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    EXPLANATIONS, AND COMMUNICATING RESULTS Mellisa Holtzman 2 POSING QUESTIONS, CRAFTING Been What are the three major sociological theoretical perspectives, and why is theory important How do sociologists generate research questions? ‘What are key aspects of the sociological research process? How do sociologists communicate ther research result and what are the majdepatts of research article? In Chapter 1, you learned about the importance of socal science fesearch and the basic forms it takes. ‘With that background information in mind, you are now ready toleen aBoue the research process. OF ‘course, this entire text is devoted to that topic, but this chapter wll pfovide you with an overview ofthe process in its entirety. Later chapters will address specific aspects ofthe research process in more detail, ‘As the chapter ttl suggest, you can think of research asa process where sociologists (1) pose ques- tions, (2) craftexplanations, and then (3) communicate reshlts. While true, there i actually a step that precedes these. Sociologists must start the research process by first consulting theory. HOW I GOT ACTIVI cloLocy Mellisa Holtzman oO | started college asa psychology major: | knew wanted to work with people and make a difference inthe world, Psyeholagy seemed like good fi. All was weil untiLmy sophomore year, when I took a class called “Perception.” I naively believed this class would be about ESP, intuition, and other “fun” aspects of perception quickly discovered the class wasiabout how the brain processes the information we perceive with our senses. felt ike | wg biology class, and! hated it. ‘This class helped me realize that | didnot enjoy psychology’s focus onthe internal processes of hulpans. Instead, | was far more interested in how society influences individuals. In other words, | yas curious about factors that are external to humans. So, | itched my majar te sociology and vested mysel! in understanding how culture affects people and how people, in turn, can shapeand change culture, Eventually this gave rise to my interest in sexual-assault prevention, WHAT IS THEORY AND WHY DOES IT MATTER? ‘Theory refers to the general or abstract principles associated with a parccular dscipline—in this case, sociology. Sociological theory, then, represents a set of background perspectives about how the social ‘world operates. These background perspectives are important because they shape not only che kinds of Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, In. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. 4 Section! © Social Research Methods ‘The status of essential worker, such a warehouse workers, changed a 2 rast of [COM-1F athe mpartance the role hey pay ‘questions sociologists ask, but also how they interpret the data they collect. In effect cheory serves asa lens through which we view the social world. Assuch, itis an importan firs step in sociological research. Theories Within sociology, there ae chee primary theorercal perspectives that inform our understandings ofthe socal world. Functional isthe perspective mot closely ascated with Emile Dusk Durkheim was a French intlleceual writing in the ate 180s and eary 1900s, He is widely considered the father of sociology because he wat ne ofthe fit scholars vo advocate fr socology ata distinct discipline. Heargued that individuals’ behaviors are shaped bythe sociey in which chey ive and hava fall understanding of human behavior must account forthe impact ofthese ouside influence¥ wih he called socal facts). Sociology, he asserted, was hedicipline best suited to chat ras (Paropel, 207). Durkheim was interested in how large collections of individuals—all of whom hay@.chalf own interests and needs—could work together in a coordinated way. Functionalise theo husargues that society is composed of interrelated systems that shape and constrain individualsyandin 8 doing, help ‘create, maintain, and stabilize chat society (Durkheim, 1893/1984). For inSfance, societies rely on a ‘number of instcutions, including the political system, legal system, and €@ucational system, to meet citizens’ needs. Bue these institutions do more than just deliver goods ad services to the populace. ‘They also constrain the behaviors of the people who come in contaec With them. For instance, the political system regulates how people interact with the government, the egal system regulates how peo- ple interact with one another. and the education system regulates how people interact with and access information. All ofthis regulation ensures some level oF Uniformity and order within society, thereby making large-scale cooperation possible. In short, functionalist theory proposes that every institution in society has an important part co play inthe maintenance and stabilization of society. From this we «ean see that functionalist theory focuses on the BeneftsoF institutions and social patterns for society. ‘Conflict theory, in contrast, tends o fous on the strife that institutions and social patterns create in society. Conflict theory is most closely asSodiared with Karl Marx and Max Weber. Marx and Weber both argued that institutions produce inequalities of power and resources in society. Mars, who was writing during the height ofthe industrial revolution in Europe, focused on socal inequality related to ownership and wealth, Marx saw society as divided into ewo main groups: the wealthy capitalist also called bour- _gcoisi) who own the techriology.and resources to make things and the workers who struggle day to day 0 make ends meet also calle the prolecariat) (Marx, 1867/1977). Marx was highly ritical of che long work hours, dangerous working conditions and dismal wages I9th-century workers faced, especially since those same