English C I – Dr Mª Ángeles Conde Parrilla

LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES

Mark HARRISON, First Certificate Skills: Use of English (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004, ISBN 0194533719), 45-58

CONTRASTS
ALTHOUGH / EVEN THOUGH
At beginning of sentence or between clauses Although / Even though her job is hard, her salary is low
“Even though” is more emphatic Her salary is low, although / even though her job is hard

THOUGH
At beginning of sentence or between clauses
At end or between two clauses of second sentence
Though her job is hard, her salary is low
Her salary is low, though her job is hard
Her job is hard. Her salary is low though
Her job is hard. Her salary is low, though, so she’s leaving

HOWEVER
At beginning of second sentence Her job is hard. However, her salary is low
At end or between two clauses of second sentence Her job is hard. Her salary is low however
Her job is hard. Her salary is low, however, so she’s leaving

NEVERTHELESS / EVEN SO
At beginning or end of second sentence I know he has some bad habits. Nevertheless you shouldn’t be so rude to him
= ‘although that is true’ / To emphasize that second statement is also true I know he has some bad habits. You shouldn’t be so rude to him, even so

YET
Between two clauses Her job is hard yet her salary is low
= ‘but’ / Emphatic for surprising or unusual contrasts

IN SPITE OF / DESPITE
At beginning of sentence or between clauses She can’t find a job in spite of / despite her qualifications (+ noun / pronoun)
In spite of / despite leaving early, I arrived late (+ -ing: same subject)
In spite of the fact that they live near me, I don’t see them very often (different subjects)

ON THE OTHER HAND

To introduce a fact that contrasts with the preceding one It’s a nice place to visit. On the other hand, it’s rather expensive

WHILE
To compare My brother is good at sciences while I’m good at languages
Before a true statement that is less important than the following one While I understand your problem, there’s nothing I can do to help you

WHEREAS
At beginning of sentence or between clauses Whereas I like sport, my friends hate it
= ‘while’ / Emphatic comparison I like sport, whereas my friends hate it

CAUSES
BECAUSE
At beginning of sentence or between clauses Because of the bad weather we couldn’t travel (+ noun or pronoun)
We couldn’t travel because the weather was bad (+ subject + verb)

SINCE / AS
Often at beginning of sentence Since / As we don’t have much time, we’ll have to hurry
= ‘because’ / To introduce a logical or expected result

DUE TO / OWING TO / IN VIEW OF / ON ACCOUNT OF

At beginning of sentence or between clauses The event was cancelled due to / on account of lack of interest (+ noun or pronoun)
= ‘because of’ It was cancelled owing to the fact that not enough tickets were sold (+ subject + verb)
Formal

RESULTS
SO
Between clauses, after comma or with “and” I wasn’t listening, so I don’t know what he said
To introduce the result of something I was tired and so went to bed

THEREFORE
At beginning of sentence followed by comma or between clauses with “and” We’d lost our tickets. Therefore, we couldn’t see the show
More formal than “so” We’d lost our tickets and therefore we couldn’t see the show

AS A RESULT OF / AS A RESULT
At beginning of sentence or between clauses with “and” The company was doing badly. As a result, many people lost their jobs (+ subject +
verb)
As a result of losing his job, he became depressed (+ -ing)
Many people lost their jobs as a result of the company’s difficulties (+ noun or pronoun)

THEN
At beginning or end of a response expressing a result ‘There are no buses at this time of night.’ — ‘Then we’ll have to get a taxi’
 English C I – Dr Mª Ángeles Conde Parrilla
ALTERNATIVES
INSTEAD OF / INSTEAD
To introduce a choice that is preferred to something else Instead of taking the bus, I walked (+ -ing: same subject)
Let’s sit at that table instead of this one (+ noun or pronoun)
I don’t feel like doing it now. I’ll do it tomorrow instead

RATHER THAN
To introduce a choice that is preferred to something else Rather than waste any more time, I gave up (+ bare infinitive)
Rather than standing there, why don’t you help? (+ -ing)
I bought the blue one rather than the red one (+ noun or pronoun)

ELSE
In structures “something else, nothing else …” Is there anything else you’d like to know?
= ‘different; more’ There’s nowhere else to look

OR / OR ELSE
To introduce an alternative Are you going to phone me or shall I phone you?
“Or else” emphasizes a bad result I’d better leave now or else I’ll be late

