Automatic Voltage Control Research Book RETRAY

Reactive Power and Voltage Control of Power
System using Different Control Techniques

A Thesis
Submitted In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the Degree
Master of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

Assiut University, Egypt
Submitted by
Eng. Neama Asar Fikery
2022
Reactive Power and Voltage Control of Power
System Using Different Control Techniques
A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree
Master of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
Assiut University, Egypt 2022
Submitted by
Eng. Neama Asar Fikery
Supervised by: Examined by:

Prof. Dr. El-Nobi Ahmed Ibrahim Prof. Dr. Hamdy A. Ziedan
(Assiut University) (Assiut University)
Prof. Dr. Fareed N. Abdelber
(Assiut University)
Prof. Dr. El-Nobi Ahmed Ibrahim
(Assiut University)
2022
Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
In the name of Allah, the most gracious, the most

merciful. All deepest thanks are due to Allah for the
uncountable gifts given to me.
I would like to express my great thanks to Prof.Dr.

El-Nobi Ahmed Ibrahim, Electrical Engineering
Department, Assiut University, for his discussions and
encouragement. I would like to express my deepest
thanks to him for his kind supervision and generous
device.
Neama Asar Fikery,
i
Abstract
Abstract
It is well known that the electrical generated power can be controlled by the
mechanical power of prime mover. Opening or closing the steam or water valve
can control the mechanical power or hydraulic turbines. The power system has
two essential control systems, namely, reactive-voltage control loop, and power-
frequency control loop.
The present research has concentrated on the problems of establishing a
normal operating state and optimum scheduling of generation for a power
system and deals with the control of reactive powers in order to keep the system
in the steady-state condition. The objective of the voltage control system is to
generate power in an interconnected system as economically and reliably as
possible, while maintaining the voltage within permissible limits.
An increase in the reactive power load of the generator is accompanied by a
drop in the terminal voltage magnitude. The voltage magnitude is sensed
through a potential transformer on one phase. This voltage is rectified and
compared to a dc set point signal. The amplified error signal controls the exciter
field and increases the exciter terminal voltage. Thus, the generator field current
is increased, which results in an increase in the generated emf. The reactive
power generation is increased to a new equilibrium, raising the terminal voltage
to the desired value. The role of automatic generation control (AGC) in power
system operation, with reference to tie-line power control under normal
operating conditions, is first analyzed. Finally, the requirement of reactive
power and voltage regulation and the influence on stability of both speed and
excitation controls, with use of suitable feedback signals, are examined.
The above description and modeling have been performed for single voltage
control system. The conventional Proportional, Integral, and Derivative (PID)
controller is designed for establishing feedback load frequency control system.
The parameters of the PID controller are determined inside stability range of
power system.
The modern control approach represented in pole placement technique is

applied to design a closed loop voltage control system. The single area voltage
control system is designed using the proposed control methods. To validate the
effectiveness of the proposed control methods to design of closed loop voltage
control system, single area power systems are simulated and subjected to
different disturbances.
ii
List of Content
List of Contents
Subject Page
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Reactive Power Sources and Their Control Devices 2
1.3 Methods of Voltage Controls 2
1.4 Overview on Different Voltage and Reactive Power Control 2
1.5 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) 4
1.6 Working Principle of Voltage Regulator 4
1.7 Application of the Automatic Voltage Regulator 4
1.8 Objectives of Power System Operation and Control 5
1.9 Thesis Organization 5
Chapter 2: Description and Modeling of Voltage Control Systems 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Basic Generator Control Loops 6
2.3 Objective of Power System Control 7
2.4 Means of Power System Control 8
2.5 Role of Control in Power System 8
2.6 Controllers and System Transfer Functions 8
2.6.1 RC Controllers 9
2.6.2 Electronic Controllers 11
2.7 Reactive Power and Voltage Control Modeling 14
2.7.1 Amplifier Model 15
2.7.2 Exciter Model 15
2.7.3 Generator Model 16
2.7.4 Sensor Model 16
2.8 Voltage Control System without Controller 17
2.8.1 Transfer Function of Voltage Control System without Controller 17
2.8.2 State Space Model of Voltage Control System without Controller 17
Chapter 3: Voltage Control of Power System using PID Controller 18
3.1 Introduction 18
iii
List of Content
3.2 What is a PID Controller? 18

3.3 History and Background of PID Control 18
3.4 Theory of PID Control 19
3.4.1 P-Controller 20
3.4.2 I-Controller 20
3.4.3 D-Controller 21
3.5 Characteristics of Proportional, Integral and Derivative Controllers 21
3.6 Voltage Control Power System with PI Controller 22
3.6.1 Transfer Function of Voltage Control System with PI Controller 23
3.6.2 State Space Model of Voltage Control System with PI Controller 23
3.6.3 Voltage Control Power System with PD Controller 24
3.6.4 Transfer Function of Voltage Control System with PD Controller 25
3.6.5 State Space Model of voltage Control System with PD Controller 25
3.7 Voltage Control Power System with PID Controller 26
3.7.1 Transfer Function of Voltage control system with PID Controller 27
3.7.2 State Space Model of voltage control system with PID Controller 28
3.8 Voltage Control of Power System using Pole Placement Approach 29
3.8.1 Introduction 29
3.8.2 Pole-Placement Controller Design 30
3.9 Voltage Control of Power System with Stabilizer 31
3.9.1 Stability Issues and the PSS 31
3.9.2 Stabilizer Modeling 32
3.9.3 Transfer Function of Voltage Control System with Stabilizer 32
3.9.4 State Space Model of Voltage Control System with Stabilizer 33
3.10 Digital Simulation Results and Discussions 34
3.10.1 Simulation Results without Controller 34
3.10.1.1 Transfer function of voltage control without controller 34
3.10.1.2 State space model of voltage control without controller 35
3.10.1.3 Simulink model of voltage control without controller 35
3.10.2 Simulation Results with PI Controller 36
3.10.2.1 Transfer function of voltage control with PI controller 36
3.10.2.2 State space model of voltage control with PI controller 37
iv
List of Content
3.10.2.3 Simulation model of the system with PI control 37

3.10.3 Simulation Results with PD Controller 38
3.10.3.1 Transfer function of voltage control with PD controller 38
3.10.3.2 State space model of voltage control with PD controller 39
3.10.3.3 Simulation model of the system with PD control 39
3.10.4 Simulation Results with PID Controller 40
3.10.4.1 Transfer function of voltage control PID controller 40
3.10.4.2 State space model of voltage control PID controller 40
3.10.4.3 Simulation model of the system with PID control 41
3.10.5 Effect of Variation of the System Parameters 42
3.10.6 Power System with PI Controller 42
3.10.7 Power System with PD Controller 43
3.10.8 Power System with PID Controller 43
3.10.9 Effectiveness of PI, PD and PID Controllers 44
3.10.10 Comparison between Results by Using MATLAB 56
3.10.10.1 Comparison between terminal voltage step response with / without
56
PI control
57
PD control
58
PID control
3.10.11 Voltage Control Power System with Stabilizer 59
3.10.11.1 Effect of variation of the system parameters 59
3.10.11.2 Effectiveness of stabilizer 60
3.10.12 Power System with Pole Placement Controller 66
3.10.12.1 Voltage control power system with pole placement controller 66
3.10.12.2 Effectiveness of pole placement controller 67
v
List of Tables
List of Tables
Table
Title page
No.
3.1 Characteristics of proportional, integral and derivative controllers 22
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the gain KA
3.2 44
between KA = 5 and 15 (without controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the time constant
3.3 45
TA between TA = 0.02 and 0.50 sec (without controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the gain K E
3.4 46
between KE = 0.5 and 1.5 (without controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the gain K R
3.5 47
between KR = 0.5 and 2.0 (without controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the parameter K P
3.6 48
between KP = 0.05 and 0.4 (with PI controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the parameter K I
3.7 49
between KI = 0.1 and 0.5 (with PI controller).
3.8 50
between KP = 0.5 and 2.0 (with PD controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the Parameter K D
3.9 51
between KD = 0.02 and 1.0 (with PD controller).
3.10 52
between KP = 0.1 and 4.5 (with PID controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the parameter K I
3.11 53
between KI = 0.5 and 10.0 (with PID controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the parameter K D
3.12 54
between KD = 0.1 and 1.5 (with PID controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the stabilizer gain
3.13 60
KF between KF = 0.1 and 7.0 (with stabilizer).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the amplifier gain
3.14 61
KA between KA = 5 and 100 (with stabilizer).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the exciter gain K E
3.15 62
between KE = 0.2 and 100 (with stabilizer).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the generator gain
3.16 63
KG between KG = 0.5 and 10.0 (with stabilizer).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the sensor gain K R
3.17 64
between KR = 0.5 and 2.0 (with stabilizer).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the amplifier gain
3.18 67
KA between KA = 5 and 15 (with pole placement controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the amplifier time
3.19 constant TA between TA = 0.02 and 0.5 sec (with pole placement 68
controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the exciter gain K E
3.20 69
between KE = .5 and 1.5 (with pole placement controller).
System poles and specifications due to a variation in the sensor gain K R
3.21 70
between KR = .5 and 2 (with pole placement controller).
vi
List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure. Title page

2.1 Generation power plant control system for voltage and frequency 7
2.2 Proportional control element (potentiometer) 9
2.3 Gain/Time delay control circuit 10
2.4 An RC network Integrator element 10
2.5 RC differentiating circuit 11
2.6 Electronic proportional controller. 11
2.7 Electronic operational amplifier Integrator controller 12
2.8 Electronic PI controller. 12
2.9 Electronic PD controller. 13
2.10 Electronic PID controller 14
2.11 A typical arrangement of a simple AVR 15
2.12 A simplified AVR block diagram 16
3.1 PI-controller response 21
3.2 Block diagram of PI controller 23
3.3 Block diagram of the system with PI controller 23
3.4 Block diagram of PD controller 25
3.5 Block diagram of AVR with PD controller 25
3.6 Block diagram of PID controller 27
3.7 Block diagram of AVR with PID controller 27
3.8 Voltage control power system with pole placement controller 31
3.9 Block diagram of the voltage control system with stabilizer 32
3.10 Transfer function terminal voltage step response without controller 34
3.11 State space model terminal voltage step response without control 35
3.12 Block diagram of terminal voltage step response without controller in

35
the Simulink window
3.13 Terminal voltage step response without control by using MATLAB 36
3.14 Transfer function terminal voltage Step response with PI controller 36
3.15 State space model terminal voltage step response with PI Control 37
3.16 Block diagram of terminal voltage step response with PI controller in

37
the Simulink window
vii
List of Figures
3.17 Terminal voltage step response with PI control by using MATLAB 38

3.18 Transfer function terminal voltage Step response with PD controller 38
3.19 State space model terminal voltage step response with PD control 39
3.20 Block diagram of terminal voltage step response with PD controller in

39
the Simulink window
3.21 Terminal voltage step response with PD control by using MATLAB 40
3.22 Transfer function terminal voltage step response with PID controller 40
3.23 State space model terminal voltage step response with PID control 41
3.24 Block diagram of terminal voltage step response with PID controller in
41
the Simulink window
3.25 Terminal voltage step response with PID control by using MATLAB 44
3.26 System time response due to a variation in the gain KA (without