condition Were eating tremendous wealth for capitalists. He also argued tha capitalists purposely used society’ institutions lke religion, media, and politics, to keep workers divide from one another and thus unable o protest effectively against their unfsir ereat- ment. Marx saw power struggles between the capitalists and workersas the defining feature ofthe social workd—all human experiences, he argued, are fundamentally shaped by our place within this particular power struggle. ‘Writing more than 50 years after Mare, Weber saw ‘power in more complex terms, Weber challenged Mars argument that power and inequalities can be understood solely in terms of economic postion. Weber argued that power stems not only from peoples economic siua~ tion, which he called ther class position, but from ewo additional sources. Status positions give people unequal access to prestige and social honor and party position gives people unequal access to speci such as unions, lobbies, and py (Weber, 1925/1978). For instance, in our society most uly recognizes people believe that reachers fulfill very important and highly valued rol; thus they re held in relatively high incerest groups, al_assoctations Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. Cchapter2 # Posing Questions, Crating Explanations, and Communicating Results 5 ‘esteem. Yet, despite having an esteemed status positon, they often receive faisly low pay. As a conse- ‘quence, ther lass position is lower than their status position. Importantly, one way for teachers to try to increase their class position is by participating ina union—icis through this party posicion thac they ‘can gain some additional power and push fr higher pay and berter benefits. Thus, while Marx focused ‘only on power differentials based on wealth, Weber emphasized the more nuanced ways that power can ‘operate in a society. In so doing, he gave usa powerful se of conceptual tools. “Alshough there are significane differences between the perspectives of Mars and Weber they sharea focus on power and inequality, and that is what ses conflict theory apart from functionalism. Conflice theory tends to facus on the struggles chat individuals and groups engage in as they vie for power, Rather than seeing institutions as entities that benefie society, conflict theorists view institutions as sites that often maineain inequalities, creating further conflict and strife. Many modern conflict theo- rists, including W.E.B. Du Bois and Patricia Hill Collins, have illustrated the degree to which these inequalities ace also grounded in race, gender, and sexuality. ‘Symbolic interactionism (sometimes abbreviated as SI theory) isthe last of the three major theo- retical perspectives in sociology. This theory is most closely associated with the work of George Herbert Mead, a scholar who was intensely interested in social reform and helping oppressed individuals. (Pampel, 2007). Infact, his interest in helping others is one ofthe primary reasons why SI.theorfis so very different from functionalism and conflict theory. Mead was concerned with how a person's social interactions—with heir pares, fiends, and teachers, for example—would influence the development of their sense of selfand theif life experi- ‘ences (Mead, 1934/1962). Thus, unlike conflict theory and Functionalism, both Of which use a macro approach for understanding the social world, symbolic ineraetionism uses & mictp approach. A macro approach is one that focuses on large-scale entities and institutions ike the ecbFomy, politics lav, and ‘education. A micro approach is one that emphasizes individual-leveland group-level interactions. Mead’ focus on social interactions isan important aspect of ST chedry because he argued that social interactions ereate, sustain, and transform the social world.He—and many of his students—argued that the social world was produced entirely through social inetactions. From this perspective, things Tike race, gender, marriage, and even religion do not bave @pr®-determined, inherent meaning. Rather, repeated socal interactions produce che meanings and hierarchies associated with socially constructed characteristics, events, and identities. For instance, although there is no biological evidence for the belieFchar some races are superior ro othershumanshave, fra variety of historical reasons, ereated this idea. As our interactions continue overtime, this ida is continually reinforced and maintained—so much so, char we eventually forget we creaed tit che First place and we assumeitis based on some kind, ‘of natural ccuth. This perspectiveon the ceation and maintenance of social meaning i often referred to as “the social eonstruction 6Fieality” and it isa dicect outgrowth of SL theory. “Which chedryYesoates most with your word view? Why do you think you prefer this theory? PDs Sociological Theory In this exercise, you wil est your knowledge of sociological theory. 1, What is functionalism? 2. Athoory that suggests power dynamics are the most important variable for understanding society’ functioning b. A theory that suggests al parts ofa society are important for that society's functioning €. Atheory that suggests social realities are created during and through human interactions. 4. A theory that focuses on how intersecting identities affect an individual's life experiences Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. 6 Section! © Social Research Methods 2. What is conflict theory? 2. A theory thats based, in part, on Durkheim's work b. A theory that focuses on power , A.theory that focuses onthe interrelated parts of a society 4. A theory that focuses on women's subordinate postion in society 3. What is symbolic interactionism? 