OTHERWISE
= ‘if not’ If I see her today I’ll tell her. Otherwise, I’ll call her later
I was ill. I would have gone to the party otherwise

WHETHER … OR (NOT)
To talk about two possibilities You’ll have to pay, whether you like it or not
Whether I go away the weekend or stay here depends on you

EITHER … OR / EITHER
To link two possibilities You either love her or you don’t
“Either” also at end of negative sentence He can’t go and I can’t go either

EXCEPTIONS
EXCEPT FOR / EXCEPT / BUT
To talk about the only way a statement is not true Except for going to the shop, I’ve done nothing today (+ -ing: same subject)
He doesn’t care about anything except / but money (+ noun or pronoun)
She told everyone but me
There’s nothing I can do except / but apologize for my mistake (+ bare infinitive)

APART FROM
To talk about the only way a statement is not true Apart from going to the shop, I’ve done nothing today (+ -ing: same subject)
Apart from Helen and Eric, I didn’t know anyone at the party (+ noun or pronoun)
Apart from the fact that the plane was late, we had a good journey (different subjects)

NO CHOICE BUT TO / NO ALTERNATIVE BUT TO / NO OPTION BUT TO

To talk about the only possible action I’ve got no choice / alternative / option but to start again (+ “to” infinitive)

ADDITIONS
ALSO
After “and” in a sentence / At beginning of second sentence I cooked the meal and also I washed up afterwards
I cooked the meal. Also, I washed up afterwards
Subject + “also” + verb She has computer skills and she also speaks several languages
Auxiliary or modal + “also” + verb She has computer skills and she can also speak two languages

NOT ONLY … (BUT) ALSO

To emphasize that two things are true I not only cooked the meal (but) I also washed up afterwards

TOO / AS WELL
At end of second sentence or sentence with two clauses linked by “and” I cooked the meal. I washed up afterwards, too / as well
I cooked the meal and I washed up afterwards, too / as well

FURTHERMORE / MOREOVER
To introduce another point The room I was given was unsatisfactory. Furthermore / Moreover, the service was poor
Quite formal

APART FROM / AS WELL AS

To link and emphasize two statements which are true Apart from working all day, she works in the evening (+ -ing: same subject)
She works in the evening as well as working all day (+ -ing: same subject)
I have several other bills to pay apart from this one (+ noun or pronoun)
I don’t want it. Apart from the fact that it’s expensive, I don’t like it (different subjects)

IN ADDITION TO / IN ADDITION
=’apart from, as well as’ In addition to running the department, she has other duties (+ -ing: same subject)
More formal In addition to the fact that her work is good, she is friendly (different subjects)
You will require the appropriate qualifications and, in addition, a work permit

BESIDES
=’apart from, as well as, in addition to’ She spends a lot of time working but she does a lot of other things besides
Besides eating too much, he also gets far too little exercise (+ -ing: same subject)
He has lots of interests besides football (+ noun or pronoun)

ON TOP OF
To link and emphasize two statements that are true On top of having to do a lot of school work, she also plays football (+ -ing: same subject)
I’m very busy at work and on top of that I’ve got problems at home (+ noun or pronoun)
 English C I – Dr Mª Ángeles Conde Parrilla
INTENTIONS
“TO” INFINITIVE
To talk about the purpose of everyday easy actions I’m going to the shop to buy a newspaper

SO AS (NOT) TO
To talk about the purpose of more difficult actions We had a meeting so as to solve the problem
Formal I ran all the way there so as not to arrive late

IN ORDER TO
To explain the purpose I would like to make an appointment in order to discuss this matter with you
Formal

SO THAT
To express any purpose when there is a second subject I’ll explain again so that you (will) understand the situation clearly
I left quickly so that they wouldn’t see me

EXERCISES

Activities for ESL Students — Conjunctions I http://a4esl.org/q/h/vm/conj01.html

Activities for ESL Students — Conjunctions II http://a4esl.org/q/h/vm/conj02.html
Activities for ESL Students — Connectives http://a4esl.org/q/h/9901/gc-connectives.html

CONTRASTS

CAUSES / RESULTS
 English C I – Dr Mª Ángeles Conde Parrilla
ALTERNATIVES

EXCEPTIONS / ADDITIONS

INTENTIONS