45
controller).
3.27 System time response due to a variation in the time constant TA
46
(without controller).
3.28 System time response due to a variation in the gain KE (without
47
controller).
3.29 System time response due to a variation in the gain KR (without
48
controller).
3.30 System time response due to a variation in the parameter KP (with PI
49
controller).
3.31 System time response due to a variation in the parameter KI (with PI
50
controller).
3.32 System time response due to a variation in the parameter KP (with PD
51
controller)
3.33 System time response due to a variation in the parameter KD (with PD
52
controller).
3.34 System time response due to a variation in the parameter KP (with PID
53
controller).
3.35 System time response due to a variation in the parameter KI (with PID
54
controller)
3.36 System time response due to a variation in the parameter KD (with PID
55
controller).
3.37 System time response based on nominal values of the system and
56
controller parameters (without and with PI controller).
57
controller parameters (without and with PD controller).
60
controller parameters (without and with PID controller).
3.40 System time response due to a variation in the stabilizer gain KF (with
61
stabilizer).
3.41 System time response due to a variation in the stabilizer gain KA (with
62
stabilizer).
3.42 System time response due to a variation in the stabilizer gain KE (with 63
viii
List of Figures
stabilizer).
3.43 System time response due to a variation in the stabilizer gain KG (with
64
stabilizer).
3.44 System time response due to a variation in the stabilizer gain KR (with
65
stabilizer).
3.45 System time response based on nominal values of the system
67
parameters (without and with stabilizer).
3.46 System time response due to a variation in the amplifier gain KA (with
68
pole placement controller).
3.47 System time response due to a variation in the amplifier time constant
69
TA (with pole placement controller).
3.48 System time response due to a variation in the exciter gain KE (with
70
3.49 System time response due to a variation in the sensor gain KR (with
71
71
controller parameters (without and with pole placement controller
ix
List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation Description
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
AGC Automatic Generation Control
PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative
PI Proportional-Integral
PD Proportional- Derivative
PSS Power System Stabilizer
LFC Load Frequency Control
ANN Artificial Neural Network
FLC Fuzzy Logic Control
NFLC Neuro-Fuzzy Logic Control
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission Systems
PLC Programmable Logic Control
EMF Electromotive Force
FSF Full State Feedback
SISO Single Input Single Output
PPC Pole Placement Controller
RPC Reactive Power Controller
SVC Static VAR Compensator
SCR Solid-State Rectifiers
OLTC On Load Tap Changers
x
List of Symbols
Symbol Description
KA Amplifier gain
TA Amplifier time constant
KE Exciter gain
TE Exciter time constant
KG Generator gain
TG Generator time constant
KR Sensor gain
AC Closed – loop system matrix
TR Sensor time constant
Vt Output System
Vref Input System
KI Integral gain
KP proportional controller
D Damping coefficient
KD Derivative controller
KF Stabilizer gain
TF Stabilizer time constant
 rotor angle
List of Symbols
xi
Chapter 1
:
Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
For an electric power system, to keep constant the nominal voltage level and
to control reactive power supply to or received from power system is an
important factor of power quality, grid security and grid reliability.
Theoretically, the instantaneous amount of reactive power in a power system

depends upon the voltage level, the instantaneous amount of active power in a
power grid depends upon frequency of the system. These powers should be kept
in stable at the steady-state condition of the power system. If available voltage
value changes, the efficiency of the equipment connected to the power system
will be significantly affected and their life expectation drops.
Actually, the transmission line losses depend upon the amount of active and
reactive powers. Also, a reactive power interested in widely on output voltages
of the synchronous generators connected to a power system. For this reason, to
reduce the real transmission losses needs to keep reactive power equilibrium
required to control a voltage value of a power system [1].
At present, an AVR system is basically applied to synchronous generators
included by a power system so as to resolve the problem [2]. Various control
techniques like linear or nonlinear can be used to provide AVR control [3]. An
increase in a reactive power load of generator is accompanied by a drop in
terminal voltage magnitude.
By using a potential transformer, a voltage magnitude is sensed on single

phase. This voltage is then rectified and compared with reference dc point
signal. The exciter terminal voltage is increased as the field is controlled by this
amplified error signal. Thus, generator current also increase which results in
increase of generator EMF. Hence a new equilibrium of increased reactive
power is achieved which raised the terminal voltage to desired value [4].
During the daily operation, power systems may experience both over-voltage
and under-voltage violations that can be overcome by voltage/Var control [1].
Through controlling the production, adsorption, and flow of reactive power at
all levels in the system, voltage / Var control can maintain the voltage profile
1|Page
within acceptable limit and reduce the transmission losses. In the last 20 years,
this problem has attracted the interest from both academia and industry and this
has produced many special devices and algorithms. Some countries have
adopted some of these in their real power networks and achieved reasonably
successful results [2].
1.2 Reactive Power Sources and their Control Devices

The controllable reactive power sources include generators, shunt reactors,
shunt capacitors and On Load Tap Changers of transformers (OLTC).
Generators can generate or absorb reactive power depending on the excitation.
When overexcited they supply the reactive power, and when under excited they
absorb reactive power. The automatic voltage regulators of generators can
continually adjust the excitation [1].
Reactors shunt capacitors and OLTC are traditionally switched on/off
through circuit breakers on command from the operator. Since the early
eighties, advances in Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) controllers
in power systems have led to their application to improve voltage profiles of
power networks. The most frequently used devices are: Reactive Power
Controller (RPC) and Static VAR Compensator (SVC).
1.3 Methods of Voltage Controls

There are several methods of voltage control. In each method, the system
voltage is changed in accordance with the load to obtain a fairly constant
voltage at the consumer’s end of the system. Local controls are employed at
turbine –generator units and at selected voltage-controlled buses.
1.4 Overview on Different Voltage and Reactive Power Control

Methods Voltage and reactive power control involves proper coordination
among the voltage and reactive power control equipment in the distribution
system to obtain an optimum voltage profile and optimum reactive power flows
in the system according to the objective function and operating constraints.
Many Utilities operate shunt capacitors locally by using conventional

controllers, e.g., voltage controller for the OLTC and either voltage, reactive
power or time controllers for the capacitors; to perform basic voltage and
reactive power control functions, e.g., to maintain the voltages in the
2|Page
distribution system within the acceptable range and to minimize power losses.
Different voltage and reactive power control methods have been proposed.
Properly locating and sizing shunt capacitors will decrease power losses. As an
improvement to the capacitor planning based on the load size, methods to
include customer load profiles and characteristics in the capacitor planning are
proposed in [5]-[6].
Proper capacitor planning will also improve the voltage profile in the
distribution system. The capacitor locating and sizing is studied and executed in
the planning stage of the distribution system. In order to enhance the
distribution system further, the capacitor should also be switched properly in the
operation stage of the distribution system [7], using different types of available
capacitor control. Most recently, many researchers have addressed the problem
of voltage and reactive power control in distribution systems by focusing on
automated distribution systems, such as in [8]-[9].
At the moment, the voltage and reactive power control based on automated
distribution systems can be divided into two categories: off-line setting control
and real time control [10]. The off-line setting control, for instance, aims to find
a dispatch schedule for the capacitor switching and the OLTC movement based
on a one day ahead load forecast. Meanwhile, the real time control, [11] for
instance, aims to control the capacitor and OLTC based on real time
measurements and experiences.
The application of dispatch schedule-based load forecasting is motivated by

the fact that although there is a random fluctuation in the load variation, the
major component of the load variations is related to weather conditions.
Furthermore, there is a deterministic load pattern during the day due to social
activities [12]. Therefore, the load profile is quite predictable. It can be
forecasted one-day-ahead with an average error less than 2% [13].
Different objective functions and operating constraints have been proposed

in voltage and reactive power control with automated distribution systems.
Nevertheless, all researchers [14] still consider loss Minimization and keeping
the voltage within the acceptable range as the main objective and constraint in
the voltage and reactive power control. Other references, such as, consider
minimization of OLTC operations and capacitor switching as the objective
function.
3|Page
1.5 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

The automatic voltage regulator is used to regulate the voltage. It takes the
fluctuate voltage and changes them into a constant voltage. The fluctuation in
the voltage mainly occurs due to the variation in load on the supply system. The
variation in voltage damages the equipment of the power system. The variation
in the voltage can be controlled by installing the voltage control equipment at
several places likes near the transformers, generator, feeders, etc., the voltage
regulator is provided in more than one point in the power system for controlling
the voltage variations.
In DC supply system the voltage can be controlled by using over compound
generators in case of feeders of equal length, but in the case of feeders of
different lengths the voltage at the end of each feeder is kept constant using
feeder booster. In AC system the voltage can be controlled by using the various
methods likes booster transformers, induction regulators, shunt condensers, etc.
1.6 Working Principle of Voltage Regulator

It works on the principle of detection of errors. The output voltage of an AC
generator obtained through a potential transformer and then it is rectified,
filtered and compared with a reference. The difference between the actual
voltage and the reference voltage is known as the error voltage.
This error voltage is amplified by an amplifier and then supplied to the main
exciter or pilot exciter
Thus, the amplified error signals control the excitation of the main or pilot
exciter through a buck or a boost action (i.e. controls the fluctuation of the
voltage). Exciter output control leads to the controls of the main alternator
terminal voltage.
1.7 Application of the Automatic Voltage Regulator

 The main functions of an AVR are as follows.
1. It controls the voltage of the system and has the operation of the machine
nearer to the steady state stability.
2. It divides the reactive load between the alternators operating in parallel.
4|Page
3. The automatic voltage regulators reduce the over voltages which occur
because of the sudden loss of load on the system.
4. It increases the excitation of the system under fault conditions so that the
maximum synchronizing power exists at the time of clearance of the fault.
When there is a sudden change in load in the alternator, there should be a

change in the excitation system to provide the same voltage under the new load
condition. This can be done by the help of the automatic voltage regulator. The
automatic voltage regulator equipment operates in the exciter field and changes
the exciter output voltage, and the field current. During the violent fluctuation,
the ARV does not give a quick response. For getting the quick response, the
quick acting voltage regulators based on the overshooting the mark principle are
used. In overshoot mark principle, when the load increase the excitation of the
system also increase. Before the voltage increase to the value corresponding to
the increased excitation, the regulator reduces the excitation of the proper value.
1.8 Objectives of Power System Operation and Control

The main objective of power system operation and control is to maintain
continuous supply of power with an acceptable quality, to all the consumers in
the system. The system will be in equilibrium, when there is a balance between
the power demand and the power generated.
1.9 Thesis Organization

The work presented in this thesis comprises of four chapters. A brief
summary of each of them presented here.
Chapter 1: Introduction.
Chapter 2: Introduces a brief description and modeling of voltage control
system under study.
Chapter 3: Investigates an application of conventional PID controller for
designing a closed-loop voltage control power system and investigates the effect
of power system stabilizer (PSS) on the dynamic response of voltage control
power system.
Chapter 4: Conclusions of the presented work.
5|Page
Chapter 2
:
Description and Modeling
of Voltage Control System
Chapter 2 Description and Modeling of Voltage Control System
Chapter 2
Description and Modeling of Voltage Control
System
2
2.1 Introduction
This chapter has concentrated on the problems of establishing a normal
operating state and optimum scheduling of generation for a power system and
thesis deals with the control of active and reactive powers in order to keep the
system in the steady-state condition. In addition, simple models of the essential
components used in the control systems are presented. The objective of the
control strategy is to generate and deliver power in an interconnected system as
economically and reliably as possible, while maintaining the voltage and
frequency within permissible limits [1].
Changes in real power affect mainly the system frequency, while reactive
power is less sensitive to changes in frequency and is mainly dependent on
changes in voltage magnitude. Thus, real and reactive powers are controlled
separately. The load frequency control (LFC) loop controls the real power and
frequency and the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop regulates the reactive
power and voltage magnitude. LFC has gained in importance with the growth of
interconnected systems and has made the operation of interconnected systems
possible. Today, it is still the basis of many advanced concepts for the control of
large systems [2].
The role of automatic generation control (AGC) in power system operation,

with reference to tie-line power control under normal operating conditions, is
first analyzed. Finally, the requirement of reactive power and voltage regulation
and the influence on stability of both speed and excitation controls, with use of
suitable feedback signals, are examined [3].
2.2 Basic Generator Control Loops

In an interconnected power system, LFC and AVR equipment are installed
for each generator. Fig. (2.1) represents the schematic diagram of the LFC loop
and the AVR loop. The controllers are set for a particular operating condition
6|Page
and take care of small changes in load demand to maintain the frequency and
voltage magnitude within the specified limits. Small changes in real power are
mainly dependent on changes in rotor angle  and, thus, the frequency [4].
Fig. (2.1): Generation power plant control system for voltage and frequency.
The reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage magnitude (i.e., on

the generator excitation). The excitation system time constant is much smaller
than the prime mover time constant and its transient decay much faster and does
not affect the LFC dynamic. Thus, the cross-coupling between the LFC loop
and the AVR loop is negligible, and the load frequency and excitation voltage
control can be analyzed independently [5].
2.3 Objective of Power System Control

Power system control is made for the following objectives
1- To adjust variables magnitudes to certain specified values
2- To keep power system stability during and after disturbances
3- To keep system operation during regular maintenance conditions.
4- To operate systems faraway from critical situations
5- To damp system oscillations originating from any sources.
6- To adjust system nodes voltages at specified magnitudes.
7- To guard system frequency around (50 or 60) Hz continuously.
8- To perform controlled industrial processes steps.
9- To synchronize timing of industrial processes.
10- To perform system operation corrections at specified speeds.
11- To get certain pre-specified responses with certain controls.
12- To get certain control quality of responses by certain controls.
7|Page
13- To avoid voltage instabilities and to prevent blackouts
2.4 Means of Power System Controls