2. A theory that suggests hurans have the capacity to interpret symbols during interactions b. A theory that suggests power dynamics are the most important variable for understanding society's functioning «. Atheory that suggests social realities are created by societal structures 4. Atheory based in part on Marx's work ‘4, Whyis Weber characterized as a conflict theorist? Why Theory Matters ‘What docs all ofthis theory have to do with the research process? Theory shapes the way sociolo- gists ask questions, interpret data, and come to understand the social world))Ler's consider the issue ‘of inequality to further illustrate this point. A functionalist analyzing ineqtlity might frst note chat mos societies—if not allhave some degree of inequality. They might then consider the possible ben- fies chat inequality brings to society. For example, a functionalist wold argue that inequality in wages and wealth promotes hard work. By rewarding socially important positions with higher pay and statu, inequality encourages talented and hard-working people to aim for chese important postions. Notice that our perspective here is shaped in ewo important waySbY our reliance on functionalist: (1) we ate focusing on the possible postive contributions ofinequality, and (2) weare usinga macro orientation © ask how inequality benefits society rather thi hoveit harms individuals Now let's consider how a conflice perspéctive makes sense of inequality: This perspective focuses ‘on the ways that inequality harms gfoups Of people. A conflict theorist would likely ask questions like: How do powerful groups of people (business owners, politicians, boards of directors, et.) mai tain their power and keep more subpsdinace groups of people (laborers, citizens, consumers, et) from threateningit? This isa very different way of looking at inequality! We are no longer trying to examine the benefits of inequality: instéad, our focus is on the conflic and strife ie causes between groups. Notice, however, tha qu Focus is similar to functionalism in one way: We are still operating at the macro level, and thats becalse conflicecheory focuses on how groups of people vie for power and how societal structures nd institutions keep power in che hands of someand out ofthe hands of others. Lastly; what would a symbolic interactionist perspective on inequality look like? Because SI theory ‘operates atthe micro level, our focus will be on how an individual’s interactions with the world pro- rmoteand maintain inequality. An SI theorist might ask how interactions within poor neighborhoods, Sch@ols; and family environments shape che way economically disadvantaged children come to under ‘stand their place inthe world. Using an SI theory framework, we are less inclined to ask what the ben “efits or harms of inequality ares instead, we at likely to ask what inequality means forthe people who ‘experience it and how that meaning then shapes their future. Table 2.1 provides an overview of how ‘each ofthese thrce major theories view different systems. ng how sociologists understand the social world ‘Theory is foundational tall that we do, Now that we understand the connection between theory and [As you can see, theory is important in sha the research process, we can start to examine che other steps in the esearch process Caco) What is theory, and why i ie important in the research process? 2. What are the primary differences among functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic 3. How do these differences impact the way sociologists ask questions about and come t0 understand the social world? Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. Chapter2 # Posing Questions, Crating Explanations, and Communicating Results 7 es POSING QUESTIONS Woy are divorced mothers more likely ta have custody of their children than are divorced fathers? Hoy do Black and Latins individuals respond to and cope with housing discrimination? What types of con munity characteristics promote good health and wellbeing? These ace just few examples of sociolygteal _questions— questions that seek to understand the complex relationships between people and society Sociologists regularly pose questions about the social word, In doingso, hough, they mistbemingdful of the difference between empirical and non-empirical questions, and inductive and deductive QueStions. Empirical and Non-empirical Questions Empirical questions are chose you can answer with scientific data. In other Words)you can use the steps ‘of the research process to arrive at an answer to the question. Each of the thr questions listed in the preceding section is an empirical question, We can use science to¥etermine the processes that make i more likely that women have custody of their children than fengs0 fdenvfy how Black and Latinx individuals respond when they experience housing discrimination, and to identify the characteristics oF ‘communities tha ae associated with positive health outcomes. Non-empirical questions, in contrast are chose har Cannot be answered scientifically. They tend. to be mote opinion based—for instance, are mothers bearer parents than fathers, are white Americans better home-buyers than Black and Latins Americans, arid what are the qualities of good communi- ties? These questions cannot be definitively answered using scientific methods, in part because what makes someone a “better” parent, homag-bayer, of something a “better” community cannot be coneli- sively defined, Instead, ic isa macterof opinion. As sociologists, we need to ask empirical questions. Sociology is an empirical discipline and soci- ‘ologists are scientists. This in impottant point because sometimes people fail to recognize sociologi- cal questions as scientific questions. People often assume that science deals with the natural world or ‘chemical reactions, but socal issues can be subject to scientific scrutiny aswell. recognized as scientific issues while others often are Enea ay Creating Empirical Questions In this exercise, you wil practice developing empirical questions. Questions about emotions, feelings, and subjective perceptions can be asked in a way that is empirical. Using what youve learned about empirical questions, answer the following questions: Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, In. