, foot
paths etc.

4. Basic material: Stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for
cement concrete, morum of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.

5.Misalliances: Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii)
Blocks in the construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses, dams
etc.

Qualities of a good building stone

The following are the qualities or requirements of a good building stone;

 Crushing strength: For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be
greater than 1000kg/cm2

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  Appearance: Good building stone should be a uniform colour, and free from clay
holes, spots of other colour bands etc. capable of preserving the colour for a long
time.
 Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The factors like heat and cold
alternative wet and dry, dissolved gases in rain, high wind velocity etc. affect the
durability.
 Fracture: For good building stone its fracture should be sharp, even and clear.
 Hardness: The hardness greater than 17 is treated as hard and used in road works.
If it is between 14 to 17, it is graded as of medium hardness, if less than 14 stone is
said to be of poor hardness.
 Percentage wear: For a good building stone, the percentage wear should be equal to
or less than 3 percent.
 Resistance to fire: A good building stone be fire proof. Sandstone, Argillaceous stone
resists fire quite well
 Specific gravity: For a good building stone the specific gravity should be high in the
range of 3 or higher,
 Texture: dependent of application and generally should be free from cavities, cracks
or patches of stuff or loose material.
 Water absorption: For a good building stone, the percentage absorption by weight
after 24 hours should not exceed 0.60.
 Toughness Index: Impact test, the value of toughness less than 13 – Not tough,
between 13 and 19 – Moderate, greater than 19- high

Aggregates and their Grading:

Aggregates are derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or are
manufacture from clays, slag etc. The properties of concrete are directly related to those of
its constituents and should be hard, strong, durable, and free from clay, loam, vegetables
and other such foreign matters. The presence of clay or dirt coating prevents the adhesion

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of cement on the surface of aggregates and ultimately retards the setting and hardening of
cement and reduces the strength, durability and soundness of concrete.

Depending upon their size, the aggregates are classified as (i) Fine Aggregative (ii) coarse
aggregates.

Fine Aggregates

The material, most of when passes through 4.75mm I.S. sieve size, is termed as fine
aggregates. It should not contain more than 1 to 8% of fine particles, which may be
obtained from sea, river, lake or pit may be used as fine aggregates but care should be
taken all its impurities must be removed

Coarse Aggregates:

The material whose particles are of such size as are retained on 4.75mm, I.S sieve are called
coarse aggregates. The size of the coarse aggregates used depends upon the nature of work.
The maximum size may be 23mm for mass concrete such as dams etc. and 63mm for plain
concrete. Crushed hard stone and gravel is the common materials used as coarse
aggregates for structural concretes.

Coarse aggregates usually obtained by crashing granite, gneiss, crystalline lime stone and a
good variety of sandstone etc.

Grading of Aggregates

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Grading of aggregates consists of proportionating the fine and coarse aggregates in such a
ratio, so as to get strongest and densest mix with the least amount of binder (eg. Cement
mortar or bitumen).

Grading the aggregates is so graded as to have minimum voids when mixed with all
ingredients, and water should render a concrete mass of easy workability.

The grading of aggregates is done by the following methods

1. By trail – In this method, proportionating of aggregates as to give heaviest weight

for same volume, yield the densest concrete,
2. By finesse modules method (sieve analysis method): in this method, the samples of
both coarse and fine aggregates are passed through a set of nine standard sieves and
the percentage of sample retained on each of the said sieves is determined. The total
of these percentages divided by 100 gives the finesses modulus of sample
3. By minimum voids method: This method is based on the fact, that so obtain dense
concrete the quantity of cement should also be slightly in excess of voids more that
the fine aggregates. In this method the voids in the fine and coarse aggregates are
separately found out with the help of graduated cylinder and water.
4. By arbitrary standards: It is a commonly adopted method of propitiating the
aggregates in a concrete mix for small works of moderate importance. This method
is not recommended for large works or important works in this method, the volume
of cement, sand and coarse aggregates are taken in the proportion of 1:n:2n
respectively. The quantity of water to be used a varied suit the workability descried.

1.1 Portland Cement

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Concrete is made by Portland Cement, water and aggregates. Portland Cement is a
hydraulic cement that hardens in water to form a water-resistant compound. The
hydration products act as binder to hold the aggregates together to form concrete. The
name Portland cement comes from the fact that the colour and quality of the resulting
concrete are similar to Portland stone, a kind of limestone found in England.
1.1.1 Manufacture of Portland cement
Portland cement is made by blending the appropriate mixture of limestone and clay or
shale
together and by heating them at 1450oC in a rotary kiln. The sequence of operations is
shown in following figure. The preliminary steps are a variety of blending and crushing
operations. The raw feed must have a uniform composition and be a size fine enough so
that reactions among the components can complete in the kiln. Subsequently, the burned
clinker is ground with gypsum to form the familiar grey powder known as Portland
cement.

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The raw materials used for manufacturing Portland cement are limestone, clay and Iron
ore.

a) Limestone (CaCO3) is mainly providing calcium in the form of calcium oxide

(CaO)

CaCO3 (1000oC) → CaO + CO2

b) Clay is mainly providing silicates (SiO2) together with small amounts of Al2O3 +
Fe2O3

Clay (1450oC) → SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + H2O

c) Iron ore and Bauxite are providing additional aluminium and iron oxide (Fe2O3)
which help the formation of calcium silicates at low temperature. They are incorporated
into the raw mix.

d) The clinker is pulverized to small sizes (< 75 μm). 3-5% of gypsum (calcium
sulphate) is added to control setting and hardening.

Properties of cement
a Fineness
The reaction between water and cement starts on the surface of the cement particles and
therefore the greater the surface area of a given volume of cement, the greater the
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hydration. Fine cement will develop strength and generate more heat quickly than coarse
cement. Fine cements are more expensive. Fine cements improve cohesiveness of fresh
concrete and can be effective in reducing the risk of bleeding, but they increase the
tendency for shrinkage cracking.

b Hydration
Is the chemical combination of water and cement to produce a very hard strong binding
medium for the aggregate particles in concrete and is accompanied by the liberation of
heat. The rate of hydration depends on the C3S and C3A contents, cement fineness and
ambient conditions (temp + moisture). Temperature of concrete

is affected by size of structure, ambient conditions, type of formwork and the rate at which
concrete is placed.

c Setting and hardening (Fig. 2b)

These properties are associated with hydration. Initial set- the beginning of noticeable
stiffening in the cement paste i.e. when it begins to lose its fluidity. Final set- further
stiffening occurs as the volume of gel increases and the stage at which this is complete and
the final hardening process responsible for its strength commences is known as the final
set.
Time from the addition of water to the initial and final set are known as setting times.
Setting is the stiffening of the concrete after it has been placed. Hardening may continue for
weeks or months after the concrete has been mixed and placed.

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d Flash set
Takes place in cement with insufficient gypsum to control the rapid reaction of C3A with
water. This can be overcome by adding more water and re-agitating the mix. However,
more water means decrease in strength.

e Strength
This is evident in hardened cement and tests are carried out on concrete and mortar and
not on the cement itself to determine the strength.

f Soundness
An excessive change in volume particularly expansion of cement paste after setting
indicates that the cement is unsound. This unsoundness may result in cracking and
disintegration of the concrete surface. Le Chatelier’s apparatus are used to measure this

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property. Cement paste is placed in a mould and left in water at room temperature for 24
hours and the gap between apparatus measured. The set is then boiled for 30min and the
gap between apparatus measured. The difference should be ≤ 10mm.

CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, sand, and gravel. By volume, 10 to 15% of concrete
is cement. As concrete hardens, the mixture becomes stronger. The hardening process can
take years. Concrete has the ability to withstand the pressure of heavy loads because it has
high compression strength. It can also be moulded into any shape, can be made porous or
watertight, and is a relatively cheap material for use in construction projects.
Properties of Water
Should be of good quality. Tap water is preferred (see your class notes)
Aggregates:
Are used as filler in concrete; improves volume stability and durability of the resulting
concrete and should be relatively inert.
Should be durable and not react with cement paste. Soundness of aggregate: is the ability
of aggregate to resist excessive changes in volume as a result of the changes in physical
conditions, such as freezing and thawing, thermal changes and temperature above freezing
and alternating wetting and drying. If the aggregate in concrete is weak, the concrete will
also be weak. Rocks with low strength, such as chalk, are clearly unsuitable for use as
aggregate. Aggregate paste bond: The compactness of the bond between the paste and the
aggregate is critical. If there is no bond, the aggregate effectively represents a void & voids
are a source of weakness in concrete (see your class notes).
Types of aggregates:
Normal aggregates: suitable for most purposes and produce concrete with a density of
2300-2500kg/m3. They are from crushed stone, sand and gravel deposits formed by
alluvial or glacial action. Sand and gravel should be washed to remove impurities such as
clay and silt. River and marine aggregates should be checked for chloride content.
Sandstone aggregates produce concretes with a high drying shrinkage because of their high

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porosity. Blast furnace aggregates improve fire resistance as well as broken-brick
aggregates; although these should not be used in normal concrete if their soluble sulphate
content exceeds 1%.
Lightweight aggregates (e.g. sintered shale, foamed slag, expanded clay, sintered
pulverised-fuel ash): used in insulating screeds, reinforced concrete or prestressed
concrete, but mainly used in precast concrete blocks. Such concretes have good ire
resistance properties. Highly porous (moisture content vary), hence should be batched by
volume. Bulk densities vary from 350-850 kg/m3 for coarse aggregates to 750-1100kg/m3
for fine aggregates.