Power systems are now controlled by several means, they are:
a) Controllers based on automatic control theory such as conventional: open-
loop controls, closed-loop controls, optimal controls, and PID controls.
b) Adaptive controls such as: variable structure controls, self-tuning controls,
pole assignment controls and pole shifting controls.
c) Programmable logic controllers (PLC).
d) Linear programming, nonlinear programming, and genetic algorithms-based
controllers.
e) Logical controls such as fuzzy logic controls (FLC), artificial neural network
controls (ANN), neuro-fuzzy logic controls (NFLC) [7].
2.5 Role of Control in Power System

Before going on studying power system control techniques, an important
question is what are power systems components and their interrelations?
Power system consists of three principal components, which are essential for its
operation.
The principal system components are: the generation system, the

transmission system and the utilization system [8].
1. The generation system: consists of: fuel injectors, steam valve, steam
turbines, gas turbines, generators excitation systems, and power system
stabilizers.
2. The transmission system: consists of the stepping up transformers,
overhead and cable transmission lines, bus-bars, the circuit breakers, the
shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, series capacitors, thyristor-controlled
series capacitors, lighting arrestors, earthling conductors …. etc.
3. The utilization system: contains the distribution transformers,
distribution network, loads (lighting, heating, rotating, electrolysis,
arcing, welding ... etc.), bus bars, protection systems, control systems,
communication systems, measurement devices, …. etc .
2.6 Controllers and System Transfer Functions
8|Page
Transfer function may only be defined for a linear, stationary (constant

parameter) system. A nonstationary system, often called a time-varying system
has one or more time-varying parameters, and the Laplace transformation may
not be utilized. A transfer function is the input-output description of the
behavior of a system. Thus a transfer function does not include information
concerning the internal structure of the system and its behavior [9].
The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable,
with all initial conditions assumed to be zero. The transfer function of a system
or of an element represents the relationship describing the dynamics of the
system under consideration.
2.6.1 RC Controllers
RC networks controllers may be electrical or mechanical or hydraulic or
combination of them together with some amplifiers [9].
2.6.1.1 Resistive proportional controller
A proportional transfer function of certain output/input gain is usually
represented in Laplace transform as:
v 2 (s) R 2 R2
G (s)   
v1 (s) R R 1  R 2 (2.1)
A potentiometer or a sliding resistor can give such transfer function. Fig.(2.2)
shows such controller element.
Fig.(2.2): Proportional control element (potentiometer).
2.6.1.2 Gain/Time delay control circuit

Any closed system has input and output can be represented by a gain (K) and
a time delay (T). The gain represents the output to the Input ratio, while the time
delay represents the period of time after which the output reached with respect
9|Page
to the instant of the input had entered to the system. A circuit which represents
this transfer function is shown in Fig.(2.3). This transfer function appears in
many block diagrams of controllers and systems [10]. The gain/time delay
transfer functions is represented in Laplace transform by:
K
G c (s) 
1  sT (2.2)
where K represents the amplifier gain and T reprersents the output circuit time
constant.
Fig.(2.3): Gain/Time delay control circuit.
2.6.1.3 Integrating controller RC circuit

Usually in power system block diagrams, we need to find an integrating
transfer function of the form 1/sT. An RC network arranged such that the output
is across the C element, while the input is applied to one of the R element
terminals and the common terminal, is as shown in Fig.(2.4). The transfer
function is found as follows:
1 1
V2 (s)  I(s), V1 (s)  ( R  ) I(s)
Cs Cs
Therefore, the transfer function is:
V2 (s) 1
G c (s)  
V1 (s) RCs  1
with T=RC, which is the circuit time constant.
When RC >> 1, this transfer function can be written as:
1 1
G c (s)  
1  sT s T (2.3)
10 | P a g e
Fig.(2.4): An RC network Integrator element.
2.6.1.4 A differentiating RC controller circuit

Usually in power system multistage controllers, differentiating circuits are
required for the stabilization of these multistage control elements in the form of
successive feedbacks from specific stages back to the input. Differentiating
circuits are used for this purpose. The RC circuit arranged as in Fig.(2.5) can be
used. Its transfer function is given by:
V2 (s) RCs Ts
G c (s)   
V1 (s) RCs  1 Ts  1 (2.4)
With: T = RC is the circuit time constant
Fig.(2.5): RC Differentiating circuit.
2.6.2 Electronic Controllers

2.6.2.1 Electronic proportional controllers
Two stages of operational amplifiers as those given in Fig.(1.6) can give
such proportional controller. Its transfer function is:
E (s) R R
G c (s)  0  4 2
E1 (s) R 3R 1 (2.5)
Fig.(2.6): Electronic Proportional controller.
2.6.2.2 Electronic integrator controllers
11 | P a g e
Two stages of operational amplifiers circuits arranged as showon in Fig.(2.7)

may be used as an integrator in controller block diagram. Its transfer function:
R4
G c (s) 
R 3R 1C 2s (2.6)
Fig.(2.7): Electronic operational amplifier integrator controller.
2.6.2.3 Electronic PI controller

The proportional plus integral (PI) controller is a lag compensator. This P1
controller has the transfer function:
1 K
G c (s)  K P (1  )  KP  P
TIs TI s (2.7)
where KP and TI are functions of the circuit resistances and capacitance. The
PI controller possesses a zero at s = -I /TI and a pole at s = 0. This improves the
steady state characteristics. However, inclusion of the PI control action in the
system increases the type number of the compensated system by one, and this
causes the compensated system to be more [10]. The values of Kp and TI must
be chosen carefully to give a proper transient response. By properly designing
the PI controller, it is possible to make the transient response to a step input
exhibit relatively small or no overshoot. The speed of response, however,
becomes much slower [11]. The P1 controller can be realized by two stages of
operational amplifiers as those given in Fig.(2.8). The controller transfer
function of such PI controller is derived as:
R 4 R 2 ( R 2 C 2s  1)
G c (s) 
R 3R 1R 2 C 2s (2.8)
12 | P a g e
Fig.(2.8): Electronic PI controller.

2.6.2.4 Electronic PD controllers
The proportional plus derivative (PD) controller is a simplified version of lead

compensator. The PD controller has the general transfer function:
G c (s)  K P (1  Td s)  K P  K Ds (2.9)
The value of KP is usually determined to satisfy the steady state requirements.

The PD controller can be also realized by two stages of electronic operational
amplifiers preceded by a series RC elements, connected in parallel circuit such
that shown in Fig.(2.9).
Such electronic PD controller transfer function is derived as:
R 4R 2
G c (s)  (R C s  1)
R 3R1 1 1 (2.10)
Fig.(2.9) Electronic PD controller.
2.6.2.5 Electronic PID controller

The proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID) controller is a
combination of the PI and PD controllers. It is a lag - lead compensator.
Note that the P1 control action and PD control action occur in different
frequency regions [12]. The P1 control action occurs at the low - frequency
region and PD control action occur at the the high-frequency region.
13 | P a g e
The PID control may be used when the system requires improvements in
both transient and steady-state performances. The PID controller can be realized
by two stages of operational amplifiers with shunt and series RC elements
cotmected as in Fig.(1.10). Such electronic PID controller transfer function can
be derived as follows:
E o (s) Z
 2
E i (s) Z1 (2.11)
where
R1 R C s 1
Z1  , Z2  2 2
R 1C1s  1 C 2s
Fig.(2.10): Electronic PID controller.
2.7 Reactive Power and Voltage Control Modeling

The generator excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the
reactive power flow. The generator excitation of older systems may be provided
through slip rings and brushes by means of dc generators mounted on the same
shaft as the rotor of the synchronous machine. However, modern excitation
systems usually use ac generators with rotating rectifiers [12].
As we have seen, a change in the real power demand affects essentially the
frequency, whereas a change in the reactive power affects mainly the voltage
magnitude. The interaction between voltage and frequency controllers is
generally weak enough to justify their analysis separately [13].
The sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors, and reactor. The
generator reactive powers are controlled by field excitation. Other
supplementary methods of improving the voltage profile on electric
transmission systems are transformer load-tap changes, switched capacitors,
14 | P a g e
step-voltage regulators, and static var control equipment. The primary means of
generator reactive power control is the generator excitation control using (AVR)
which is discussed in this chapter. The role of an (AVR) is to hold the terminal
voltage magnitude of a synchronous generator at a specified level [14].
An increase in the reactive power load of the generator is accompanied by a

drop in the terminal voltage magnitude. The voltage magnitude is sensed
through a potential transformer on one phase. This voltage is rectified and
compared to a dc set point signal. The amplified error signal controls the exciter
field and increases the exciter terminal voltage. Thus, the generator field current
is increased, which results in an increase in the generated emf [15].
The reactive power generation is increased to a new equilibrium, raising the
terminal voltage to the desired value. The schematic diagram of a simplified
AVR is shown in Fig. (2.11).
Fig. (2.11): A typical arrangement of a simple AVR.
2.7.1 Amplifier Model

The excitation system amplifier may be a magnetic amplifier, rotating
amplifier, or modern electronic amplifier. The amplifier is represented by a gain
K A and a time constantT A, and the transfer function is:
V R (s) KA
= (2.12)
V e ( s) 1+s T A
Typical values of K A are in the range of 1 to 400. The amplifier time constant is
small, in the range of 0.01 to 0.1 second [15].
2.7.2 Exciter Model
15 | P a g e
There is a variety of excitation models. However, modern excitation systems

use ac power source through solid-state rectifiers such as SCR. The output
voltage of the exciter is a nonlinear function of the field voltage. In the simplest
form, The transfer function of a modern exciter may be represented by a single
time constant T E and a gain K E, i.e.
V F (s ) KE
= (2.13)
V R (s) 1+ s T E
The time constants of modern exciters are in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 second [9].
2.7.3 Generator Model

The synchronous machine generated emf is a function of the machine
magnetization curve, and its terminal voltage is dependent on the generator
load. In the linearized model, the transfer function relating the generator
terminal voltage to its field voltage can be represented by a gain K G and a time
constant T G, and the transfer function is:
V t (s) KG
= (2.14)
V F (s ) 1+ s T G
These constants are load dependent, K G may vary between 0.7 to 1, and T G
varies between 1.0 and 2.0 seconds from full-load to no-load [16].
2.7.4 Sensor Model
The voltage is sensed through a potential transformer and, it is rectified
through a bridge rectifier. The sensor is modeled by a simple first order transfer
function, given by:
V S (s) KR
=
V t ( s) 1+ s T R
(2.15)
T R is very small, and we may assume a range of 0.01 to 0.06 second [17].
Utilizing the above models results in the AVR block diagram shown in Fig.
(2.12).
16 | P a g e
Fig. (2.12): A simplified AVR block diagram.
2.8 Voltage Control Power System without Controller

2.8.1 Determination The Transfer Function between the Output and the
Input of the System is obtained as Follows:
V t (s)
From Fig. (2.12), the transfer function V (s ) is given as follows:
ref
V t (s) K A K E K g K R (1+T R s)
= (2.16)
V ref (s ) (1+ s T A )(1+ s T E )(1+s T g)(1+ s T R )+ K A K E K g K R
2.8.2 State Space Model of the System without Controller