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. 8 Section! Social Research Methods 1. Develop an empirical question about happiness, 2. Develop an empirical question about perceptions of friendly behavior 3. Develop an empirical question about shyness. ‘4, Develop an empirical question about a concept of your choice. Inductive and Deductive Questions Inductive reasoning involves moving from thespecficto the general Inductive questions, then, are ths that resul from specific observations of facts thar a researcher thinks might point wo a general tendencjulmagine thar a researcher knows of 50 divorced couples with children, and in 48 cases the mother have custody of their children. They may wonder whether this fact illustrates a broader pattern wherebjimothers are given ‘custody oftheir children more often than fathers. They might then generate broadersesarehquestions: Do vorced mothers generally ge custody of their children more often than divorce fathers? IFS, why? Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, stars from general theory and/ Moves coward specificexam- ples, Dedctive questions start with a theoretical premise that a researcher hope to verify by examining specific observations in the social world For instance, gender socialization theory suggests that females are taught to be caregivers, nurturers, and primary parents to children while pales are taught tobe breadwin- ners, protectors, and secondary parents to children. Given this theoretical understanding of gender roles, «researcher could set out to determine how these culcuralideasinfluence child custody decisions. They might ask: Do societal gender role expectations affect custody placements at divorce? And ifso, how? Sociologists ask inductive questions in some cases, and deductive questions in others. The distinc tion between the two types of questions is importants though, because they stat and end in different places. Inductive questions start with specificpattens in socal life and end by generating a general «explanation for those patterns—in ocheF words, chey end by generating theory. Deductive questions are the exact opposite—they start with an existing theoretical premise and seek to test the validity ‘of chat premise by examining spevfié patterns in socal life. In fact, her’ a quick way to help you remember the difference between ifdictive and deductive questions. Inductive is associated with spe- cific observations and both of these words begin with vowels, while deductive is associated with general theory and both of thes words begin with consonants. UYOArTi ‘What isthe difference between empirical and non-empirical questions? 2, Whata ive and deductive questions? 3. Why are these distinctions important? ‘CRAFTING EXPLANATIONS Once we have posed research question, we want try to answer it.The proces of erafing explana tions starts by reviewing whae other researchers have written on the topic. This is alle a literature review, Sociologists read the existing research, articles, and books that address the issue they are study- ing. Through this proces, they see which theoretical perspectives other researchers have used to under- stand the issue. They also develop a solid understanding of what is known about the issue and what remains tobe learned. Allierature review isan important step in the research process for thice reasons. First, i saves, researchers from “teinventing the wheel"— investigating a question that has awel-etablshed answer, ‘or conducting a study that has already been conducted multiple times. Second, reviewing the existing research on a topic can help researchers refine thei research question. By knowing what others have already discovered about this topic, we can sharpen and narrow ourowa research questions. Thied, and ‘most important, scence is most uscful when it builds off of tcf. As sociologists, we want to ensure Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. Cchapter2 # Posing Questions, Crating Explanations, and Communicating Results that we ae helping move our discipline forward. The best way todo that is to be certain we are always ‘engaged ina dialogue with one another. Understanding the work that precedes our own is the best way to engage in that dialogue and continue to enhance our collective understanding ofthe social world, Developing a Research Design “The nexe step in the process of erafting explanations isto develop a research design. This is when soci- ‘ologists articulate their hypotheses and identify their independent and dependent variables. ‘A hypothesis isan unverified but testable statement that a researcher believes represents a potential Answer to their research question. In other words, ic isan educated guess—and that guess is based, in part, on sociological theory and the previously completed literature review. For instance, imagine that ‘sociologist wants to understand why poverty rates in che United Stacs ate significantly higher than poverty rates in other wealthy Western nations. After reading the existing literature on poverty and. considering both functionalism and conflict theory, they might offer the following two hypotheses, potential answers tothe research question: 1, Poverty rates ate higher in the United States than in most other wealthy Western nao, because higher proportion of U.S. citizens choose not to pursue the educationand training necessary to secure high-paying jobs. 2. Poverty ates ate higher in the United States than in most other wealthy WestertRations because U.S tax laws perpetuate income and wealeh disparities, Notice the specificity ofthese hypotheses. Although they are both “educated guesses,” the guesses are informed by the existing rescarch literature and theoretical perspectives in the fed. The back- ‘ground information that this prior research and theory provide is pretisely what allows for the formulation of detailed hypotheses. That, in turn, is what kees advancing scientific knowledge. In this exercise, you wil formulate a sogilogiealPesearch question. 