Basic Characteristics of aggregates

Aggregates should be strong, resistant to deformation, durable, tough, hard, resistant to
volume change. Also important are relative density and chemical reactivity.
Strength of aggregate becomes more important when its compressive strength is less than
or of the same order as the design strength of concrete.
Deformation: the modulus of elasticity of concrete increases with increasing aggregate
modulus.
Aggregate toughness: is its resistance to failure by impact. Hardness is the resistance of an
aggregate to wear. Toughness (resistance of aggregate to failure by impact) and hardness
(resistance to wear) properties are important for concrete used in road pavements.
Volume changes may result in shrinkage of the concrete and therefore aggregate must
resist these.
Aggregate porosity: affect strength and water absorption and permeability of the aggregate.
Aggregates occupy ¾ of concrete; hence its quality is important. Aggregate is cheaper than
cement, therefore, it is economical to put more of it into the mix.
Particle shape and texture: Roundness measures the relative sharpness or angularity of the
edges and corners of a particle. Shape and surface texture of aggregate influence strength
of concrete. The flexural strength is more affected than the compressive strength. A rough
texture results in greater adhesive force between the particles and the cement matrix.
Shape and texture affect water requirement of the mix made with a given aggregate.
Flakiness and shape of coarse aggregates affect concrete workability.
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A rough surface of crushed stone results in a better bond, usually obtained with softer
porous aggregates.

Specific gravity: important in construction of gravity dam, where minimum density of

concrete is essential for the stability of the structure.
Bulk density: when aggregates are batched by volume, it is necessary to know the weight of
aggregate that should fill a container of unit volume. This is known as the bulk density of
aggregate. This density is used to convert quantities by weight to quantities by volume. It
depends on the material of a given specific gravity, on the size distribution and shape of the
particles. Particles of one size can be packed to a limited extent but smaller particles can be
added in the voids between the larger particles thus increasing the bulk density of the
packed material. Shape of the particles greatly affects the closeness’ of packing that can be
achieved.

Moisture content of aggregates: if no water movement into the aggregate is to take place,
the pores must be full of water i.e. aggregate must be in a saturated condition. Any water on
the surface of the aggregate will contribute to the water in the mix and will occupy volume
in excess of that of the aggregate particles (saturated and dry surface aggregates).
Adsorption represents the water contained in aggregates in a saturated and surface-dry
condition, and the moisture content is the water in excess of that state. The total water
content of a moist aggregate is equal to the sum of absorption and moisture content.

Bulking of sand: the presence of moisture in aggregate necessitates correction of the actual
mix proportions: the weight of water added to the mix has to be decreased by the weight of
the free moisture in the aggregate and the weight of the aggregate must be increased a
similar amount.
Sand bulking: is increase in volume of a given weight of sand caused by films of water
pushing the sand particles apart. Bulking does not affect proportioning of materials by
weight. In the case of volume batching, bulking results in a smaller weight of sand
occupying the fixed volume of the measuring box. Hence, the mix becomes deficient in sand

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and appears ‘stony’, and the concrete may be prone to segregation and honeycombing. The
yield of concrete is reduced.

Deleterious substances in aggregate: these are impurities which interfere with the
process of cement hydration or coatings which prevent the development of good bond
between aggregate and cement paste or certain individual particles which are weak or
unsound in themselves. Chemical reactions between the aggregate and cement paste can
also be harmful.
Organic impurities: they interfere with the chemical reactions of hydration; decay and leave
voids.
Clay and other fine products (silt and crusher dust)
Salt contamination: salt absorbs water from air and cause efflorescence (slightly white
deposits on the surface of the concrete). A slight corrosion of the reinforcement may also
result.
Unsound particles: there are two types, those that fail to maintain their integrity and those
that lead to disruptive expansion on freezing or even exposure to water. Shale and other
particles of low density are regarded as unsound and so are soft inclusions, such as clay
lumps, wood and coal, as they lead to pitting and scaling adversely affecting concrete
strength. Coal, in addition of being a soft inclusion, it can swell causing disruption of
concrete and if present in large quantities in a finely divided form, it can disturb the
process of hardening of cement paste. Presence of iron pyrites and marcasite cause surface
staining of concrete and disruption of the cement paste as these sulphides react with water
and oxygen in the air.

Alkali-aggregate reaction: the most common reaction is between active silica

constituents of the aggregate and the alkalis (Na2O and K2O) in cement. The product of
silica and alkali reaction has a tendency to expand, leading to cracking.
Alkali-Carbonate reaction: Another type of deleterious aggregate reaction between some
dolomite limestone aggregates and alkalis in cement. Expansion of concrete, similar to that
occurring as a result of alkali-aggregate reaction takes place under humid conditions.

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Cracking develops and leads to a network of cracks and a loss of bond between the
aggregates and the cement paste.

Thermal properties of aggregates

These are coefficient of thermal expansion, specific heat and conductivity. The last two are
important in mass concrete or where insulation is required, but not in ordinary structural
work. If the coefficients of thermal expansion of the coarse aggregate and the cement paste
differ too much, a large change in temperature may introduce differential movement and a
break in the bond between aggregates and surrounding paste.

Fresh Concrete
There are two sets of criteria that we must consider when making concrete;
1) Long-term requirements of hardened concrete, such as, strength, durability, and volume
stability,
2) Short-term requirements, like workability. However, these two requirements are not
necessarily complementary.
For fresh concrete to be acceptable, it should:
1. Be easily mixed and transported.
2. Be uniform throughout a given batch and between batches.
3. Be of a consistency so that it can fill completely the forms for which it was
designed.
4. Have the ability to be compacted without excessive loss of energy.
5. Not segregate during placing and consolidation.
6. Have good finishing characteristics.

Workability
All the characteristics above describe many different aspects of concrete behavior. The
term workability is used to represent all the qualities mentioned. Workability is often

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defined in terms of the amount of mechanical energy, or work, required to fully compact
concrete without segregation. This is important since the final strength is a function of
compaction.

Factors Affecting Workability

1. Water Content of the Mix -- This is the single most important fact or governing
workability of concrete. A group of particles requires a certain amount of water.
Water is absorbed on the particle surface, in the volumes between particles, and
provides "lubrication" to help the particles move past one another more easily.
Therefore, finer particles, necessary for plastic behaviour, require more water. Some
side-effects of increased water are loss of strength and possible segregation.
2. Influence of Aggregate Mix Proportions -- Increasing the proportion of aggregates
relative to the cement will decrease the workability of the concrete. Also, any
additional fines will require more cement in the mix. An "over sanded" mix will be
permeable and less economical. A concrete deficient of fines will be difficult to finish
and prone to segregation.
3. Aggregate Properties -- The ratio of coarse/fine aggregate is not the only factor
affecting workability. The gradation and particle size of sands are important. Shape
and texture of aggregate will also affect workability. Spherical shaped particles will
not have the interaction problems associated with more angular particles. Also,
spherical shapes have a low surface/volume ratio, therefore, less cement will be
required to coat each particle and more will be available to contribute to the
workability of the concrete. Aggregate which is porous will absorb more water
leaving less to provide workability. It is important to distinguish between total
water content, which includes absorbed water, and free water which is available for
improving workability.
4. Time and Temperature -- In general, increasing temperature will cause an
increase in the rate of hydration and evaporation. Both of these effects lead to a loss
of workability.

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 5. Loss of Workability -- Workability will decrease with time due to several factors;
continued slow hydration of C3S and C3A during dormant period, loss of water
through evaporation and absorption, increased particle interaction due to the
formation of hydration products on the particle surface. Loss of workability is
measured as "slump loss" with time.
6. Cement Characteristics -- Cement characteristics are less important than
aggregate properties in determining workability. However, the increased fineness of
rapid-hardening cements will result in rapid hydration and increased water
requirements, both of which reduce workability.
7. Admixtures -- In general, air-entraining, water-reducing, and set-retarding
admixtures will all improve workability. However, some chemical admixtures will
react differently with cements and aggregates and may result in reduced
workability.