The state space model of the load frequency system without controller is
obtained using Fig. (2.12) and is given as:
x 1=
( KG
)
x
1+T G s 2
−1 KG
⇒ ẋ 1= x 1+ x (2.18)
TG TG 2
x 2=
( KE
)
x
1+T E s 3
−1 KE
⇒ ẋ 2= x 2+ x (2.20)
TE TE 3
x 3=
( KA
1+T A s )
(V ref −x 4 )
−1 KA KA
⇒ ẋ 3= x 3− x 4+ V (2.22)
TA TA T A ref
x4 =
( KR
)
x
1+T R s 1
KR 1
⇒ ẋ 4 = x 1− x 4 (2.24)
TR TR
17 | P a g e
From equations (2.18) to (2.24), the state – space model of the system
without controller can be expressed by vector – matrix as follows:
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 KG
¿− 00
¿ ẋ 1 T G TG ¿ x1
¿ ¿0
−1 K E ¿
¿0
¿ ẋ 2 ¿0 0 ¿ x2
= T E TE + K V
¿ ¿ ¿ A ref (2.25)
¿ ẋ 3 1 K ¿ x3 TA
¿ 0 0− − A
¿ TA TA ¿ ¿0
¿ ẋ 4 K 1 ¿ x4
¿ R 0 0−
TR TR
18 | P a g e
Chapter 3
:
Voltage Control of Power
System Using PID
Chapter 3 Voltage Control of Power System using PID
Chapter 3
Voltage Control of Power System Using PID
3.1 Introduction
The primary purpose of using feedback with automatic controller in control
is to reduce the sensitivity of the system to parameter variation and unwanted
disturbances. An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant
output with the desired value, determines of the deviation and produces control
signal which will reduce the deviation to zero or to small value. So that, it is
decided in this chapter to study the effect of PID and pole placement controllers
on voltage control system. Hence, studying the stability of the system and
calculating the range of the parameters of the different types of controllers for
the system to be stable [1].
3.2 What is a PID Controller?
The term PID stands for proportional integral derivative and it is one kind of
device used to control different process variables like pressure, flow,
temperature, and speed in industrial applications. In this controller, a control
loop feedback device is used to regulate all the process variables [2].
This type of control is used to drive a system in the direction of an objective
location otherwise level. It is almost everywhere for temperature control and
used in scientific processes, automation & myriad chemical. In this controller,
Closed-loop feedback is used to maintain the real output from a method like
close to the objective otherwise output at the fixe point if possible. In this
article, the PID controller design with control modes used in them like P, I & D
are discussed [3].
3.3 History and Background of PID Control

The original technology for industrial proportional, integral, and derivative
(PID) control was pneumatic, hydraulic, or mechanical and the controller
usually had a simple interface for manual tuning. The first theoretical analysis
of a PID controller dates back to 1922 when the Russian American engineer
Nicolas Minorsky developed an automatic ship steering system for the U.S.
Navy based on observations of the steersmen’s use of current error, past error,
19 | P a g e
and rate of change to keep the ship on course. Controllers with electrical
systems were developed after World War II [4].
PID control is used to control and maintain processes. It can be used to

control physical variables such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, and tank
level. The technique is widely used in today’s manufacturing industry to
achieve accurate process control under different process conditions. PID is
simply an equation that the controller uses to evaluate the controlled variables.
A process variable (PV) temperature, for example, is measured, and a feedback
signal is sent to the controller. The controller then compares the feedback signal
to the set point (SP) and generates an error value. The value is examined with
one or more of the three proportional, integral, and derivative methodologies.
As a result, the controller issues the necessary commands or alters the control
variable (CV) to correct the error (E). These procedures form an iterative
process. Below is a common control loop application Proportional Control [5].
3.4 Theory of PID Control

PID controllers typically use control loop feedback in industrial and control
systems applications. The controller first computes a value of error as the
difference between a measured process variable and a preferred set point. It then
tries to minimize the error by increasing or decreasing the control inputs or
outputs in the process so that the process variable moves closer to the set point.
This method is most useful when a mathematical model of the process or
control is too complicated or unknown for the system. To increase performance,
such as by increasing the system’s responsiveness, PID parameters must be
adjusted according to the specific application [6].
The block diagram below shows an example of a heating process that is

controlled by a PID controller (programmable logic controller or PLC in this
case). The temperature of the furnace is controlled by adjusting the gas valve.
The operator sets the desired temperature as the set point. The furnace’s
temperature is measured, and this information is sent back to the controller. The
feedback is compared to the set point, and an error value is calculated. The PID
equations then determine the suitable valve position to correct the error. In fact,
this is an example of a PID feedback control loop [7].
20 | P a g e
One of the advantages of PID is that for many processes there are
straightforward correlations between the process responses and the use and
tuning of the three terms (P, I, and D) by the controller. Designing a PID system
involves two steps. First, the engineer must choose the structure of the PID
controller, for example P only, P and I, or all three terms P, I, and D. Second, to
tune the controller, the engineer must choose numerical values for the PID
parameters [8].
These three parameters for the PID algorithm are the proportional, integral,
and derivative constants. The proportional constant determines the reaction
based on the current error; the integral constant determines the reaction
according to the total of recent errors; and the derivative constant determines the
reaction using the rate at which the errors have been changing. These three
actions are then used to adjust the process through control elements such as the
position of a valve. In simple terms, P depends on the current error, I depend on
the sum of past errors, and D predicts future errors based on the current rate of
change of errors [9].
PID controller maintains the output such that there is zero error between the
process variable and set point/ desired output by closed-loop operations. PID
uses three basic control behaviors that are explained below.
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4.1 P-Controller
Proportional or P- controller gives an output that is proportional to current
error e(t). It compares the desired or set point with the actual value or feedback
process value. The resulting error is multiplied with a proportional constant to
get the output. If the error value is zero, then this controller output is zero [10].
3.4.2 I-Controller
Due to the limitation of p-controller where there always exists an offset
between the process variable and setpoint, I-controller is needed, which
provides necessary action to eliminate the steady-state error. It integrates the
21 | P a g e
error over a period of time until the error value reaches zero. It holds the value
to the final control device at which error becomes zero.
Integral control decreases its output when a negative error takes place. It
limits the speed of response and affects the stability of the system. The speed of
the response is increased by decreasing integral gain, Ki [11].
Fig. (3.1): PI-controller response.
In the above figure, as the gain of the I-controller decreases, the steady-state
error also goes on decreasing. For most of the cases, the PI controller is used
particularly where the high-speed response is not required. While using the PI
controller, I-controller output is limited to somewhat range to overcome the
integral wind-up conditions where the integral output goes on increasing even at
zero error state, due to nonlinearities in the plant [12].
3.4.3 D-Controller
I-controller doesn’t have the capability to predict the future behavior of
error. So, it reacts normally once the setpoint is changed. D-controller
overcomes this problem by anticipating the future behavior of the error. Its
output depends on the rate of change of error with respect to time, multiplied by
derivative constant. It gives the kick start for the output thereby increasing
system response [12].
3.5 Characteristics of Proportional, Integral and Derivative

Controllers
22 | P a g e
A proportional controller (KP) will have the effect of reducing the rise time
and will reduce but never eliminate the steady-state error. An integral control
(KI) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make
the transient response worse. A derivative control (KD) will have the effect of,
reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response [8].
Effects of each of controllers KP, KI, and KD on a closed-loop system are
summarized in the Table (3.1).
Table (3.1): Characteristics of Proportional, Integral and Derivative controllers
Closed-loop Settling
Rise Time Overshoot Steady-state Error
Response Time
Small
KP Decrease Increase Decrease
change
KI Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Small
KD Decrease Decrease Small change
change
3.6 Voltage Control Power System with PI Controller

The PI controller is common in process for voltage regulating systems.
Integral control bases its corrective action on the cumulative error integrated
over time. The integral controller adds a pole at the origin and increases the
system type by one. Moreover, PI controller reduces the steady state error of the
system to zero due to a step input [14]. The output of the PI controller is:
t
uc (t)=K P e (t)+ K I ∫ e( t) dt (3.1)
0
and the transfer function of the PI controller is obtained as:
U c (s ) KI K p s + KI
=K P + = (3.2)
E(s) s s
23 | P a g e
where: KP is the proportional gain and KI is the integral gain. Then, the block
diagram of PI controller can be represented as shown in Fig. (3.2).
Fig. (3.2): Block diagram of PI controller.
Adding the block of the PI controller into the block diagram of AVR, the
resultant block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. (3.3)
Fig. (3.3): Block diagram of the system with PI controller.
3.5
3.6
3.6.1 Transfer Function of Voltage Control System with PI Controller
The transfer function between the output Vt (s) and the input Vref (s) of the
voltage control system with PI controller is obtained from Fig. (3.3) as:
V t (s) K A K E K G (K p s + K I )
= (3.3)
V ref (s ) s(1+ s T A )(1+ s T E)(1+ s T G )(1+s T R)+ K A K E K G K R (K p s + K I )
3.6.2 State Space Model of Voltage Control System with PI Controller

The state space model of the voltage control system with PI controller is
obtained using Fig. (3.3) and is given as:
24 | P a g e
KG
x 1= x
1+ s T G 2
−1 K
⇒ ẋ 1= x 1+ G x2 (3.4)
TG TG
KE
x 2=
1+ s T E x ¿
3
¿
−1 K KA
⇒ ẋ 2= x 2+ E x 3 (3.5) x 3= x
TE TE 1+ s T A 5
−1 K
⇒ ẋ 3= x3 + A x5 (3.6)
TA TA
KR
x4 = x
1+ S T R 1
KR 1
⇒ ẋ 4 = x 1− x 4 (3.7)
TR TR
KI
x 5=( K P + )(V ref −⥂ x 4)
s
−K P K R KP
⇒ ẋ 5= x 1 +( −K I )x 4+ K I V ref (3.8)
TR TR
From equations (3.4) to (3.8), the system state space model can be expressed
in vector – matrix as follows:
[ ][ [] ] [ ]
−1 KG
0 0 0
. TG TG
x ¿1 ¿0
ẋ ¿1 −1 KE
¿ 0 0 0
¿
¿
TE TE ¿ x2 ¿0
ẋ ¿2
¿ ¿
¿
−1 KA
ẋ ¿3 = 0 0 0 ¿ x3 ⥂ + ¿ 0 V ref (3.9)
¿ TA TA ¿ ¿
¿ ẋ ¿ 4 KR −1 ¿ x4 ¿0
¿ 0 0 0 ¿ ¿
¿ ẋ ¿5 TR TR
¿ x5 KI
¿
−K P K R KP
0 0 −K I 0
TR TR
25 | P a g e
3.6.3 Voltage Control Power System with PD Controller

The derivative controller adds a finite zero to the open-loop plant transfer
function and improves the transient response. The output of the PD controller is
[8]:
de ( t )
uc ( t ) =K P e ( t ) + K D (3.10)
dt
and its transfer function is:
U c (s )
=K P + K P s (3.11)
E(s)
where:
KP is the proportional gain and KD is the integral gain.
Then, the block diagram of PD controller is represented as in Fig. (3.4).
Fig. (3.4) Block diagram of PD controller.
Adding the block diagram of the PD controller into the block diagram of
AVR, the resultant block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. (3.5).
Fig. (3.5): Block diagram of AVR with PD controller.
3.6.4 Transfer Function of Voltage Control System with PD Controller

The transfer function between the outputV t (s) and the input V ref ( s) of the
voltage control system with PI controller is obtained from Fig. (3.5) as:
26 | P a g e
V t (s) K A K E K G (K p + K D s)
= (3.12)
V ref (s ) (1+ s T A )(1+ s T E )(1+s T G )(1+ s T R )+ K A K E K G K R ( K p + K D s )
3.6.5 State Space Model of Voltage Control System with PD Controller

From the block diagram of Fig. (3.5), the state space model of the voltage
control system with PD controller can be obtained as follows:
KG
x 1= x
1+ s T G 2
−1 KG
⇒ ẋ 1= x 1+ x (3.13)
TG TG 2
KE
x 2= x
1+ s T E 3
−1 K
⇒ ẋ 2= x 2+ E x 3 (3.14)
TE TE
KA
x 3= V
1+ s T A ref
V ref =(K p + K D s)(V ref −x 4 )
−1 K
∴ ẋ3 = x 3 + A V ref (3.15)
TA TA
⇒ ẋ 3=
[ −K A K R K D
T ATR
x 1−
1
TA
x3 +
K A KD
(
T A TR
−K P ) x 4 +
KP KA
TA
V ref
]
KR
x4 = x
1+ s T R 1
KR 1
ẋ 4 = x− x
T R 1 TR 4
(3.16)
27 | P a g e
[ ][ ][ ] [ ]
−1 KG
0 0 ¿0
¿ ẋ1 TG TG ¿ x1 ¿
¿ −1 KE ¿ ¿ 0
¿ ẋ2 0 0 ¿ x2
TE TE ¿
¿ = ¿ + K P K A V ref (3.17)
−K A K D K R −1 KA KD
¿ ẋ3 0 ( −K P) ¿ x 3 ¿ T
¿ T ATR TA TA TR ¿ A
ẋ 4 KR x4 ¿
−1 0
0 0
TR TR
3.7 Voltage Control Power System with PID Controller