1, Select something in the sociakwerld that intrigues you [eg., social media, dating patterns, homelessness, economic inequality, day care for children, etc), then lst what you know about this issue. 2. Why do you think your cResen issue is important in life? How do you think it might be related to other social issues like gender, age, race, religion, et? 3. Write a reseafeh Question based on your chosen social issue 4, Write at (S84 oF hypothesis for your research question. Be sure tobe specitic—your hypathesis should not be answerable bya simple yes or no, After formulating theie hypotheses, sociologists must identify their independent and depen: ene variables. Variables are clements of the social world chat can have more than one value. For instance, in the hypotheses about poverty rates, a country’s poverty rat sa variable, the tax Laws area variable, andthe educational motivation of citizens is a variable. Independent variables (IV) are those variables chat sociologists believe will impact some aspect of the social world. In che ‘example given, the researcher believes tax laws and/or motivation levels may influence poverty rates. These concepts represent the independent variables—those are the things expected to cause 4 change in something else. Dependent variables (DV), then, ae chose variables that sociologists ‘expect to be changed by something else. In cis cas, the level of poverty within a country is che dependent variable because the researcher believes it will be impacted by tax laws and the citi- zenty’s motivations. Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. ° 10 Section! © Social Research Methods hen using quattive mead, scl ok for pate in the words Sndpnrases olrespendentinardertolnalagertemesin er ‘esearch_ferentials impact people's perceptions of crime (individuals with arrest records likely view the legal process with more suspicion that are the IV and DV for this hypothesis? “Children who spend thet leisuretime playing ‘outdoors have berter health outcomes than children who spend ther time watching television. Collecting Data So how do sociologists answer their research questions and test their hypotheses? They collect andina® Iyze data from the social world Collecting data involves gathering information about the social wd ‘Analyzing data refers to making sense of the information that has been gathered, Lee’ consider surveys as an example. Surveys involve asking research subjects (the people being, studied) to respond toa series of questions that are purposely designed to elicit information about the researcher's topic of interest. For instance, imagine a sociologist wants to undesstahd iinority group members’ perceptions of local police officers. They may generate a set of Sirvey. questions that ask minority respondents to report on how much they crust, admire dislike, ai comfortable with, andlor are suspicious of local police officers. These questions will typically be asked on paper or through an ‘online system. Collecting datain this way is both efficient and cost-effective. Ie allows the researcher to gather a great deal of relatively uniform data from a large number of people. Surveys are only one example of how sociologists can collec data. They can also use interviews, participant observation, existing documents, and experisits. Upcoming chapters will discuss various data collection methods in more detail. Analyzing Data and Drawing Conclusions Regardless of the data collection method Séciologists use, once they have gathered their data, they rust make sense of them. Data analysis cin take many forms. For instance, survey data are often analyzed using quantitative metKod8-—this means researchers transform respondents’ answers into numbers, enter those numbers into-spreadsheets, and then use statistical programs such as Excel, SPSS, or R to help chem test their hypotheses. Alternatively, data can also be analyzed using qual ‘tative methods. In this ease, data are left in textual form and sociologists look for common words and phrases used by the respondents. Parcrns in the way these words and phrases are used are then grouped by theme (similarities in the messages they portray) and those themes help sociologists ell the story revealed in the data ‘The differences between quantitative and qualitative analy- ses are important and will be discussed at lengeh in later chap- ters. For now, let's return t© our eatlier discussion of theory because it also plays an important role in the analysis proces. Because theory is the lens through which sociologists make sense of the social world, iis eritcal for helping sociologists con- textualize their research findings. For instance, imagine you are sociologist with an interest in crime. You have gathered data on «rime rates for your city and asked city residents, politicians, and employees (police officer, court officials, et.) to discuss how crime has of has nor impacted their lives. If you analyze your data using functionalist perspective, you will likely be attuned to the possible benefits of crime for your respondents (it eretes jobs for police officers and court official). IF you use a