Segregation and Bleeding

Segregation refers to a separation of the components of fresh concrete, resulting in a non-
uniform mix. This can be seen as a separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar, caused
from either the settling of heavy aggregate to the bottom or the separation of the aggregate
from the mix due to improper placement.
Some factors that increase segregation are:
1. Larger maximum particle size (25mm) and proportion of the larger particles.
2. High specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
3. Decrease in the amount of fine particles.
4. Particle shape and texture.
5. Water/cement ratio.
Good handling and placement techniques are most important in prevention of segregation.

Bleeding is defined as the appearance of water on the surface of concrete after it has
consolidated but before it is set. Since mixing water is the lightest component of the
concrete, this is a special form of segregation. Bleeding is generally the result of aggregates

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settling into the mix and releasing their mixing water. Some bleeding is normal for good
concrete.
However, if bleeding becomes too localized, channels will form resulting in "craters". The
upper layers will become too rich in cement with a high w/c ratio causing a weak, porous
structure. Salt may crystalize on the surface which will affect bonding with additional lifts
of concrete. This formation should always be removed by brushing and washing the
surface. Also, water pockets may form under large aggregates and reinforcing bars
reducing the bond.
Bleeding may be reduced by:
1. Increasing cement fineness.
2. Increasing the rate of hydration.
3. Using air-entraining admixtures.
4. Reducing the water content.

Measurement of Workability
Workability, a term applied to many concrete properties, can be adequately measured by
three characteristics:
1. Compatibility, the ease with which the concrete can be compacted and air void
removed.
2. Mobility, ease with which concrete can flow into forms and around reinforcement.
3. Stability, ability for concrete to remain stable and homogeneous during handling
and vibration without excessive segregation.

Different empirical measurements of workability have been developed over the years.
None of these tests measure workability in terms of the fundamental properties of
concrete. However, the following tests have been developed:
 Subjective Assessment -- The oldest way of measuring workability based on the
judgement and experience of the engineer. Unfortunately, different people see things, in
this case concrete, differently.

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 Slump Test -- The oldest, most widely used test for determining workability. The
device is a hollow cone-shaped mould. The mould is filled in three layers of each volume.
Each layer is rodded with a 16mm steel rod 25 times. The mould is then lifted away and the
change in the height of the concrete is measured against the mould. The slump test is a
measure of the resistance of concrete to flow under its own weight. There are three
classifications of slump; "true" slump, shear slump, and collapse slump. True slump is a
general reduction in height of the mass without any breaking up. Shear slump indicates a
lack of cohesion, tends to occur in harsh mixes. This type of result implies the concrete is
not suitable for placement. Collapse slump generally indicates a very wet mix. With
different aggregates or mix properties, the same slump can be measured for very different
concretes.
 Compaction Test -- Concrete strength is proportional to its relative density. A test
to determine the compaction factor was developed in 1947. It involves dropping a volume
of concrete from one hopper to another and measuring the volume of concrete in the final
hopper to that of a fully compacted volume. This test is difficult to run in the field and is not
practical for large aggregates (over 1 in.).
 Flow Test -- Measures a concretes ability to flow under vibration and provides
information on its tendency to segregate. There are a number of tests available but none
are recognized by ASTM. However, the flow table test described for mortar flows is
occasionally used.
 Remoulding Test -- Developed to measure the work required to cause concrete not
only to flow but also to conform to a new shape.
 Vebe Test - A standard slump cone is cast, the mould removed, and a transparent
disk placed on top of the cone. The sample is then vibrated till the disk is completely
covered with mortar. The time required for this is called the Vebe time.
 Thaulow Drop Table - Similar to the Vebe test except a cylinder of concrete is
remoulded on a drop table. The number of drops to achieve this remoulding is counted.

 Penetration Test -- A measure of the penetration of some indenter into concrete. Only
the Kelly ball penetration test is included in the ASTM Standards. The Kelly ball

24
 penetration test measures the penetration of a 14kg hemisphere into fresh concrete.
This test can be performed on concrete in a buggy, open truck, or in form if they are not
too narrow. It can be compared to the slump test for a measure of concrete consistency.

Setting of Concrete
Setting is defined as the onset of rigidity in fresh concrete. Hardening is the development of
useable and measurable strength; setting precedes hardening. Both are gradual changes
controlled by hydration. Fresh concrete will lose measurable slump before initial set and
measurable strength will be achieved after final set.
Setting is controlled by the hydration of C3S. The period of good workability is during the
dormant period, (stage 2). Initial set corresponds to the beginning of stage 3, a period of
rapid hydration. Final set is the midpoint of this acceleration phase. A rapid increase in
temperature is associated with stage 3 hydration, with a maximum rate at final set.
If large amounts of ettringite (a hydrous calcium aluminate sulphate mineral) rapidly form
from C3A hydration, the setting times will be reduced. Cements with high percentages of
C3A, such as expansive or set-regulated cements, are entirely controlled by ettringite
formation.

Abnormal Setting Behaviour

1. False Set -- Early stiffening of concrete, fluidity may be restored by remixing.
Basically, it is a result of hydration of dehydrated gypsum, which forms rigid crystals.
Because there are few of these crystals and they are weak, the matrix can be destroyed by
remixing. Accelerated hydration of C3A will cause rapid development of ettringite and false
set.

2. Flash Set -- Stiffening of concrete due to the rapid development of large quantities
of C3A hydration products which cannot be returned to a fluid state with mixing. This is
generally no longer a problem since the introduction of gypsum to control C3A hydration.
However, some admixtures will increase C3A hydration and flash set may be a problem.

Tests of Fresh Concrete

25
 1. They permit some estimation of the subsequent behaviour of the hardened
concrete.
2. Changes in the properties of fresh concrete imply that the concrete mix is
changing, so that some action can be taken if necessary.

Concrete is a composite material made from cement, aggregate, water, and admixtures. The
variation of these components both in quality and quantity directly affects the resulting
mix. When sampling fresh concrete for testing, it is important to take samples from various
locations or several points during the discharge of the concrete. Samples should not have
contacted forms or subgrade, and collection should be done in such a way that no
segregation occurs.

 Time of Setting -- A penetration test, used to help regulate the times of mixing and
transit, gauges the effectiveness of various set-controlling admixtures, and help plan
finishing operations. The test is performed on the mortar faction, the amount of concrete
passing a No. 4 sieve, of the concrete rodded into a container.
 Air Content -- These tests measure the total air content, entrained air plus
entrapped air expressed in terms of the volume of concrete.
 Gravimetric Method -- Compares the weight of a concrete containing air to that of
a computed air-free concrete.

 Volumetric Method -- Compares the volume of fresh concrete containing air with a
volume of the same concrete after the air has be expelled by agitating the concrete under
water. Difficult to measure in the field and required a large amount of physical effort.
 Pressure Method -- The most common field measurement for air content.
Compares the change in volume of a concrete under a given pressure. This change in
volume is caused entirely by the compression of air in the concrete, both in the cement and
the aggregate.
*** All these tests give no information about the spacing of the voids. They only measure
the total air content of the concrete.

26
Unit Weight and Yield
The unit weight of fresh concrete can be determined by weighing a known volume. This is
usually performed just before air content is determined since there is known volume
concrete. The volume of a batch of concrete can be determined from the following
relationship:

Where, w is the weight of the concrete components, including water.

Hardened Concrete

Strength of hardened concrete

Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. The failure of
concrete is due to cracking. Under direct tension, concrete failure is due to the propagation
of a single major crack. In compression, failure involves the propagation of a large number
of cracks, leading to a mode of disintegration commonly referred to as ‘crushing’.
The strength is the property generally specified in construction design and quality control,
for the following reasons:
(1) It is relatively easy to measure, and
(2) Other properties are related to the strength and can be deduced from strength data.
The 28-day compressive strength of concrete determined by a standard uniaxial
compression test is accepted universally as a general index of concrete strength.

Compressive strength and corresponding tests

(a) Failure mechanism

27
a. At about 25-30% of the ultimate strength, random cracking (usually in transition zone
around large aggregates) are observed

b. At about 50% of ultimate strength, cracks grow stably from transition zone into paste.
Also, micro cracks start to develop in the paste.

c. At about 75% of the ultimate strength, paste cracks and bond cracks start to join
together, forming major cracks. The major cracks keep growing while smaller cracks tend
to close.

d. At the ultimate load, failure occurs when the major cracks link up along the vertical
direction and split the specimen

The development of the vertical cracks results in expansion of concrete in the lateral
directions. If concrete is confined (i.e., it is not allowed to expand freely in the lateral
directions), growth of the vertical cracks will be resisted. The strength is hence increased,
together with an increase in failure strain. In the design of concrete columns, steel stirrups
are placed around the vertical reinforcing steel. They serve to prevent the lateral
displacement of the interior concrete and hence increase the concrete strength. In
composite construction (steel + reinforced concrete), steel tubes are often used to encase
reinforced concrete columns. The tube is very effective in providing the confinement.
The above figure illustrates the case when the concrete member is under ideal uniaxial
loading. In reality, when we are running a compressive test, friction exists at the top and
bottom surfaces of a concrete specimen, to prevent the lateral movement of the specimen.
As a result, confining stresses are generated around the two ends of the specimen. If the

28
specimen has a low aspect ratio (in terms of height vs width), such as a cube (aspect ratio =
1.0), the confining stresses will increase the apparent strength of the material. For a
cylinder with aspect ratio beyond 2.0, the confining effect is not too significant at the
middle of the specimen (where failure occurs). The strength obtained from a cylinder is
hence closer to the actual uniaxial strength of concrete. Note that in a cylinder test, the
cracks propagate vertically in the middle of the specimen. When they get close to the ends,
due to the confining stresses, they propagate in an inclined direction, leading to the
formation of two cones at the ends.