The combination of proportional control action, integral control action and
derivative control action is termed proportional plus integral plus derivative
control action (PID action). This combined action has the advantages of each
three individual control actions [14]. The equation of a controller with this
combined action is given by:
t
de(t )
uc (t)=K PI e (t)+ K D + K I ∫ e(t )dt (3.18)
dt 0
or the transfer function is:
U c (S ) K
=K PI + K D s+ I (3.19)
E(S) s
Then, the block diagram of PID controller is represented as in Fig. (3.6).
Fig. (3.6): Block diagram of PID controller.
Adding the block of the PID controller into the block diagram of AVR, the
resultant block diagram of system is shown in Fig. (3.7).
28 | P a g e
Fig. (3.7): Block diagram of AVR with PID controller.
3.7
3.7.1 Transfer Function of Voltage Control System with PID Controller
The transfer function between the outputV t (s) and the inputV ref ( s) of the
voltage control system with PID controller is obtained from Fig. (3.15) as:
2
V t (s) K A K E K G (K D s + K I s+ K I )(1+s T R )
= (3.20)
V ref 2
s (1+s T A )(1+ s T E )(1+s T G )(1+ s T R )+ K A K E K G K R (K D s + K P s+ K I )
3.7.2 State Space Model of Voltage Control System with PID Controller
29 | P a g e
From the block diagram of Fig. (3.7), the state space model can be obtained as
follows:
x 1=
( KG
)
x
1+T G s 2
(3.21)
−1 KG KE
⇒ ẋ 1= x 1+ x (3.22) x 2= x
TG TG 2 1+ s T E 3
−1 KE KA
⇒ ẋ 2= x 2+ x (3.23) x 3= x
TE TE 3 1+ s T A 5
−1 KA
⇒ ẋ 3= x3+ x (3.24)
TA TA 5
KR
x4 = x
1+ s T R 1
KR 1
ẋ 4 = x 1− x 4 (3.25)
TR TR
(
x 5= K P +
KI
s )
+ K D s (V ref −x 4 )
⇒˙ x 5=¿ (3.26)
From equations (3.21) to (3.26), the state space model of the system can be
obtained as follows:
30 | P a g e
3.8 Voltage Control of Power System using Pole Placement

Approach
3.8
3.8.1 Introduction
In the pole placement design method, we shall assume that all state variables
are measurable and available for feedback. This design technique begins with
determination of the desired closed-loop poles based on the transient-response
requirements, such as damping ratio, settling time, percentage overshoot/
undershoot, as well as steady-state requirements [15].
Assuming that the desired closed-loop poles are to be at s=s1, s=s2…. s=sn.
By choosing an appropriate gain matrix for state feedback, it is possible to force
the system to have closed-loop poles at the desired locations.
Full state feedback (FSF), or pole placement, is a method employed in feedback
control system theory to place the closed-loop poles of a plant in pre-determined
locations in the s-plane [16].
The pole placement technique is based upon an idea that closed loop
automatic flight control systems' pre- defined dynamic performances can be
ensured by appropriate selection of the closed loop poles, in other words, by
selection of the state feedback gain matrix, say, K.
Pole placement approach of controller design is capable of providing system
stability, setpoint tracking and disturbance rejection. The proposed work
focuses on design of a digital controller using pole placement method for
magnetic suspension ball system which is an open loop unstable system.
Closed-loop pole locations have a direct impact on time response characteristics
such as rise time, settling time, and transient oscillations. Root locus uses
compensator gains to move closed-loop poles to achieve design specifications
for SISO systems [17].
3.8.2 Pole-Placement Controller Design

The control action is achieved by feeding back the state variables through a
regulator action constant gain. Consider the control system presented in the state
– variable form as:
(3.27)
Now, consider the block diagram of the system shown in Fig. (2.1), with the
31 | P a g e
following state feedback control

u(t) = - Kx(t) (3.28)
Where: K is a (1 x n) vector of constant feedback gains. The control input r(t) is

assumed to be zero. The purpose of this design is to return all state variables to
values of zeros when the states have been perturbed [17].
Substituting from equation (3.28) into equation (3.27), the compensated system
state –variable representation becomes:
x(t) = (A – BK) x(t) = AC X(t) (3.29)
Where
A c  A  B K = closed-loop matrix.
The compensated system characteristic equation is:
|sI – AC | = 0 (3.30)
The function [K, Ac] = place (A, B, P) is developed for the pole placement
design, where A, B are system matrices and P is a row vector containing the
desired closed – loop poles. This function returns the gain vector K and the
closed – loop system matrix AC.
The block diagram of voltage control power system with pole placement
controller is constructed as shown in Fig. (3.8).
Fig. (3.8): Voltage control power system with pole placement controller.
3.9 Voltage Control of Power System with Stabilizer
32 | P a g e
Modern excitation system contains components like automatic voltage

regulators (AVR), Power System stabilizers (PSS), and filters, which help in
stabilizing the system and maintaining almost constant terminal voltage. These
components can be analog or digital depending on the complexity, viability, and
operating conditions [12].
The final aim of the excitation system is to reduce swings due to transient
rotor angle instability and to maintain a constant voltage. To do this, it is fed a
reference voltage which it has to follow, which is normally a step voltage. The
excitation voltage comes from the transmission line itself. The AC voltage is
first converted into DC voltage by rectifier units and is fed to the excitation
system via its components like the AVR, PSS etc.
3.9
3.9.1 Stability Issues and the PSS
Traditionally the excitation system regulates the generated voltage and there
by helps control the system voltage .The automatic voltage regulators (AVR)
are found extremely suitable winding for the regulation of generated voltage
through excitation control .But extensive use of AVR has detrimental effect on
the dynamic stability or steady state stability of the power system as oscillations
of low frequencies (typically in the range of 0.2 to 3 Hz) persist in the power
system for a long period and sometimes affect the power transfer capabilities of
the system [20] .
The power system stabilizers (PSS) were developed to aid in damping these
oscillations by modulation of excitation system and by this supplement stability
to the system.
The basic operation of PSS is to apply a signal to the excitation system that
creates damping torque which is in phase with the rotor oscillations.
The generator voltage is controlled by excitation systems or automatic voltage
regulators (AVR) with input reference voltage signal [21].
Generator field voltage (and current) value controls the generator terminal
voltage and consequently the network and load voltages. It may be supplied by
exciters. Exciters consist of either dc generator driven by a motor or by the shaft
of the turbine-generator or by rectifiers or thyristor units. The complete voltage
control system, including an error detector and various feedback loops, is
33 | P a g e
usually called an "excitation system". An additional control system called power

system stabilizer (PSS) is used to control voltage oscillations and to damp them
[22].
3.9.2 Stabilizer Modeling
Even for a small amplifier gain of KA = 1, system step response is not

satisfactory, and a value exceeding 12.16 results in an unbounded response.
Thus, we must increase the relative stability by introducing controller, which
would add a zero to the system open-loop transfer function [23]. One way to do
this is to add stabilizer to the control system as shown in Fig. (3.9) by proper
adjustment of the parameters KF and TF, a satisfactory response can be
obtained.
3.9.3 Transfer function of voltage control system with stabilizer
The closed – loop transfer function of the system between the output
terminal voltage Vt (s) and the input reference voltage Vref (s) is obtained from
Fig. (3.9) as:
K A K E K G K R (1  sTF )
G (s) H(s) 
(1  sTR )(1  sTG ) [(1  sTA )(1  sTE )(1  sTF )  s K A K E K F ]
(3.31)
3.9.4 State space model of voltage control system with stabilizer

From the block diagram of Fig. (3.9), the state space model of voltage
control system with stabilizer can be obtained as follows [27]
x 1=
( KG
)x
1+T G s 2
1 K
 x 1   x1  G x 2
TG TG (3.32)
34 | P a g e
KE
x2  x
1  sTE 3
1 K
 x 2   x 2  E x3
TE TE
KA
x3  V  x 4  x 5 
1  sTA ref (3.33)
1 K K K
 x 3   x 3  A x 4  A x 5  A Vref (3.34)
TA TA TA TA
KR
x4  x
1  sTR 1
KR 1 (3.35)
 x 4  x1  x
TR TR 4
s KF
x5  x
1  sTF 2
 KF K K 1 (3.36)
 x 5  x2  E F x3  x5
TE TF TE TF TF
From equations (3.33) to (3.37), the state space model of the voltage control
system with stabilizer can be obtained in vector – matrix form as follows:
1 KG
x  1     x1 
.
  0 0 0   0
TG TG 
   1 KE
   
x  2  0  0 0  x 2   0 
   TE TE    
   1 KA K   K
x  3   0 0    A  x3    A V
TA TA TA  T  ref
      A 
   KR 0 0 
1 
0  x 4   0 
x  4 
T TR    
   R    
   0  KF KEKF
0 
1  0
x 
 5  
 x TE TF TE TF TF   5 
35 | P a g e
3.10 Digital Simulation Results and Discussions
3.10
3.10.1 Simulation Results without Controller
3.10.1.1 Transfer function of voltage control without controller
Fig. (3.10): Terminal voltage step response without control .
From the Fig (3.10), we see that for an amplifier gain of KA = 10, the response
is highly oscillatory, with a very large overshoot/undershoot and a long settling
time.
3.10.1.2 State space model of voltage control without controller
36 | P a g e
Fig. (3.11): Terminal voltage step response without control by state space
model.
3.10.1.3 Simulink model of voltage control without controller

Simulink model is constructed as shown in figure (3.12) the file is opened and is
run in the SIMULINK window. The simulation results in the same response as
shown in figure (3.13).
Fig. (3.12): Block diagram of terminal voltage step response without control in
the Simulink window.
37 | P a g e
Fig. (3.13): Terminal voltage step response without control by using MATLAB.
3.10.2 Simulation Results with PI Controller
3.10.2.1 Transfer function of voltage Control with PI controller
Fig. (3.14): Terminal Voltage Step Response with PI Control.
38 | P a g e
3.10.2.2 State space model of voltage control with PI controller
Fig. (3.15): State space model of terminal voltage step response with PI control.
3.10.2.3 Simulation model of the system with PI control
Fig. (3.16): Block diagram of terminal voltage Step response with PI control in
39 | P a g e
Fig. (3.17): Terminal voltage step response with PI control by using MATLAB.
3.10.3 Simulation results with PD controller
3.10.3.1 Transfer function of voltage control with PD controller
40 | P a g e
Fig. (3.18): Terminal voltage step response with PD control.

3.10.3.2 State space model of voltage control with PD controller
Fig. (3.19): State Space Model of Terminal Voltage Step Response with PD
Control.
3.10.3.3 Simulation model of the system with PD control
Fig. (3.20): Block diagram of terminal voltage Step response with PI control in
41 | P a g e
Fig. (3.21): Terminal voltage step response with PD control by using

MATLAB.
3.10.4 Simulation Results with PID Controller
3.10.4.1 Transfer function of voltage control PID controller
42 | P a g e
Fig. (3.22): Terminal voltage step response with PID control.
3.10.4.2 State space model of voltage control PID controller
Fig. (3.23): State Space Model of Terminal Voltage Step Response with PID
Control.
3.10.4.3 Simulation model of the system with PID control
43 | P a g e
Fig.(3.24): Block diagram of terminal voltage step response with PID control in
Fig. (3.25): Terminal voltage step response with PID control by using
MATLAB.
3.10.5 Effect of Variation of the System Parameters

Different values of the system parameters KA, KR, KE and TA are taken and
the corresponding open - loop poles are calculated and the results are given in
Tables (3.2) to (3.5), respectively. The corresponding time responses are shown
in Figs. (3.26) to (3.29. (
From the obtained results, it can be concluded that:
 Increasing the values of the parameters K A, TA, KE and KR has an adverse

effect on the system stability and leads to instability case at the largest
values.
 Smaller values of the gains KA, KE and KR lead to improving the system
stability in terms of decreasing the percentage overshoot and settling
time.
 Smaller values of the exciter time constant, TA, lead to improving the
system stability in terms of less peak time, percentage overshoot, rise
time and settling time.
44 | P a g e
3.10.6 Power System with PI Controller