conflice perspective, you will ikely focus on the various ways power di Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. Chapter 2 Posing Questions, Crafting Explanations, and Communicating Results and doube than do victims, politicians, and police officers). And, ifyou use a symbolic interactionist perspective, you will likely emphasize what crime means to various individuals (victims of crime may feel violated while perpetrators of crime may feel they had few other choices available ro them). In short, sociologist’ theoretical approach informs noe only which research questions they ask, but also the lens through which they collect and interpret heir data. This is very important. Sometimes stu- dents ask: [snc it problematic that the answers to research questions change based on the theory asociolo- {gst uses? Doesns that introduce potential bias? Shouldn't research questions have only one right answer? ‘These are certainly meaningful and even understandable questions, but the answer to each of them i“ necessarily." The social wold is ineredibly complex. Human lives and the structures we create are messy. ‘Consequently, cher i often more chan one way to define a situation. This means we frequently need ‘multiple perspectives onthe same issue. One sociologistcan use one theoretical penpective ro understand, « particular facet of an issue. A second sociologist can then use a different theory to understand some ‘other fuer ofthat same issue. Why? Because esearch questions do not always havea single right answer. that we consider our data through a number of theoretical Making sense ofthe world we ive in requ perspectives. When we do that, we have the best chance of understanding and shaping our social lives, SOCIOLOGISTS IN ACTION Chadwick Menning aw Several years age, Chadwick Menning developed an interest in sexual assault prevention en college campuses. Advocates, the media, and politicians were frequently noting that one in five college ‘women experience a completed or attempted assault during their college career. As 2 result, he began to wonder what existing prevention efforts looked lkej6F collage campuses. He also won- ered if those efforts could be improved. Eventually, he and coll@aque Mellisa Holtzman turned this, curiosity into sociological research question: What programming features inerease the effective= ress of campus sexual assault prevention programs? ‘A review ofthe existing research iterature mada it clear that there are two broad types of pre: vention programs in existence: 1. Primary prevention programs provide educational information on consent, party culture, and the role of alcohol in assault. Their goal isto change the way people think about sex and assault Jinan effort to change our culturalunderStan dings ofthese issues. 2, Risk reduction programs provide self-defense training to potential victims. Their goal is to equip individuals withthe @6ls.needed to protect themselvesif they are in a dangerous The literature review also revéaled that most campuses favor primary prevention programs cover risk reduction programs.qThis means students are rarely exposed to both curriculums, Based on this literature, they developed a hypothesis: ‘© College sexuat38sautt prevention programs that address both primary prevention and risk reduction willbe more effective at lowering assault rates than programs that focus on only one type ofprogtarnming, Testing this hypothesis required several steps. First, they designed a program that combined primary prevention and risk reduction. To do that they enlisted the help of 15 college students who pant an entire semester working alongside them to create and refine a new type of sexual assault, ‘Fatection program (Holt2man & Menning, 2018. This program is called Elemental Second, they collected survey data an students who took the program and on those who did not tthe They did this because they wanted to determine if Elemental participants exhibited lower assault risk than students who had not participated in the program. Third, they used quantitative analyses to examine students’ experiences with assault. They found that Elemental students experience a 46% reduction in their risk of assault compared to students who have not taken the program (Heltzman & Menning, 2019: Menning & Holtzman, 2015] ‘And, most important, their analyses suggested this effect is due, in part, to the fact the program offers training in both primary prevention and rik reduction (Menning & Holtzman, 2020). In short, their hypothesis was supported, Chadwick Menning i a professor of sociology at Ball State University anda co-creator of Elemental Copyright ©2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any frm or by any means without express writen permission ofthe publisher. " 2 ‘Academicjournals are an ipartant vase fr disseminating research ndings tater inthe academic eammunty. Section © Social Research Methods Discussion Question Which steps ofthe research pracess do you seein the discussion of Elemental? ‘Why is reviewing the literature an imporcant step in the research process? - What are hypotheses, and how does theory impact thei formulation? 3, What are independent and dependent variables? 4. How does theory factor into the data analysis process? COMMUNICATING RESULTS The things, including communicating findings to other scientist, to policy makers, and to the public step in the research process is communicating the results—but thatean Mean a varity of Importantly, the type of audience with whom a sociologist hopes to communicae will affect the strate- {ies they use for disseminating their findings. Conveying Findings Many sociologists—especially those who work at universes be research instcutes—put considerable

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