(b) Specimen for compressive strength determination

The cube specimen is popular in U.K. and Europe while the cylinder specimen is commonly
used in the U.S.

i. Cube specimen

29
BS 1881: Part 108: 1983. Filling in 3 layers with 50 mm for each layer (2 layers for 100 mm
cube). Strokes 35 times for 150 mm cube and 25 times for 100 mm cube. Curing at 20±50C
and 90% relative humility.

ii. Cylinder specimen

ASTM C470-81. Standard cylinder size is 150 x 300 mm. Curing condition is temperature of
23±1.70C and moist condition. Grinding or capping is needed to provide level and smooth
compression surface.

(c) Factors influencing experiment results

(i) End condition. Due to influence of platen restraint, cube's apparent strength is about
1.15 times of cylinders. In assessing report on concrete strength, it is IMPORTANT to know
which type of specimen has been employed.
(ii) Loading rate. The faster the load rate, the higher the ultimate load obtained. The
standard load rate is 0.15 -0.34 MPa / s for ASTM and 0.2-0.4 MPa/s for BS.
(iii)Size effect: The probability of having larger defects (such as voids and cracks) increases
with size. Thus smaller size specimen will give higher apparent strength. Standard
specimen size is mentioned above. Test results for small size specimen needs to be
modified.

Read and make notes about the following strengths and the test for measuring the
different strengths

(a) Compressive strength

(b) Tensile strength
(c) Flexural strength
(d) Shear strength
(e) Bond strength
Dimensional stability--Shrinkage and creep
Dimensional stability of a construction material refers to its dimensional change over a
long period of time. If the change is so small that it will not cause any structural problems,

30
the material is dimensionally stable. For concrete, drying shrinkage and creep are two
phenomena that compromise its dimensional stability.
Shrinkage and creep are often discussed together because they are both governed by the
deformation of hydrated cement paste within concrete. The aggregate in concrete does not
shrink or creep, and they serve to restrain the deformation.
Drying shrinkage
After concrete has been cured and begins to dry, the excessive water that has not reacted
with the cement will begin to migrate from the interior of the concrete mass to the surface.
As the moisture evaporates, the concrete volume shrinks. The loss of moisture from the
concrete varies with distance from the surface. The shortening per unit length associated
with the reduction in volume due to moisture loss is termed the shrinkage. Shrinkage is
sensitive to the relative humidity. For higher relative humidity, there is less evaporation
and hence reduced shrinkage. When concrete is exposed to 100% relative humidity or
submerged in water, it will actually swell slightly.
Shrinkage can create stress inside concrete. Because concrete adjacent to the surface of a
member dries more rapidly than the interior, shrinkage strains are initially larger near the
surface than in the interior. As a result of the differential shrinkage, a set of internal self-
balancing forces, i.e. compression in the interior and tension on the outside, is set up.

In additional to the self-balancing stresses set up by differential shrinkage, the overall

shrinkage creates stresses if members are restrained in the direction along which
shrinkage occurs. If the tensile stress induced by restrained shrinkage exceeds the tensile
strength of concrete, cracking will take place in the restrained structural element. If
shrinkage cracks are not properly controlled, they permit the passage of water, expose
steel reinforcements to the atmosphere, reduce shear strength of the member and are bad
for appearance of the structure. Shrinkage cracking is often controlled with the
incorporation of sufficient reinforcing steel, or the provision of joints to allow movement.
After drying shrinkage occurs, if the concrete member is allowed to absorb water, only part
of the shrinkage is reversible. This is because water is lost from the capillary pores, the gel
pores (i.e., the pore within the C-S-H), as well as the space between the C-S-H layers. The
water lost from the capillary and gel pores can be easily replenished. However, once water
31
is lost from the interlayer space, the bond between the layers becomes stronger as they get
closer to one another. On wetting, it is more difficult for water to re-enter. As a result, part
of the shrinkage is irreversible.

The magnitude of the ultimate shrinkage is primarily a function of initial water content of
the concrete and the relative humidity of the surrounding environment. For the same w/c
ratio, with

increasing aggregate content, shrinkage is reduced. For concrete with fixed

aggregate/cement ratio, as the w/c ratio increases, the cement becomes more porous and
can hold more water. Its ultimate shrinkage is hence also higher. If a stiffer aggregate is
used, shrinkage is reduced.
The shrinkage strain, εsh, is time dependent. Approximately 90% of the ultimate shrinkage
occurs during the first year.
Both the rate at which shrinkage occurs and the magnitude of the total shrinkage increase
as the ratio of surface to volume increases. This is because the larger the surface area, the
more rapidly moisture can evaporate.
The value of shrinkage strain (after one year) for plain concrete members appears to lie
between 0.0004 and 0.0007 (although value as high as 0.0009 has been reported). For
reinforced concrete members, the shrinkage strain values are reduced, as reinforcement is
helpful in reducing shrinkage.

Creep
Creep is defined as the time-dependent deformation under a constant load. Water
movement under stress is a major mechanism leading to creeping of concrete. As a result,

32
factors affecting shrinkage also affect creep in a similar way. Besides moisture movement,
there is evidence that creep may also be due to time-dependent formation and propagation
of microcracks, as well as microstructural adjustment under high stresses (where stress
concentration exists). These mechanisms, together with water loss from the gel interlayer,
lead to irreversible creep. Creeping develops rapidly at the beginning and gradually
decreases with time. Approximately 75% of ultimate creep occurs during the first year. The
ultimate creep strain (after 20 years) can be 3-6 times the elastic strain.

Creep can influence reinforced concrete in the following aspects.

i). Due to the delayed effects of creep, the long-term deflection of a beam can be 2-3 times
larger than the initial deflection.
ii). Creeping results in the reduction of stress in pre-stressed concrete which can lead to
increased cracking and deflection under service load.
iii). In a R.C column supporting a constant load, creep can cause the initial stress in the steel
to double or triple with time because steel is non-creeping and thus take over the force
reduced in concrete due to creep.
Creep is significantly influenced by the stress level. For concrete stress less than 50% of its
strength, creep is linear with stress. In this case, the burger’s body, which is a combination
of Maxwell and Kelvin models, is a reasonable representation of creep behaviour. For stress
more than 50% of the strength, the creep is a nonlinear function of stress, and linear
viscoelastic models are no longer applicable. For stress level higher than 75-80% of
strength, creep rupture can occur. It is therefore very important to keep in mind that in the
design of concrete column, 0.8 fc is taken to be the strength limit.

Factors affecting Creep of concrete

a) w/c ratio: The higher the w/c ratio, the higher is the creep.
b) Aggregate stiffness (elastic modulus): The stiffer the aggregate, the smaller the creep.
c) Aggregate fraction: higher aggregate fraction leads to reduced creep.

33
d) Theoretical thickness: The theoretical thickness is defined as the ratio of section area to
the semi-perimeter in contact with the atmosphere. Higher the theoretical thickness,
smaller the creep and shrinkage.
e) Temperature: with increasing temperature, both the rate of creep and the ultimate creep
increase. This is due to the increase in diffusion rate with temperature, as well as the
removal of more water at a higher temperature.
f) Humidity: with higher humidity in the air, there is less exchange of moisture between the
concrete and the surrounding environment. The amount of creep is hence reduced.
g) Age of concrete at loading: The creep strain at a given time after the application of
loading is lower if loading is applied to concrete at a higher age. For example, if the same
loading is applied to 14day and 56day concrete (of the same mix), and creep strain is
measured at 28and 70days respectively (i.e., 14 days after load application), the 56day
concrete is found to creep less. This is because the hydration reaction has progressed to a
greater extent in the 56day concrete. With less capillary pores to hold water, creep is
reduced.