Table (3.6) gives the system poles for a variation in the parameter KP
between (0.05) and (0.40), while Fig. (3.30) shows the corresponding time
response. For a variation in the parameter KI between 0.1 and 0.5, the results are
shown in Table (3.7) and Fig. (3.31).
From the above results, it can be concluded that:
 Larger values of KP result in decreasing the stability limit with no

overshoot. Also, the smaller values of KP result in successive oscillations
in the system time response with a very large percentage overshoot and a
long settling time.
 Increasing or decreasing KI results in decreasing the system stability, but
the system is still stable. However, the smaller values of KI result in
overdamped time response.
3.10.7 Power System with PD Controller

For a variation in the parameter between 0.5 and 2.0, the system poles are
calculated and corresponding time response is plotted and the results are given
in Table (3.8) and Fig. (3.32), respectively. Table (3.9) and Fig. (3.33) show the
corresponding results for a variation in the parameter KD between 0.02 and 1.0.
It can be seen from the above results that

 With the considerable range of variation in KP, the system response has
successive oscillations at the larger values with large overshoot and long
setting time. Smaller values of KP result in reducing the overshoot with
small change in the settling time.
 The system time response has successive oscillations at the smaller
values of KD with very large overshoot and long setting time. Larger
values of KD result in overdamped case with relatively long rise and
settling times.
3.10.8 Power System with PID controller

Table (3.10) gives the system poles for a variation in the parameter KP
between 0.1 and 4.5, while Fig. (3.34) shows the corresponding time response.
Table (3.11) and Fig. (3.35) show the results for a variation in the parameter KI
between 0.5 and 10, while Table (3.12) and Fig. (3.36) show the corresponding
results for a variation in KD between 0.1 and 1.5.
45 | P a g e
It can be seen from the above results that:

 The system response has successive oscillations at the smaller values of KP
with very large overshoot and very long setting time. Larger values of KD
result in unbounded oscillations leading to instability case.
 The system response has successive oscillations at the larger values of KI
with very large overshoot and relatively long setting time. Smaller values of
KP result in overdamped case with relatively long settling time.
 Decreasing KD results in response with successive oscillations, while the
larger values result in sluggishly response with large overshoot.
3.10.9 Effectiveness of PI, PD and PID Controllers

Figs. (3.37), (3.38) and (3.39) show the time response of the system without
and with PI, PD, PID controllers, respectively, based on nominal values of the
controller parameters.
It can be seen from these figures that the system with PI and PID controller has
better time response in terms of less settling time and large overshoot/
undershoot compared with the case without controller. On the other hand, the
PD controller has fast time response, but with relatively smaller overshoot/
undershoot and less settling time than the PI and PID controllers.
46 | P a g e
Table (3.2): System poles and specifications due to a variation in the gain KA
between KA = 5 and 15 (without controller).
Peak Percentage Rise Settling

KA Eigenvalues
time overshoot time time
-19.082
5 -12.851 1.000 46.643 0.037 4.881
-0.783  j3.408
-18.545
7 -13.901 0.873 62.621 0.314 7.382
-0.527 j 3.903
-16.548  j0.468
10 0.792 82.472 0.247 19.043
-0.202  j4.475
-16.64 j1.385
11 0.763 88.551 0.243 36.032
-0.106 j4.636
-16.988  j2.847
13 ---- ---- ---- ----
0.073  j 4.928
47 | P a g e
Fig. (3.26): System time response due to a variation in the gain KA

(Without controller).
Table (3.3): System poles and specifications due to a variation in the time
constant TA between TA = 0.02 and 0.50 sec (without controller).
Percentag
Peak Rise Setting
TA Eigenvalues e
time time time
overshoot
-49.632
0.02 -22.159 0.655 58.028 0.234 4.563
-0.8547  j4.9269
-21.2070  j4.8424
0.05 0.700 68.946 0.239 6.760
-0.5431  j4.7908
-16.5480  j0.4681
0.10 0.792 82.469 0.247 19.046
-0.2021  j4.4753
-19.446
0.20 -9.2076 --- --- --- ---
0.0770  j3.9182
-19.828
0.50 -6.0305 --- --- --- ---
0.1793  j3.0277
48 | P a g e
Fig. (3.27) :System time response due to a variation in the time constant TA
Table (3.4): System poles and specifications due to a variation in the gain KE
between KE = 0.5 and 1.5 (without controller).
Peak Percentage Rise Setting

KE Eigenvalues
-19.082
0.5 -12.851 1.008 46.644 0.370 4.887
-0.7837  j3.4088
-18.545
0.7 -13.902 0.873 62.615 0.304 7.386
-0.5267  j3.9036
-16.5480  j0.4681
1.0 0.792 82.469 0.247 19.046
-0.2021  j4.4753
-16.736  j1.8847
1.2 0.735 94.252 0.210 273.74
-0.0140  j4.7870
-16.9880  j2.8478
1.5 --- --- --- ---
0.2378  j5.1872
49 | P a g e
Fig. (3.28): System time response due to a variation in the gain KE

(Without controller).
Table (3.5): System poles and specifications due to a variation in the gain KR
between KR = 0.5 and 2.0 (without controller).

KR Eigenvalues
-19.082
0.5 -12.851 1.008 46.644 0.370 4.887
-0.7837  j3.4088
-18.545
0.7 -13.902 0.873 62.615 0.304 7.386
-0.5267  j3.9036
-16.5480  j0.4681
1.0 0.792 82.469 0.247 19.046
-0.2021  j4.4753
-16.988  j2.8478
1.5 --- --- --- ---
0.2378  j5.1872
-17.349  j3.8529
2.0 --- --- --- ---
0.5993  j5.7346
Fig. (3.29): System time response due to a variation in the gain KR
50 | P a g e
Table (3.6): System poles and specifications due to a variation in the parameter
KP between KP = 0.05 and 0.4 (with PI controller).
KP Eigenvalues
-19.947
-10.148
0.05 2.409 79.744 0.741 69.677
-0.0539  j1.4982
-3.297
-19.869
-10.495
0.1 2.405 56.240 0.834 18.305
-0.2038  j1.6108
-2.7288
-19.704
-11.117
0.2 2.249 21.041 0.942 5.998
-0.5202  j1.9771
-1.6384
-19.526
-11.681
0.3 4.550 1.039 1.161 3.946
-0.6462  j2.4817
-1.000
-19.332
-12.213 6.974e006
0.4 14.735 2.782 5.549
-0.6183  j2.9103 0
-0.7177
51 | P a g e
Fig. (3.30): System time response due to a variation in the parameter KP

(With PI controller).
KI between KI = 0.1 and 0.5 (with PI controller).
Percentage Rise Settling
KI Eigenvalues Peak time
overshoot time time
-19.687
-11.221
0.1 -1.0936  j2.0956
-- -- 5.234 10.072
-0.40508
-19.695
-11.169
0.2 -0.8175  j1.9691
5.822 0.119 1.443 4.676
-1.000
-19.704
-11.117
0.3 -0.5202  j1.9771
2.249 21.041 0.942 5.998
-1.6384
-19.713
-11.064
0.4 -0.2987  j2.0553
2.042 41.605 0.769 11.548
-2.1260
-19.721
-11.009
0.5 -0.1346  j2.1419
1.931 59.648 0.668 26.963
-2.500
52 | P a g e
Fig. (3.31): System time response due to a variation in the parameter KI (with PI
controller).
KP between KP = 0.5 and 2.0 (with PD controller).

KP Eigenvalues
-23.351
0.5 -3.8245  j6.0632 --- --- 0.796 1.472
-2.500
-23.234
0.7 -3.1837  j5.8334 0.873 0.523 0.460 0.7290
-3.8981
-23.052
1.0 -2.2360  j5.9097 0.702 16.853 0.309 1.449
-5.9761
-22.723
1.5 -1.2222  j6.3843 0.605 41.753 0.229 3.101
-8.3322
-22.358
2 -0.5711  j6.8291 0.543 63.218 0.193 6.566
-10.00
53 | P a g e

(With PD controller).
KD between KD = 0.02 and 1.0 (with PD controller).

KD Eigenvalues
-18.768
0.02 -14.012 0.750 73.652 0.250 10.495
-0.36016  j4.559
-21.309
0.1 -1.0955  j4.9609 0.730 43.975 0.274 3.414
-10.000
-23.052
0.2 -2.236  j5.9097 0.702 16.853 0.309 1.449
-5.9761
-26.232
0.5 -2.6487  j9.970 --- --- 0.985 2.025
-1.9702
-29.498
1.0 -1.5009  j13.572 --- --- 2.130 3.900
-1.000
Fig. (3.33): System time response due to a variation in the parameter KD
54 | P a g e
(With PD controller).
KP between KP = 0.1 and 4.5 (with PID controller).

KP Eigenvalues
-27.939
0.1 -2.7386  j1.9180 2.200 92.659 0.660 92.144
-0.0417  j1.4671
-27.799
0.7 -2.4254  j11.694 2.188 40.375 0.82368 9.153
-0.4250  j1.4454
-27.655
1.3 -2.0743  j11.495 2.440 12.915 1.097 3.773
-0.8482  j1.2907
-27.481
2.0 -1.6233  j11.311 4.054 0.345 1.717 2.792
-1.3862  j0.7658
-26.801
0.0189  j11.204
4.5 --- --- --- ---
-6.3134
-0.4237
55 | P a g e

(with PID controller).
KI between KI = 0.5 and 10.0 (with PID controller).
KI Eigenvalues
-27.643
-2.0300  j11.556
0.5 --- --- 4.812 8.647
-1.2852
-0.5112
-27.648
1.0 -2.0468  j11.532 4.254 2.397 2.024 4.856
-0.8793  j0.7383
-27.655
1.8 -2.0743  j11.4950 2.440 12.915 1.097 3.773
-0.8482  j1.2907
-27.683
5.0 -2.1945  j11.341 1.246 43.143 0.420 5.364
-0.7139  j2.5016
-27.727
10.0 -2.4227  j11.094 0.863 74.196 0.237 8.599
-0.4640  j3.7108
56 | P a g e
Fig. (3.35): System time response due to a variation in the parameter KI

KD between KD = 0.1 and 1.5 (with PID controller).
KD Eigenvalues
-21.081
-10.527
0.1 2.208 17.145 0.552 17.874
-0.1449  j5.0281
-1.6028
-25.264
0.4 -2.6051  j8.5077 2.142 4.351 0.945 2.849
-1.5128  j1.4870
-27.655
0.7 -2.0743  j11.495 2.440 12.915 1.097 3.773
-0.8482  j1.2907
-29.455
1.0 -1.4154  j13.462 2.749 18.956 1.202 6.406
-0.6073  j1.1396
-31.804
1.5 -0.4306  j15.859 3.185 26.276 1.365 7.902
-0.4176  j97461
Fig. (3.36): System time response due to a variation in the parameter KD
57 | P a g e
3.10.10 Comparison between Results by Using MATLAB
3.10.10.1 Comparison between terminal voltage step response with /

without PI control
58 | P a g e
Fig. (3.37): System time response based on nominal values of the system
and controller parameters (without and with PI controller).
3.10.10.2 Comparison between terminal voltage step response with /
without PD control
59 | P a g e
and controller parameters (without and with PD controller).
3.10.10.3 Comparison between Terminal Voltage Step Response with /
without PID Control
60 | P a g e
and controller parameters (without and with PID controller).