TIMBER

34
INTRODUCTION

Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and branches
ofa tree. It can also be defined as a natural polymeric material which practically does not
age.Wood as a building material falls in two major classes—natural and man-made. With
theadvances in science and technology, wood in its natural form as timber, lumber, etc. is
beingrapidly replaced by composite wood materials in which natural wood is just a basic
ingredientof a matrix or a laminate. The latter are found to be more useful and adaptable as
they may betreated chemically, thermally or otherwise as per requirements. Some
examples are plywood,fibreboards, chipboards, compressed wood, impregnated wood, etc.
Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred over many other building
materials. It is easily available (this won’t be true after some years) and easy to transport
and handle, hasmore thermal insulation, sound absorption and electrical resistance as
compared to steel andconcrete. It is the ideal material to be used in sea water. Wood is a
good absorber of shocksand so is suitable for construction work in hilly areas which are
more prone to earthquakes.Finally, since wood can be easily worked, repairs and
alterations to wood work can also bedone easily.
Owing to the above mentioned advantages, wood is very widely used in buildings as doors,
windows, frames, temporary partition walls, etc. and in roof trusses and ceilings apart from
formwork.

CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
Trees are classified as endogenous and exogenous according to the mode of growth.

Endogenous Trees
Trees grow endwards, e.g. palm, bamboo, etc.

Exogenous Trees

35
Trees grow outwards and are used for making structural elements. They are further
subdivided
as conifers and deciduous.

Conifers are evergreen trees having pointed needle like leaves, e.g. deodar, chir, fir, kail,
pine
and larch. They show distinct annual rings, have straight fibres and are soft with pine as an
exception, light in colour, resinous and light weight.

Deciduous trees have flat board leaves, e.g. oak, teak, shishum, poplar and maple. The
annual rings are indistinct with exception of poplar and bass wood, they yield hard wood
and are nonresinous, dark in colour and heavy weight.

Growth of Trees

In spring the roots of the tree suck sap as food from the soil which reaches the branches
and theleaves. Sap contains moisture which gets evaporated. It absorbs carbon from air in
presence ofsunlight and becomes denser. In autumn, the sap descends and deposits in the
form of a layerbelow the bark. This layer, referred to as the cambium layer, hardens and
adds a layer of woodto the outside of tree every year in the form of concentric rings. These
annual rings furnishvaluable information regarding the age of the log, the rapidity and the
uniformity of its growth.

Difference Between soft-wood and hard-wood

36
Generally, the rings are widest at the centre and narrower nearer the bark. Also, the rings
arewidest at the bottom in young, thrifty trees and near the top in old ones. The cells
formed in the cambium layer are primarily cellulose and are commonly referred to as fibres
because of theirneedle-like shape. They are cemented into groups by lignin, which gives the
strength to wood.
The comparative width of annual rings, the direction and the arrangement of the cells and
fibres are the causes of the grains of the wood. Rapidly growing trees having wide annual
ringsproduce coarse grained wood, while those of slower growth produce wood with
narrow ringsor fine grain. The wood is said to be straight-grained when the wood elements
are straight andrun parallel to the pith and cross-grained when the elements do not run
parallel to the axis.
Cross-grain has a pronounced weakening effect on the strength of beams when the slope of
thegrains is 1:15 or greater.
Timber should be felled as soon as it is matured. The best time is midsummer or
midwinter,when the sap is at rest. If it is felled, when the sap is vigorous in movement, the
timber decays.
If the tree is cut young, it yields soft wood and if it stands too long, the decay starts.

37
STRUCTURE OF TIMBER
A tree can be divided into three portions, crown—composed of branches and leaves, trunk,
androots. The trunk accounts for about 80 per cent of the total bulk of wood.
Figure 4.1 shows the structure of well grown timber from trunk of the exogenous tree. The
structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small magnification is called macro
structure, andthat apparent only at great magnifications, the micro structure. Macro
structure of the timbercan be studied by cutting the trunk in three directions (Fig. 4.1 (a)).
In the cross-sectional andradial ducts, the following main parts of a tree, e.g. bark,
cambium, sap wood, heart wood andpith, become readily apparent (Fig. 4.1(b)). Each of the
components has a specific function. Thebark protects the wood against mechanical damage.
Its inner layer, called bast conveys thenutrients from the crown downwards and stores
them. The function of cambium is to growwood cells on the inside and smaller bast cells on
the outside. The sapwood assists in the lifeprocess of tree by storing up starch and
conducting sap. The cells in the sap wood are active.
The heart wood gives a strong and firm support to the tree. With the growth of tree, the
cellsin the inner older portion of trunk gradually become inactive and lifeless, but do not
decay. This portion of the trunk is called heart wood. At the centre of the cross-section is
the pith, asmall area occupied by friable tissues consisting of thin walled, loosely connected
cells called pith.

In a felled tree, it easily crumbles and rots. In the cross-sectional direction, nutrients pass

38
from bast to the heart through groups of cells running at right angles to the cambium layers
and are referred to as medullary rays.

Characteristics of good timber

The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength, durability and finished
appearance.
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.
2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight.
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.

Seasoning of Timber
Timber cut from freshly felled trees is too wet for normal use and is dimensionally
unsuitable.
Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture content (drying) of timber in order to
prevent the timber from possible fermentation and making it suitable for use. It can also be
defined as the process of drying the wood to a moisture content approximately equal to the
average humidity of the surroundings, where it is to be permanently fixed. Very rapid
seasoning
after removal of bark should be avoided since it causes case hardening and thus increases
resistance to penetration of preservatives. Some of the objects of seasoning wood are as
follows:
1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in structure.
2. Increase strength, durability and workability.
39
3. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
4. Make it suitable for painting.
5. Reduce its weight.

Methods of Seasoning
Timber can be seasoned naturally or artificially.

Natural Air Seasoning

The log of wood is sawninto planks of convenient sizes and stacked under acovered shed in
cross-wise direction in alternate layers(Fig. 4.2) so as to permit free circulation of air.
Theduration for drying depends upon the type of woodand the size of planks. The rate of
drying is however very slow. Air seasoning reduces themoisture content of the wood to 12–
15 per cent. It is used very extensively in drying ties andthe large size structural timbers.

Artificial Seasoning
The prevalent methods of artificial seasoning are as follows:
Water Seasoning: The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in running stream of
water,with their larger ends pointing upstream. Consequently, the sap, sugar, and gum are
leachedout and are replaced by water. The logs are then kept out in air to dry. It is a quick
process butthe elastic properties and strength of the wood are reduced.
Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of steam spray is a very quick but
expensiveprocess of seasoning.

40
Kiln Seasoning is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on large scale to any moisture
content.The scantlings are arranged for free circulation of heated air with some moisture
or superheatedsteam. The circulating air takes up moisture required from wood and
seasons it. Two types ofkilns, the progressive (Fig. 4.3 (a)) and the compartment (Fig. 4.3
(b)) are in use. For most

41
successful kiln-seasoning the timber should be brought to as high a temperature as it will
standwithout injury before drying is begun; otherwise the moisture in the hot outer fibers
of thewood will tend to flow towards the cooler interior. With kiln drying there is a little
loss instrength of timber, usually less than 10 per cent. Also, the wood is more thoroughly
and evenlydried, thus reducing the hygroscopicity of the wood.

Chemical or Salt Seasoning

An aqueous solution of certain chemicals have lower vapourpressures than that of pure
water. If the outer layers of timber are treated with such chemicalsthe vapour pressure will
reduce and a vapour pressure gradient is setup. The interior of timber,containing no salts,
retains its original vapour pressure and, therefore, tends to dry as rapidlyas if there had
been no treatment. The result is to flatten the moisture gradient curves, to reducethe slope
of the curves, and consequently to reduce the internal stresses induced during drying.
Since it is these stresses which are responsible for defects such as checks, etc. a chemically

42
treated timber will exhibit fewer defects. Common salt or urea are generally used; the latter
ispreferred as the corrosive action of common salt is a drawback.

Electric SeasoningThe logs are placed in such a way that their two ends touch the
electrodes.Current is passed through the setup, being a bad conductor, wood resists the
flow of current,generating heat in the process, which results in its drying. The drawback is
that the wood maysplit.

Mc.Neil’s Process has no adverse effects; it is the best method although most expensive.
Thetimber is stacked in a chamber with free air space (l/3rd of its capacity) and containing
products of combustion of fuels in the fire place. The time required for complete seasoning
is15 to 60 days.

DEFECTS OF TIMBER
Defects can occur in timber at various stages, principally during the growing period and
during the conversion and seasoning process. The defects in the wood as shown in Fig. 4.4
are
due to irregularities in the character of grains. Defects affect the quality, reduce the
quantity of
useful wood, reduce the strength, spoil the appearance and favour its decay.

Defects due to abnormal growth

Following are some of the important defects commonly found in wood due to abnormal
growth or rupture of tissues due to natural forces.

Checks is a longitudinal crack which is usually normal to the annual rings. These adversely
affect the durability of timber because they readily admit moisture and air.

Shakes are longitudinal separations in the wood between the annual rings. These
lengthwise separations reduce the allowable shear strength without much effect on
43
compressive and tensile values. The separations make the wood undesirable when
appearance is important. Both the shakes and checks if present near the neutral plane of a
beam they may materially weaken its resistance to horizontal shear.

Heart Shakeoccurs due to shrinkage of heart wood, when tree is overmatured. Cracks start
from pith and run towards sap wood. These are wider at centre and diminish outwards.

Cup Shake appears as curved split which partly or wholly separates annual rings from one
another. It is caused due to excessive frost action on the sap present in the tree, especially
when
the tree is young.

Star Shake are radial splits or cracks wide at circumference and diminishing towards the
centre of the tree. This defect may arise from severe frost and fierce heat of sun. Star
shakes appear as the wood dries below the fibre saturation point. It is a serious fault
leading to separated log when sawn.

44
Shakes generally reduce the timber’s resistance to horizontal shear also reduces the tensile
strength.

Rind-gall is characterised by swelling caused by the growth of layers of sapwood over

wounds
after the branch has been cut off in an irregular manner. The newly developed layers do not
unite properly with the old rot, thereby leaving cavities, from where decay starts.

Knots are bases of twigs or branches buried by cambial activity of the mother branch. The
rootof the branch is embedded in the stem, with the formation of annual rings at right
angles tothose of the stem. The knots interrupt the basic grain direction of the wood,
resulting in areduction of its strength. In addition, these affect the appearance of the wood.
A dead knot canbe separated from the body of the wood, whereas live knot cannot be. Knots

45
reduce the strengthof the timber and affect workability and cleavability as fibres get
curved. Knots are classifiedon the basis of size, form, quality and occurrence.

SizePin knot (under 12 mm), small knot (12–20 mm), medium knot (20–40 mm) and large
knot(over 40 mm).
Form Round knot and spike knot (a round knot exposed by sawing lengthwise).
Quality Sound knot—as hard and solid as the surrounding wood, decayed knot—contains
advanced decay and is softer than the surrounding wood, encased knot—the annual rings
fail to grow into the fibres of the surrounding wood, tight knot—a knot so securely fastened
that it holds its position in the finished product.

Occurrence Single knot—when wood fibres deflect around one knot, cluster knot—when
wood fibres deflect about two or more knots as a unit and, branch knot—two or moreknots
radiating from a common centre.

End Splits: are caused by greater evaporation of sap at the end grains of log and can be
reduced by painting the exposed end grains with a water proof paint or capping the
exposed end with hoop iron bandage.

Twisted fibres: are caused by wind constantly turning the trunk of young tree in one
direction.

46
Upsets: are caused by the crushing of fibres running transversely during the growth of the
tree due to strong winds and unskilled felling consequently resulting in discontinuity of
fibres.

Foxiness: is a sign of decay appearing in the form of yellow or red tinge or discolouration of
overmatured trees.

Rapture: is caused due to injury or impact.

DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION

Conversion is the term used to describe the process whereby the felled tree is converted
intomarketable sizes of timber. Conversion defects are basically due to unsound practice in
millingor attempts to economise during conversion of timber. A wane occurs in timber
which contains,on one or more faces, part of the bark or the rounded periphery of the
trunk. This reduces thecross sectional area, with consequent reduction in strength in the
parts affected. Excessiveslope of grains may also be classed as a conversion defect when
conversion has not been doneparallel to the axis of the trunk.

DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING

These defects are directly caused by the movement which occurs in timber due to changes
in

47
moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor
stacking
during seasoning can all produce distortions in timber. These defects result in loosening of
fixings or disruption of decoration, or both. The common types of seasoning defects are:
checks—longitudinal separation of fibres not extending throughout the cross-section of
wood;
splitting—separation of fibres extending through a piece of timber from one face to
Another;
warpage—consists of cupping, twisting and bowing.

TIMBER CAN ALSO FAIL by; Rot (wet or dry),

PROPERIES OF WOOD
Physical Properties
Density and Specific Gravity All the mechanical properties of clear wood are related to its
density, which varies directly with the apparent specific gravity. The true specific gravity of
wood is approximately equal for all species and averages 1.54, whereas the specific weight
and
apparent specific gravity vary with density of wood. The percentage of moisture in the
wood
has a very large effect upon the specific weight and hence true comparisons of this
property can
only be made on dry specimens.

Bulk Density depends on the volume of pores and moisture content of the wood. For most
wood species, the bulk density is less than density. Bulk density value is used to determine
the
quality factor which is the ratio of compressive strength to the bulk density. It is 0.6 for
pine and
48
0.57 for oak

Moisture Movement Water is found in three portions of wood: (1) it constitutes over 90
per
cent of the protoplasm in the living cells; (2) it saturates the cell walls; (3) it fills, more or
less
completely, the pores of the life less cells. Timber is liable to shrink or swell with the
movement
of moisture. This movement is not the same in all the directions. Fig. 4.21 shows two pieces
A
and B cut from a log. In piece A, the layers producing the annual rings run roughly parallel
to the face of the timber, while in piece B, they run roughly at right angles to the face.
Movement
of the wood due to variations in moisture content is greatest in the plane of the annual
rings.
The movement a1 will be greater than movement b. Also, as a2 is nearer to the condition of
b,
it will move rather less than a1. It is clear, therefore, that if a piece of timber is to be used as
a
board or panel, it will move less if cut like B than like A. It should also be obvious that the
slightly varying tendency to movements on the faces of piece may lead to stresses which
will
cause it to warp. Recommended moisture content for structural elements is 12–20 per cent
for
doors and 10–16 per cent for windows.

49
 BRICKS

Constituents of good brick earth:

Bricks are the most commonly used construction material. Bricks are prepared by
moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning these
blocks. In order to get a good quality brick, the brick earth should contain the following
constituents.

o Silica

o Alumina

o Lime

o Iron oxide

o Magnesia

Silica

o Brick earth should contain about 50 to % of silica.

o It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.

o It also affects the durability of bricks.

o If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick
becomes brittle.

Alumina

o Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.

o It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in

moulding operation.

o If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.

50
Lime

o The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.

o It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.

o It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.

o Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.

Iron oxide

o A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.

o It gives red colour to the bricks.

o It improves impermeability and durability.

o It gives strength and hardness.

o If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish.

o If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in
colour.

Magnesia

o Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about1%)

o Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.

o It is responsible for reducing shrinkage

o Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

Harmful Ingredients in Brick:

Below mentioned are some of the ingredients which are undesired in brick earth.

Lime

51
 o A small quantity of lime is required in brick earth. But if present in excess, it
causes the brick to melt and hence brick looses its shape.

o If lime is present in the form of lumps, then it is converted into quick lime after
burning. This quick lime slakes and expands in presence of moisture, causing
splitting of bricks into pieces.

Iron pyrites

o The presence of iron pyrites in brick earth causes the brick to get crystallized and
disintegrated during burning, because of the oxidation of the iron pyrits.

o Pyrites discolourise the bricks.

Alkalis

o These are exist in the brick earth in the form of soda and potash. It acts as a flux in
the kiln during burning and it causes bricks to fuse, twist and warp. Because of this,
bricks are melted and they loose their shape.

o The alkalis remaining in bricks will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, when
bricks are used in masonry. With the passage of time, the moisture gets evaporated
leaving grey or white deposits on the wall surface (known asefflorescence). This
white patch affects the appearance of the building structure.

Pebbles

o Pebbles in brick earth create problem during mixing operation of earth. It

prevents uniform and through mixing of clay, which results in weak and porous
bricks

o Bricks containing pebbles will not break into shapes as per requirements.

Vegetation and Organic Matter

52
 o The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick earth assists in burning.
But if such matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become porous. This is due to
the fact that the gasses will be evolved during the burning of the carbonaceous
matter and it will result in the formation of small pores

Manufacturing of bricks

In the process of manufacturing bricks, the following distinct operations are involved.

• Preparation of clay

• Moulding

• Drying

• Burning

Each of the above operation of the manufacturing bricks will now be studied at length.

Preparation of clay

The clay for brick is prepared in the following order.

• Unsoiling

• Digging

• Cleaning

• Weathering

• Blending

• Tempering

53
Unsoiling: The top layer of the soil, about 200mm in depth, is taken out and thrown away.
The clay in top soil is full of impurities and hence it is to be rejected for the purpose of
preparing bricks.

Digging: The clay is then dug out from the ground. It is spread on the levelled ground, just a
little deeper than the general level. The height of heaps of clay is about 600mm to 1200mm.

Cleaning: The clay as obtained in the process of digging should be cleaned of stones,
pebbles, vegetable matters. If these particles are in excess, the clay is to be washed and
screened. Such a process naturally will prove to be troublesome and expensive.

Weathering: The clay is then exposed to atmosphere for softening and mellowing. The
period varies from few weeks to full season.

Blending: The clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to it , is spread out at its
top. The blending indicates intimate or harmonious mixing. It is carried out by taking a
small amount of clay every time and turning it up and down in vertical direction. The
blending makes clay fit for the next stage of tempering.