3.10.11 Voltage Control power system with Stabilizer
The system poles without controller based on the nominal values of the
system parameters given in section (2.8.1) are computed as:
(-0.2021  j4.4753, -16.5480  j0.4681)
The system with stabilizer controller based on the nominal values of the
system parameters given in section (3.9.3) are computed as:
(-18.726  j111.73, -0.52108  j0.51377) and the corresponding time response
specifications are given as:
Peak time = 0.792 sec Percent overshoot = 82.469
Rise time = 0.247 sec Settling time = 19.046 sec
With stabilizer, the corresponding time response specifications of the closed
– loop system are obtained as:
3.10.11.1 Effect of variation of the system parameters
In the following, the system poles are computed and the corresponding time
responses are plotted at different values of the system parameters.
Table (3.13) gives the closed-loop poles of the system for different values of the
stabilizer gain KF between KF = 0.1 and 7.0. System specifications such as peak
time, percentage overshoot, rise time and settling time are included in the same
table. Fig. (3.40) shows the system time response for three extreme values of KF
(KF = 0.1, 2.0 and 7.0. The corresponding results for a variation in KA between 5
and 100 are shown in Table (3.14) and Fig. (3.41), While Table (3.15) and Fig.
(3.42) show the results for a variation in KE between 0.2 and 100. Table (3.15)
and Fig. (3.43) show the results for a variation in KE between 0.5 and 10.0,
Table (3.16) and Fig. (3.44) show the corresponding results for a variation in KR
between 0.5 and 2.0.
61 | P a g e
From the obtained results, it can be concluded that:
 Larger values of stabilizer gain KF result in response with no overshoot with

larger settling times. The smaller values of KF result in large overshoot with
smaller settling time.
 Increasing or decreasing KA and KE results in small change in the percentage
overshoot and the settling time. They are increased at the larger values and
decreased at the smaller values.
 Increasing KG and KR result in increasing the percentage overshoot and
decreasing the settling time. On the other hand, the time response with
smaller values of KG and KR has no – overshoot with larger settling time.
3.10.11.2 Effectiveness of stabilizer

Fig. (3.45) shows the time response of the system without and with stabilizer
based on nominal values of the system parameters.
It can be seen from Fig. (3.45) that the voltage control system with stabilizer has
good dynamic response in terms of less settling time and less overshoot
compared with the case without stabilizer.
Table (3.13) System Poles and Specifications due to a Variation in the

Stabilizer Gain KF between KF = 0.1 and 7.0 (with Stabilizer).
62 | P a g e

KF Eigenvalues
-8.532  j24.456
0.1 -20.109 1.2065 45.395 0.467 5.245
-0.66349  j2.6119
-18.705  j78.953
1.0 -20.011 3.595 14.169 1.649 7.2813
-0.5398  j0.86739
-18.726  j111.73
2.0 -20.005 6.084 4.135 2.955 8.079
-0.52108  j0.51377
-18.74  j176.74
-20.002
5.0 -- -- 8.175 14.584
-0.71166
-0.30581
-18.743  j209.13
-20.002
7.0 -- -- 12.089 21.960
-0.82313
-0.18944
Fig.(3.40): System time response due to a variation in the stabilizer

gain KF (with stabilizer).
Table (3.14): System Poles and Specifications due to a Variation in the
Amplifier Gain KA between KA = 5 and 100 (with Stabilizer).
63 | P a g e

KA Eigenvalues
-18.704  j78.955
5 -20.005 5.960 3.829 2.906 7.799
-0.5436  j0.5233
-18.716  j3.457
7 -20.005 6.028 4.001 2.920 7.968
-0.5309  j.5181
18.726  j11.73
10 -20.005 6.084 4.135 2.955 8.079
-0.5211  j0.5138
-18.738  j158.07
20 -20.005 6.145 4.296 2.984 8.226
-0.5094  j0.5084
18.748  j353.53
100 -20.005 6.202 4.430 3.021 8.363
-0.4998  j0.5037
Fig.(3.41): System time response due to a variation in the amplifier

gain KA (with stabilizer).
Table (3.15) System poles and specifications due to a variation in the
Exciter Gain KE between KE = 0.2 and 100 (with stabilizer).
64 | P a g e
Percentage Rise Settling

KE Eigenvalues Peak time
overshoot time time
-18.642  j49.815
0.2 -20.005 5.750 3.043 2.776 7.088
-0.6052  j0.5443
-18.704  j78.955
0.5 -20.005 5.960 3.829 2.906 7.799
-0.5436  j0.5234
-18.726  j111.73
1.0 -20.005 6.084 4.135 2.955 8.079
-0.5211  j0.5138
-18.749  j499.99
20 -20.005 6.198 4.447 3.029 8.384
-0.4986  j0.5031
-18.75  j1118i
10
-20.005 6.210 4.460 3.014 8.400
0
-0.4976  j0.5026
Fig.(3.42): System time response due to a variation in the exciter

gain KE (with stabilizer).
Generator Gain KG between KG = 0.5 and 10.0 (with stabilizer).
65 | P a g e

KG Eigenvalues
-18.726  j111.74
0.5 -20.003 -- -- 5.91147 10.0438
-0.52271  j0.1375
-18.726  j111.74
0.7 -20.004 9.156 0.826 4.176 6.474
-0.5221  j0.3420
-18.726  j111.73
1.0 -20.005 6.084 4.135 2.955 8.079
-0.5211  j0.5138
-18.729  j111.73
5.0 -20.026 2.067 34.350 0.846 7.046
-0.5081  j1.4907
-18.730  i111.72
10.0 -20.051 1.423 49.093 0.549 7.601
-0.4901  j2.1615
Fig.(3.43): System time response due to a variation in the generator

gain KG (with stabilizer).
Sensor Gain KR between KR = 0.5 and 2.0 (with stabilizer).
KR Eigenvalues Peak Percentage Rise Settling
66 | P a g e

-18.726  j111.74
0.5 -20.003 -- -- 5.911 10.044
-0.5227  j0.1375
-18.726  j111.74
0.7 -20.004 9.156 0.826 4.176 6.474
-0.5221  j0.3419
-18.726  j111.73
1.0 -20.005 6.084 4.135 2.955 8.079
-0.5211  j0.5138
-18.727  j111.73
1.5 -20.008 4.370 10.160 2.060 6.661
-0.5195  j0.7134
-18.727  j111.73
2.0 -20.011 3.573 15.371 1.641 7.802
-0.5178  j0.8683
Fig.(3.44): System time response due to a variation in the sensor

gain KR (with stabilizer).
 Comparison between Terminal Voltage Time Response with /
without Stabilizer
67 | P a g e
Fig.(3.45): System time response based on nominal values of the

System parameters (without and with stabilizer).
3.10.12 Power System with Pole Placement Controller

3.10.12.1 Voltage control power system with pole placement controller
The closed – loop voltage control power system based on pole placement
approach is simulated to plot the system time response when the system is
subjected to load disturbance.
The system poles without controller based on the nominal values of the system
parameters given in section (2.8.1) are:
(-0.2021  j4.4753, -16.5480  j0.4681)

and the corresponding time response specifications are obtained as:

The damping ratio () of the dominant closed – loop poles is selected as  = 0.4
and undamped natural frequency (n) is same as the case without controller.
Then, the closed – loop poles of system will be:
(-1.5000  j4.4753, -16.548  j0.4681)
Using MATLAB software package, the state - feedback gain matrix (K) is
calculated as:
68 | P a g e
K  0.1073 0.1085 0.0259  0.1207

The corresponding time response specifications of the closed – loop system is
obtained as:
In the following, the system time response is plotted and the system poles are
calculated for different values of system parameters based on pole placement
controller.
Table (3.18) gives the closed-loop eigenvalues of the system for different
Values of the parameter KA. System specifications in terms of peak time,
percentage overshoot, rise time and settling time are included in the same table.
Fig. (3.46) shows the system time response for three extreme values of KA (KA =
5, 10 and 15). The corresponding results for a variation in T A between 0.02 and
0.5 sec are shown in Table (3.19) and Fig. (3.47), while Table (3.20) and Fig.
(3.48) show the results for a variation in K E between 0.5 and 1.5, Table (3.21)
and Fig. (3.49) show the results for a variation in KR between 0.5 and 2.0.
From the above results, it can be seen that the system with pole placement
controller has fast response in terms of less peak time, less overshoot/
undershoot and less settling time compared the case without controller over a
wide range variation of the system parameters.
3.10.12.2 Effectiveness of pole placement controller

Fig. (3.50) shows the time response of the system without and with pole
placement controller based on nominal values of the system and controller
parameters.
It can be seen from Fig. (3.50) that the system with pole placement controller
modifies the dynamic time response of the voltage control power system and the
system is fast damped compared with the case without controller. This ensures
that the pole placement controller improves the overall dynamic performance of
voltage control power system.
Table (3.18) System Poles and Specifications due to a Variation in the
Amplifier Gain KA between KA = 5 and 15 (with pole placement controller).
69 | P a g e
Peak Percentage Setting

KA Eigenvalues Rise time
time overshoot time
-19.158
5 -12.606 1.022 23.132 0.422 2.353
-1.5173  j3.3725
-1.494  j4.1017
8 -18.28 0.850 30.089 0.341 2.597
-14.309
-1.500  j4.4753
10 0.780 32.914 0.307 2.433
-16.548  j46812
-1.5173  j4.7915
12 0.725 34.866 0.283 2.294
-16.790  j2.0419
-1.5578  j5.1886
15 0.674 36.741 0.263 2.561
-17.139  j3.1278
Fig. (3.46): System time response due to a variation in the amplifier gain KA
(with pole placement controller).
Table (3.19) System poles and specifications due to a variation in the amplifier
time constant TA between TA = 0.02 and 0.5 sec (with pole placement
controller).
70 | P a g e
Peak Percentage Setting

TA Eigenvalues Rise time
time overshoot time
-60.524
0.02 -21.612 0.741 20.616 0.318 1.736
-2.1714  j4.3154
-22.410  j4.4281
0.05 0.749 25.043 0.310 1.772
-1.9357  j4.4332
-1.500  j4.4753
0.10 0.780 32.914 0.307 2.433
-16.548  j46812
-19.499
0.20 -0.8732  j4.1884 0.870 45.697 0.321 4.100
-8.5524
-19.847
0.50 -5.5364 1.133 62.621 0.409 11.678
-0.3177  j3.3184
Fig. (3.47): System time response due to a variation in the amplifier

time constant TA (with pole placement controller).
Table (3.20): System poles and specifications due to a variation in the exciter
gain KE between KE = 0.5 and 1.5 (with pole placement controller).
71 | P a g e
Percentag
Peak Setting
KE Eigenvalues e Rise time
time time
overshoot
-18.958
0.5 -13.953 1.068 20.073 0.452 2.412
-1.5922  j3.1931
-18.391
0.7 -14.606 0.910 26.213 0.374 2.136
-1.5494  j3.7700
-1.500  j4.4753
1.0 0.780 32.914 0.307 2.433
-16.548  j46812
-1.4750  j4.8777
1.2 0.719 36.269 0.278 2.712
-16.573  j1.6224
-1.4472  j5.4129
1.5 0.649 40.178 0.242 2.564
-16.601  j2.4702
Fig. (3.48): System time response due to a variation in the exciter gain KE (with
Table (3.21) System poles and specifications due to a variation in the sensor
gain KR between KR = 0.5 and 2.0 (with pole placement controller).
72 | P a g e
Percentag
Peak Setting
KR Eigenvalues e Rise time
time time
overshoot
-19.089
0.5 -2.1617  j3.3859 1.022 12.627 0.458 1.531
-12.684
1.8629  j3.8989
0.7 -18.554 0.891 20.976 0.376 2.013
-13.816
-1.500  j4.4753
1.0 0.780 32.914 0.307 2.433
-16.548  j46812
-1.0247  j5.1786
1.5 0.673 50.805 0.244 3.796
-17.023  j2.8610
-0.6436  j5.7128
2.0 0.606 66.527 0.218 5.687
-17.404  j3.8538
Fig. (3.49): System time response due to a variation in the sensor gain KR
(with pole placement controller).
 Comparison between Terminal Voltage Step Response with /

without Pole Placement
73 | P a g e
Fig. (3.50): System time response based on nominal values of the system and
controller parameters (without and with pole placement controller).
74 | P a g e
Chapter 4
:
Conclusion of the present
work
Chapter 4 Conclusion of the Present Work
Chapter 4
Conclusion of the Present Work
Conclusion
From the results obtained in this project, the following items can
be concluded:
1. An application of different control techniques for a design of voltage

control power systems with their description is introduced. Modeling
of these systems is derived and represented in a block diagram. The
system parameters are determined inside stability range of power
system using Routh – Hurwitz stability criterion.
2. PI, PD and PID controllers are designed for establishing feedback

and voltage control systems and their parameters are determined
inside stability range of power system. Effects of variation of
controller's parameters on the system time response are presented.
3. Modern control approaches represented in pole placement technique

and optimal control approach are applied to design a closed – loop
voltage control power systems in order to allocate the system closed
– loop poles at specified locations in the s - plane.
4. PID controller and controllers based on modern control approaches

are designed for establishing voltage control power systems.
5. Voltage control power systems is simulated and subjected to certain

disturbance to validate the effectiveness of the proposed control
methods to design a closed – loop voltage control system.
6. Digital simulation results show the advantages and disadvantages of