Tempering: In the process of tempering, the clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness
and it is made fit for the next operation of moulding .Kneaded or pressed under the feet of
man or cattle .The tempering should be done exhaustively to obtain homogeneous mass of
clay of uniform character.For manufacturing good bricks on a large scale, tempering is done
in pug mill.A typical pug mill capable of tempering sufficient earth for a daily output of
about 15000 to20000 bricks.

A pug mill consists of a conical iron tub with cover at its top .It is fixed on a timber base
which is made by fixing two wooden planks at right angle to each other. The bottom of tub
is covered except for the hole to take out pugged earth. The diameter of pug mill at bottom
is about 800mm and that at top is about 1 m.The provision is made in top cover to place
clay inside pug mill .A vertical shaft with horizontal arms is provided at center of iron
tub.The small wedge-shaped knives of steel are fixed at arms.The long arms are fixed at
vertical shaft to attach a pair of bullocks .The ramp is provided to collect the pugged clay

54
.The height of pug mill is about 2m. Its depth below ground is 600m to800mm lessen the
rise of the barrow run and to throw out the tempered clay conveniently.In the beginning,
the hole for pugged clay is closed and clay with water is placed in pug mill from the top.
When vertical shaft is rotated by a pair of bullock, the clay is thoroughly mixed up by the
action of horizontal arms and knives and homogeneous mass is formed.

The rotation of vertical shaft can also be achieved by using steam, diesel or electrical
power.When clay has been sufficiently pugged, the hole at the bottom of the tub, is opened
out and pugged earth is taken out from the ramp by barrow i.e. a small cart with wheels for
next operation of moulding.The pug mill is then kept moving and feeding of clay from top
and taking out of pugged clay from bottom are done simultaneously.If tempering is
properly carried out, the good brick earth can then be rolled without breaking in small
threads of 3mm diameter.

Fig of pug mill

Moulding:

The clay which is prepared as above is then sent for the text operation of
moulding.Following are two types of moulding:

i. Hand Moulding

ii. Machine Moulding

55
Hand moulding:

In hand moulding , the bricks are moulded by hand i.e.; manually. It is adopted where
manpower is cheap and is readily available for the manufacturing process of bricks ona
small scale.The moulds are rectangular boxes which are open at top and bottom.They may
be of wood or steel.It should be beprepared from well-seasonedwood. The longer sides are
kept slightly projecting to serve as handles. The strips of brass or steel are sometimes fixed
on the edges of wooden moulds to make them more durable.It is prepared from the
combination of steel plate and channel. It may even be prepared from steel angles and
plates. Thethickness of steel mould is 6mm.They is used for manufacturing bricks on alarge
scale. The steel moulds are more durable than wooden one and turn out bricks of uniform
size.The bricks shrink during drying and burning .Hence the mouldsare therefore made
larger than burnt bricks (8-12%).

The bricks prepared by hand moulding are of two types: Ground mouldedand
Tablemoulded

Ground mouldedbricks: The ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled over it.The
mould is dipped in water and placed over the ground. The lump of tempered clay is taken
and is dashed is the mould.The clay is pressed in the mould in such a way that it fills all the
corners of mould.The surplus clay is removed by wooden strike or framed with wire. A
strike is a piece of wood or metal with a sharp edge.It is to be dipped in water every
time.The mould is then lifted up and raw brick ids left on the ground.The mould is dipped
in water and it is placed just near the previous brick to prepare another brick.The process
is repeated till the ground is covered with raw bricks.The lower faces of ground moulded
bricks are rough

and it is not possible to place frog on such bricks.A frog is mark of depth about 10mm to
20mm which is placed on raw brick during moulding.It serves two purposes.

1.It indicates the trade name of the manufacturer

2.In brick work, the bricks are laid with frog uppermost. It thus affords a key for mortar
when the next brick is placed over it.

56
The ground moulded bricks of better quality and with frogs on their surface are made by
using a pair of pallet boards and a wooden block. A pallet is a piece of thin wood.The block
is bigger than the mould and it has projection of about 6mm height on its surface.The
dimensions of projection correspond to internal dimensions of mould.The design of
impression or frog is made on this block.The wooden block is also known as the moulding
block or stock board.

The mould is placed to fit in the projection of wooden block and clay is then dashed inside
the mould.A pallet is placed on the top and the whole thing is then turn upside down.The
mould is taken out and placed over the raw brick and it is conveyed to the drying sheds.The
bricks are placed to stand on their longer sides in drying sheds and pallet boards are
brought back for using them again.As the bricks are laid on edge, they occupyless space and
they dry quicker and better.

Table Moulded Bricks:

i) The process of moulding of bricks is just similar as above.But in this case, the
mould stands near a table size 2m x 1m. The bricks are moulded on the table and send
for further process of drying.

ii) However the efficiency of the moulder gradually decreases because of standing at
some place for a longer duration.The cost of brick is also increases when table
moulding is adopted.

Machine Moulding:

This type of moulding is carried out by two processes:

i) Plastic clay machine

ii) Dry clay machine

Plastic Clay Moulding

57
i) Such machine consists of a rectangular opening having length and width is equal to an
ordinary bricks. The pugged clay is placed in the machine and it comes out through the
rectangular opening.

ii) These are cut into strips by the wire fixed at the frame. The arrangement is made in such
a way that the strips thickness is equal to that of the bricks are obtained. So it is also called
as WIRE CUT BRICKS.

Dry Clay Machinemoulding:

In these machines, the strong clay is finally converted in to powered form.A small quantity
of water is then added to form a stiff plastic paste.

ii) Such paste is placed in mould and pressed by machine to form dry and well-shaped
bricks. They do not require the process of drying.

Drying

The damp bricks, if brunt,are likely to be cracked and distorted.Hence the moulded bricks
are dried before they are taken for the next operation of burning. For the drying the bricks
are laid longitudinally in the stacks of width equal to two bricks,A stack consists of ten or
eight tiers.The bricks are laid along and across the stock in alternate layers. All the bricks
are placed on edges. The bricks are allowed to dry until the bricks are become leather hard
of moisture content about 2%.

Burning

Bricks are burned at high temperature to gain the strength, durability, density and red
color appearance.All the water is removed at the temperature of 650 degrees but they are
burnt at an temperature of about 1100 degrees because the fusing of sand and lime takes
place at this temperature and chemical bonding takes between these materials after the
temperature is cooled down resulting in the hard and dense mass.

58
Bricks are not burnt above this temperature because it will result in the melting of the
bricks and will result in a distorted shape and a very hard mass when cooled which will not
be workable while brickwork. Bricks can be burnt using the following methods:

(a) Clamp Burning

(b) Kiln Burning
Clamp Burning:

Clamp is a temporary structure generally constructed over the ground with a height of
about 4 to 6 m. It is employed when the demand of the bricks is lower scale and when it is
not a monsoon season. This is generally trapezoidal in plan whose shorter edge among the
parallel sides is below the ground and then the surface raising constantly at about 15
degrees to reach the other parallel edge over the ground.A vertical brick and mud wall is
constructed at the lower edge to support the stack of the brick. First layer of fuel is laid as
the bottom most layer with the coal, wood and other locally available material like cow
dung and husk.Another layer of about 4 to 5 rows of bricks is laid and then again a fuel
layer is laid over it. The thickness of the fuel layer goes on with the height of the clamp.

After these alternate layers of the bricks and fuel the top surface is covered with the mud so
as to preserve the heat. Fire is ignited at the bottom, once fire is started it is kept under fire
by itself for one or two months and same time period is needed for the cooling of the bricks.
Disadvantages of Clamp burning:

1. Bricks at the bottom are over-burnt while at the top are under-burnt.

2. Bricks lose their shape, and reason may be their descending downward once the
fuel layer is burnt.

59
 3. This method cannot employ for the manufacturing of large number of bricks and
it is costly in terms of fuel because large amount of heat is wasted.

4. It cannot be employed in monsoon season.

Kiln Burning:

Kiln is a large oven used for the burning of bricks. Generally, coal and other locally available
materials like wood, cow dung etc can be used as fuel. They are of two types:

• Intermittent Kilns.

• Continuous Kilns.

Fig of a typical kiln

Intermittent Kilns: these are also the periodic kind of kilns, because in such kilns only one
process can take place at one time. Various major processes which takes place in the kilns
are:Loading, unloading, Cooling, and Burning of bricks.

60
There are two kind of intermittent kilns:

(i) Up-draught Intermittent Kilns

(ii) Down draught Intermittent Kilns

Down draught kilns are more efficient because the heat is utilized more by moving the hot
gases in the larger area of the kiln. In up draught kilns the hot gases are released after they
rise up to chimney entrance.