each control techniques.
7. All voltage control methods are implemented by MATLAB
73
References
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362.
2. HadI Saadat, “Power System Analysis”, Tata Mc Graw- hill, New York, pp ,555-
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3. ALAzzam, H.W. Lewis, “A New Optimization Algorithm for Combinatorial
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75
‫الملخص العربي‬
‫من المع روف أن ه يمكن التحكم في الطاق ة الكهربائي ة المول دة بواس طة الق وة‬
‫الميكانيكية للمحرك الرئيسي‪ .‬يمكن أن يؤدي فتح أو إغالق صمام البخار أو الماء‬
‫إلى التحكم في القدرة الميكانيكية أو التوربينات الهيدروليكية‪ .‬يحتوي نظام الطاق ة‬
‫على نظ امين أساس يين للتحكم ‪ ،‬وهم ا حلق ة التحكم في الجه د التف اعلي وحلق ة‬
‫التحكم في تردد الطاقة‪.‬‬
‫ركزالبحث التطبيقي الحالي على مشاكل إنشاء حالة التشغيل العادية والجدولة المثلى لتولي د‬
‫نظام الطاقة وتتعامل مع التحكم في القوى التفاعلي ة من أج ل الحف اظ على النظ ام في حال ة‬
‫مستقرة‪ .‬الهدف من نظام التحكم في الجهد هو توليد الطاقة في نظام مترابط بشكل اقتصادي‬
‫وموثوق قدر اإلمكان ‪ ،‬مع الحفاظ على الجهد ضمن الحدود المسموح بها‪.‬‬
‫الزيادة في حمل الطاقة التفاعلية للمولد مصحوبة بانخف اض في حجم الجه د الط رفي ل ذا تم‬
‫استشعار مقدار الجهد من خالل محول محتم ل في مرحل ة واح دة وتم تص حيح ه ذا الجه د‬
‫ومقارنته بإشارة نقطة ضبط التيار المستمر‪ .‬تتحكم إشارة الخطأ المضخمة في مجال المثير‬
‫وتزيد من جهد طرف المثير‪ .‬وبالتالي ‪ ،‬يتم زيادة تيار مجال المولد ‪ ،‬مما ي ؤدي إلى زي ادة‬
‫‪ emf‬المتولدة وتم زيادة توليد الطاقة التفاعلية إلى توازن جديد ‪ ،‬مما يرف ع الجه د الط رفي‬
‫إلى القيمة المطلوبة‪ .‬تم أوالً تحليل دور التحكم التلقائي في التوليد (‪ )AGC‬في تشغيل نظام‬
‫الطاقة ‪ ،‬مع اإلشارة إلى التحكم في طاقة خط الربط في ظل ظروف التشغيل العادية‪ .‬أخيرً ا‬
‫‪ ،‬يتم فحص متطلبات القدرة التفاعلية وتنظيم الجهد والتأثير على اس تقرار ك ل من عناص ر‬
‫التحكم في السرعة واإلثارة ‪ ،‬مع استخدام إشارات التغذية الراجعة المناسبة‪.‬‬
‫تم إجراء الوصف والنمذجة أعاله لنظام التحكم في الجهد الف ردي‪ .‬تم تص ميم وح دة التحكم‬
‫التقليدية المتناسبة والتكاملية والمشتقة (‪ )PID‬إلنشاء نظام التحكم في ت ردد تحمي ل التغذي ة‬
‫المرتدة‪ .‬يتم تحديد معلمات وحدة التحكم ‪ PID‬داخل نطاق استقرار نظام الطاقة‪.‬‬
‫تم تمثيل نهج التحكم الحديث في تقنية وضع العم ود ال ذي يتم تطبيق ه لتص ميم نظ ام التحكم‬
‫في الجهد الكهربائي ذي الحلقة المغلقة‪ .‬تم تصميم نظام التحكم في الجهد الكهربائي للمنطق ة‬
‫الواحدة باستخدام طرق التحكم المقترحة‪ .‬للتحقق من فعالية طرق التحكم المقترح ة لتص ميم‬
‫نظ ام التحكم في جه د الحلق ة المغلق ة ‪ ،‬تتم محاك اة أنظم ة الق درة ذات المنطق ة الواح دة‬
‫وتعريضها الضطرابات مختلفة‪.‬‬
‫طالما أن هذا البحث التطبيقي يقدم دراسة نظرية ‪ ،‬فان هذا البحث التطبيقي يستعين ب برامج‬
‫المحاكاة لفحص كفاءة المتحكم المق ترح في ه ذا البحث التط بيقي ‪ ،‬وعلي ه ذا يتم اس تخدام‬
‫برنامج ( ‪. ) Simulink / Matlab‬‬
‫يحتوي البحث التطبيقي علي أربعة أبواب وقائم ة المراج ع ال تي تم الرج وع اليه ا في ه ذا‬
‫البحث التطبيقي وفيما يلي محتوي هذه األبواب ‪:‬‬
‫الباب األول ‪ :‬بعنوان " المقدمة " وفيه تم تقديم مراجعة موجزة للنقاط األساسية التي س وف‬
‫يتم التعرض لها خالل أبواب البحث التطبيقي المختلفة وك ذلك يوض ح ه ذا الب اب األه داف‬
‫المرجوة من هذا البحث التطبيقي مع توضيح سريع وموجز لكل باب من االبواب األربعة‪.‬‬
‫الباب الثاني ‪ :‬تحت عنوان " وصف ونمذجة نظام التحكم في الجهد" وفيه تم اعطاء مقدمة‬
‫عامة عن توص يف ونمذج ة التحكم في جه د الحم ل حيث أن الوس يلة األساس ية للتحكم في‬
‫القدرة التفاعلية للمولد هي التحكم في إث ارة المول د باس تخدام (‪ )AVR‬وال ذي يتمث ل دور (‬
‫‪ )AVR‬في االحتفاظ بحجم الجهد الطرفي للمولد المتزامن عن د مس توى مح دد م ع دراس ة‬
‫نظام طاقة التحكم في الجهد بدون جهاز تحكم‪.‬‬
‫الباب الثالث ‪ :‬تحت عنوان " التحكم في الجهد لنظام الطاقة باستخدام ‪PID‬‬
‫" في هذا الفصل تقرر دراسة تأثير التحكم باستخدام ال ‪ PID‬ودراسة تأثير وحدات تحكم‬
‫موضع القطب علي التحكم في جهد الحمل ‪،‬وتم استعراض نبذة تاريخية عن طريق ة التحكم‬
‫باستخدام ‪ PID‬ونظرية عمله ومكوناته تس تخدم وح دات التحكم ‪ PID‬ع اد ًة تعليق ات حلق ة‬
‫التحكم في تطبيقات األنظمة الصناعية وأنظمة التحكم‪ .‬تقوم وحدة التحكم أوالً بحس اب قيم ة‬
‫الخطأ على أنها الفرق بين متغير العملية المقاسة ونقطة الض بط المفض لة‪ .‬ثم يح اول تقلي ل‬
‫الخطأ عن طري ق زي ادة أو تقلي ل م دخالت أو مخرج ات التحكم في العملي ة بحيث يق ترب‬
‫متغير العملي ة من نقط ة التحدي د‪ .‬تك ون ه ذه الطريق ة مفي دة للغاي ة عن دما يك ون النم وذج‬
‫الرياضي للعملية أو التحكم معق ًدا ج ًدا أو غير مع روف للنظ ام‪ .‬لزي ادة األداء ‪ ،‬مث ل زي ادة‬
‫استجابة النظام ‪ ،‬يجب ضبط معلمات ‪ PID‬وف ًقا للتطبيق المحدد‬
‫الب اب الراب ع ‪ :‬تحت عن وان " االس تنتاجات والش غل المس تقبلي " وفي ه يتم ايج از أهم‬
‫االستنتاجات التي تم الحصول عليه ا في ه ذا البحث التط بيقي والنق اط المقترح ة لدراس تها‬
‫مستقبليا في مجال موضوع البحث التطبيقي ‪.‬‬
‫التحكم في القدرة الغير فعالة والجهد لمنظومة قوى‬
‫باستخدام تقنيات تحكم مختلفة‬
‫مقدمه من‬
‫م‪ /‬نعمة عصر فكري‬
‫للحصول على درجة الماجستير في الهندسة الكهربائية‬
‫لجنه االشراف‪:‬‬
‫ا‪ .‬د‪ /‬النوبى أحمد ابراهيم‬
‫(استاذ متفرغ بقسم الهندسة الكهربائية – كلية الهندسة – جامعة أسيوط )‬
‫لجنه الحكم‬
‫ا‪ .‬د‪ /‬حمدي أحمد زيدان‬
‫(استاذ الهندسة الكهربائية – كلية الهندسة – جامعه اسيوط)‬
‫ا‪ .‬د‪ /‬فريد نجيب عبد البر‬
‫(استاذ الهندسة الكهربائية – كلية الهندسة – جامعه اسيوط)‬
‫(استاذ متفرغ بقسم الهندسة الكهربائية – كلية الهندسة – جامعه اسيوط)‬
‫‪2022‬‬
‫التحكم في القدرة الغير فعالة والجهد لمنظومة قوى‬
‫باستخدام تقنيات تحكم مختلفة‬
‫مقدمه من‬
‫م ‪ /‬نعمة عصر فكري‬
‫للحصول عل درجه الماجستير في الهندسة الكهربائية‬
‫لجنة االشراف‪:‬‬

‫(استاذ متفرغ بقسم الهندسة الكهربائية‬
‫كلية الهندسة – جامعه اسيوط)‬
‫‪2022‬‬

Automatic Voltage Control Research Book RETRAY

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Automatic Voltage Control Research Book RETRAY

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Reactive Power and Voltage Control of Power

System using Different Control Techniques

Submitted In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

Department of Electrical Engineering

Eng. Neama Asar Fikery

Eng. Neama Asar Fikery

Supervised by: Examined by:

In the name of Allah, the most gracious, the most

I would like to express my great thanks to Prof.Dr.

Neama Asar Fikery,

The modern control approach represented in pole placement technique is

3.2 What is a PID Controller? 18

3.10.2.3 Simulation model of the system with PI control 37

Figure. Title page

3.12 Block diagram of terminal voltage step response without controller in

3.16 Block diagram of terminal voltage step response with PI controller in

3.17 Terminal voltage step response with PI control by using MATLAB 38

3.20 Block diagram of terminal voltage step response with PD controller in

3.26 System time response due to a variation in the gain KA (without

Theoretically, the instantaneous amount of reactive power in a power system

By using a potential transformer, a voltage magnitude is sensed on single

1.2 Reactive Power Sources and their Control Devices

1.3 Methods of Voltage Controls

1.4 Overview on Different Voltage and Reactive Power Control

Many Utilities operate shunt capacitors locally by using conventional

The application of dispatch schedule-based load forecasting is motivated by

Different objective functions and operating constraints have been proposed

1.5 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

1.6 Working Principle of Voltage Regulator

1.7 Application of the Automatic Voltage Regulator

2. It divides the reactive load between the alternators operating in parallel.

When there is a sudden change in load in the alternator, there should be a

1.8 Objectives of Power System Operation and Control

1.9 Thesis Organization

The role of automatic generation control (AGC) in power system operation,

2.2 Basic Generator Control Loops

The reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage magnitude (i.e., on

2.3 Objective of Power System Control

13- To avoid voltage instabilities and to prevent blackouts

2.4 Means of Power System Controls

2.5 Role of Control in Power System

The principal system components are: the generation system, the

2.6 Controllers and System Transfer Functions

Transfer function may only be defined for a linear, stationary (constant

Fig.(2.2): Proportional control element (potentiometer).

2.6.1.2 Gain/Time delay control circuit

Fig.(2.3): Gain/Time delay control circuit.

2.6.1.3 Integrating controller RC circuit

Fig.(2.4): An RC network Integrator element.

2.6.1.4 A differentiating RC controller circuit

Fig.(2.5): RC Differentiating circuit.

2.6.2 Electronic Controllers

Fig.(2.6): Electronic Proportional controller.

2.6.2.2 Electronic integrator controllers

Two stages of operational amplifiers circuits arranged as showon in Fig.(2.7)

Fig.(2.7): Electronic operational amplifier integrator controller.

2.6.2.3 Electronic PI controller

Fig.(2.8): Electronic PI controller.

The proportional plus derivative (PD) controller is a simplified version of lead

The value of KP is usually determined to satisfy the steady state requirements.

Fig.(2.9) Electronic PD controller.

2.6.2.5 Electronic PID controller