Continuous Kilns:

These kilns are called continuous because all the processes of loading, unloading, cooling,
heating, pre-heating take place simultaneously. They are used when the bricks are
demanded in larger scale and in short time. Bricks burning are completed in one day, so it
is a fast method of burning.There are two well-known continuous kilns:

Bull's Trench Kiln:Bull's trench kiln consists of a rectangular, circular or oval plan shape.
They are constructed below the ground level by excavating a trench of the required width
for the given capacity of brick manufacturing.This Trench is divided generally in 12
chambers so that 2 numbers of cycles of brick burning can take place at the same time for
the larger production of the bricks. Or it may happen that one cycle is carried out at one
time in all the 12 chambers by using a single process in the 2-3 chambers at the same
time.The structure is under-ground so the heat is conserved to a large extent so it is more
efficient. Once fire is started it constantly travels from one chamber to the other chamber,
while other operations like loading, unloading, cooling, burning and preheating taking
place simultaneously.

Such kilns are generally constructed to have a manufacturing capacity of about 20,000
bricks per day. The drawback of this kiln is that there is not a permanent roof, so it is not
easy to manufacture the bricks in the monsoon seasons.

Hoffman's Kiln:The main difference between the Bull's trench kiln and the Hoffman kilns
are:

61
 1. Hoffman's kiln is an over the ground structure while Bull's Trench Kiln is an
underground structure.

2.Hoffman's kiln have a permanent roof while Bull's trench Kiln do not have so it
former can be used in 12 months a year to manufacture bricks but later is stopped in
the monsoon season.

Hoffman's kiln is generally circular in plan, and is constructed over the ground. The whole
structure is divided into the 12 chambers and the entire processes takes place
simultaneously like in Bull's trench Kiln.

Intermittent Kilns: these are also the periodic kind of kilns, because in such kilns only one
process can take place at one time. Various major processes which takes place in the kilns
are:Loading, unloading, Cooling, and Burning of bricks.

There are two kind of intermittent kilns:

(i) Up-draught Intermittent Kilns

(ii) Down draught Intermittent Kilns

Down draught kilns are more efficient because the heat is utilized more by moving the hot
gases in the larger area of the kiln. In up draught kilns the hot gases are released after they
rise up to chimney entrance.

Continuous Kilns:

These kilns are called continuous because all the processes of loading, unloading, cooling,
heating, pre-heating take place simultaneously. They are used when the bricks are
demanded in larger scale and in short time. Bricks burning are completed in one day, so it
is a fast method of burning.There are two well-known continuous kilns:

62
Bull's Trench Kiln:Bull's trench kiln consists of a rectangular, circular or oval plan shape.
They are constructed below the ground level by excavating a trench of the required width
for the given capacity of brick manufacturing.This Trench is divided generally in 12
chambers so that 2 numbers of cycles of brick burning can take place at the same time for
the larger production of the bricks. Or it may happen that one cycle is carried out at one
time in all the 12 chambers by using a single process in the 2-3 chambers at the same
time.The structure is under-ground so the heat is conserved to a large extent so it is more
efficient. Once fire is started it constantly travels from one chamber to the other chamber,
while other operations like loading, unloading, cooling, burning and preheating taking
place simultaneously.

Such kilns are generally constructed to have a manufacturing capacity of about 20,000
bricks per day. The drawback of this kiln is that there is not a permanent roof, so it is not
easy to manufacture the bricks in the monsoon seasons.

Hoffman's Kiln:The main difference between the Bull's trench kiln and the Hoffman kilns
are:

1. Hoffman's kiln is an over the ground structure while Bull's Trench Kiln is an
underground structure.

2.Hoffman's kiln have a permanent roof while Bull's trench Kiln do not have so it
former can be used in 12 months a year to manufacture bricks but later is stopped in
the monsoon season.

Hoffman's kiln is generally circular in plan, and is constructed over the ground. The whole
structure is divided into the 12 chambers and the entire processes takes place
simultaneously like in Bull's trench Kiln.

Common Burnt Clay Bricks

63
Common burnt clay bricks are formed by pressing in moulds. Then these bricks are dried
and fired in a kiln. Common burnt clay bricks are used in general work with no special
attractive appearances. When these bricks are used in walls, they require plastering or
rendering.
Sand Lime Bricks
Sand lime bricks are made by mixing sand, fly ash and lime followed by a chemical process
during wet mixing. The mix is then moulded under pressure forming the brick. These
bricks can offer advantages over clay bricks such as: their colour appearance is grey
instead of the regular reddish colour.Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother finish
that doesn’t require plastering.These bricks offer excellent strength as a load-bearing
member.
Engineering Bricks
Engineering bricks are bricks manufactured at extremely high temperatures, forming a
dense and strong brick, allowing the brick to limit strength and water
absorption.Engineering bricks offer excellent load bearing capacity damp-proof
characteristics and chemical resisting properties.
Concrete Bricks
Concrete bricks are made from solid concrete. Concrete bricks are usually placed in
facades, fences, and provide an excellent aesthetic presence. These bricks can be
manufactured to provide different colours as pigmented during its production.
Fly Ash Clay Bricks
Fly ash clay bricks are manufactured with clay and fly ash, at about 1,000 degrees C. Some
studies have shown that these bricks tend to fail poor produce pop-outs, when bricks come
into contact with moisture and water, causing the bricks to expand.
Tests on Bricks

To know the quality of bricks following 7 tests can be performed. In these tests some are
performed in laboratory and the rest are on field.

Common Burnt Clay Bricks

64
Common burnt clay bricks are formed by pressing in moulds. Then these bricks are dried
and fired in a kiln. Common burnt clay bricks are used in general work with no special
attractive appearances. When these bricks are used in walls, they require plastering or
rendering.
Sand Lime Bricks
Sand lime bricks are made by mixing sand, fly ash and lime followed by a chemical process
during wet mixing. The mix is then moulded under pressure forming the brick. These
bricks can offer advantages over clay bricks such as: their colour appearance is grey
instead of the regular reddish colour.Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother finish
that doesn’t require plastering.These bricks offer excellent strength as a load-bearing
member.
Engineering Bricks
Engineering bricks are bricks manufactured at extremely high temperatures, forming a
dense and strong brick, allowing the brick to limit strength and water
absorption.Engineering bricks offer excellent load bearing capacity damp-proof
characteristics and chemical resisting properties.
Concrete Bricks
Concrete bricks are made from solid concrete. Concrete bricks are usually placed in
facades, fences, and provide an excellent aesthetic presence. These bricks can be
manufactured to provide different colours as pigmented during its production.
Fly Ash Clay Bricks
Fly ash clay bricks are manufactured with clay and fly ash, at about 1,000 degrees C. Some
studies have shown that these bricks tend to fail poor produce pop-outs, when bricks come
into contact with moisture and water, causing the bricks to expand.
Tests on Bricks

To know the quality of bricks following 7 tests can be performed. In these tests some are
performed in laboratory and the rest are on field.

65
 • Compressive strength test
• Water Absorption test
• Efflorescence test
• Hardness test
• Size, Shape and Colour test
• Soundness test
• Structure test
Compressive strength test: This test is done to know the compressive strength of brick. It
is also called crushing strength of brick. Generally 5 specimens of bricks are taken to
laboratory for testing and tested one by one. In this test a brick specimen is put on crushing
machine and applied pressure till it breaks. The ultimate pressure at which brick is crushed
is taken into account. All five brick specimens are tested one by one and average result is
taken as brick’s compressive/crushing strength.
Water Absorption test: In this test bricks are weighed in dry condition and let them
immersed in fresh water for 24 hours. After 24 hours of immersion those are taken out
from water and wipe out with cloth. Then brick is weighed in wet condition. The difference
between weights is the water absorbed by brick. The percentage of water absorption is
then calculated.The less water absorbed by brick the greater its quality. Good quality
brickdoesn’t absorb more than 20% water of its own weight.
Efflorescence test: The presence of alkalies in bricks is harmful and they form a grey
or white layer on brick surface by absorbing moisture. To find out the presence of
alkalis in bricks this test is performed. In this test a brick is immersed in fresh water
for 24 hours and then it’s taken out from water and allowed to dry in shade.If the
whitish layer is not visible on surface it proofs that absence of alkalis in brick. If the
whitish layer visible about 10% of brick surface then the presence of alkalis is in
acceptable range. If that is about 50% of surface then it is moderate. If the alkalies’
presence is over 50% then the brick is severely affected by alkalies.
Hardness test: In this test a scratch is made on brick surface with a hard thing. If that
doesn’t left any impression on brick then that is good quality brick.
Size, shape and colour test: In this test randomly collected 20 bricks are staked along
lengthwise, width wise and height wise and then those are measured to know the variation
66
of sizes as per standard. Bricks are closely viewed to check if its edges are sharp and
straight and uniform in shape. A good quality brick should have bright and uniform colour
throughout.
Soundness test: In this test two bricks are held by both hands and struck with one
another. If the bricks give clear metallic ringing sound and don’t break then those are good
quality bricks.
Structure test: In this test a brick is broken or a broken brick is collected and closely
observed. If there are any flows, cracks or holes present on that broken face then that isn’t
good quality brick.

67