R.N. Swamy (Editor) - B. Barr (Editor) - Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concretes - Recent developments-CRC Press (1990)

FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENTS AND CONCRETES
Recent Developments
This volume consists of papers presented at the International Conference on
Recent Developments in Fibre Reinforced Cements and Concretes, held at
the School of Engineering, University of Wales College of Cardiff, U K ,
18-20 Septem ber 1989.
Organising Committee
R. N. Swamy (Chairman) University of Sheffield, U K
B. B a r r (Secretary) University of Wales College of Cardiff, U K
P. B a r t o s Paisley College of Technology, U K
B. P. H u g h e s University of Birmingham, U K
J . G. K e r r University of Surrey, U K
International Scientific Committee

C. D. J o h n s t o n University of Calgary, C anada
M. K a w a m u r a K anazaw a University, Ja p a n
S. M i n d e s s University of British Columbia, C anada
P. P a r a m a s i v a m N ational University of Singapore, Singapore
R. S h e n China Building M aterials Academy, China
P. S t r o e v e n Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
V. J . W e iss Technical University of Prague, Czechoslovakia
FIBR E R EIN FO R CED
C E M E N T S AND C O N C R ET ES
Recent Developments
Edited by
R. N. SWAMY
Sheffield University, UK
and
B. BARR
University of Wales College of Cardiff, UK
Taylor &. Francis

Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK

By Taylor & Francis,
2 Park Square, M ilton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0 X 1 4 4RN
Transferred to D igital Printing 2005
British L ib ra ry Cataloguing in Publication Data

International Conference on Recent Developments in
Fibre Reinforced Cements and Concretes (1989: School
of Engineering, University of Wales College of
Cardiff)
Fibre reinforced cements and concretes.
1. Construction materials: Fibre reinforced cement
2. Construction materials: Fibre reinforced concrete
I. Title II. Swamy, R. N. jIII. Barr, B.
624.T833
ISBN 1-85166-415-7
L ib ra ry o f Congress CIP data applied for
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V
Preface
Fibre reinforced cements and concretes are today firmly established as

construction materials. Since the early 1960s extensive research and
developm ent have been carried out with FR C materials leading to a wide
range of practical applications. In recent years a great deal has been learned
regarding the lim itations of some FR C materials and, in particular, the
im portance of good design.
T he papers contained in this volume give the state-of-the-art in a num ber
of areas of research and applications. A num ber of papers deal with new fibres
and matrices and optim izing composition. D urability testing and sheet
m aterials are also discussed. As expected, recent studies on testing and
m echanical performance, including toughness and im pact resistance, are well
covered. It is particularly pleasing to see the range of new applications where
FR C m aterials are being used in industry: a num ber of papers discuss the use
of FR C beams, columns, slabs and pavements.
It is hoped that this volume will prove stim ulating to research workers and
provide a reference text to potential users of FR C, which is rapidly growing in
popularity.
B en B a rr
Contents
Preface .
Optimizing Composition/Repairs
M ethod for optim izing the composition of metal-fibre-reinforced
concretes . . . . . . . . . . .
P. Rossi, JV. Harrouche and F. de Larrard
O ptim ization of SIFC O N mix . . . . . . .

H. W. Reinhardt and C. Fritz
A repair application of polypropylene fibre reinforced sprayed

concrete . . . . . . . . . . .
S. Austin and P. Robins
New Fibres/M atrices

Strength properties of meshed vinylon fibre reinforced m ortar with
new artificial aggregates . . . . . . . .
H. Mihashi, JV. Koide, K. Hirai, T. Yamamoto and K. Mizoguchi
M echanical behaviour of FR C m aterials with added microfiller

J . S. R. Buck and H. Stang
First applications of Arapree . . . . . . .

A. Gerritse and J . Werner
Behaviour, design and application of polyacrylonitrile fibre concrete

H. Hahne, G. Konig and J.-D . Worner
Deform ation character and strength capacity of new m aterial fibers

reinforced cement m ortar im pregnated by inorganic polymer
H. Ono and S. Ohgishi
Vlll
Sheet M aterials
PVA fibre reinforced cement sheets: production and properties 80
R. Shen and R. Tang
Woven polypropylene fabrics— an alternative to asbestos for thin

sheet appl i cat i ons. . . . . . . . . . 90
R. N. Swamy and M . W. Hussin
Properties and reinforcing mechanisms in steel wool reinforced

cement . . . . . . . . . . . 101
A. Bentur
Fracture and crack growth in glass fibre reinforced m ortar . 111

A. J . Bushby and C. K. L. Davies
Effect of zeolite on durability of G R C . . . . . . 121

J . Wei, H. Lu and Fengxia
Testing Steel FRC/Curing

Behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete under biaxial stresses . 126
R. B. Abdull-Ahad and J . M . Abbas
Fiber pull out mechanisms: effect of fiber geometry, loading rates and
sub-zero tem peratures . . . . . . . . . 136
N. Banthia, J.-F . Trottier and M . Pigeon
Shear transfer in fibre reinforced concrete . . . . . 146

A. E. Alios
Fracture performance of FR C materials under various curing

conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 157
V. J . Weiss, B. Barr and I. A. I. Ali
Effects of curing procedures on m echanical properties of carbon fiber

reinforced cement . . . . . . . . . 167
P. Soroushian, Bayasi and M . JVagi
Applications for FR C (A)

Cracking of steel fibre reinforced m ortar due to restrained shrinkage 179
K. C. G. Ong and P. Paramasivam
Theory for early age shrinkage of fibre reinforced cement composites 188
P. S. Mangat, G. Manarakis and M . M . Azari
IX
Use of sm all-diam eter polypropylene fibres in cem ent-based

m aterials . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Bayasi and G. Peterson
Prediction of crack w idth in fibrous reinforced concrete members . 209

S. A. Al-Taan and J . R. Al-Feel
T he role of interior stresses in the structural destruction of fibre

reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . . 219
K. Flaga and J . Al Jeabory
Impact
Reinforcem ent of norm al and high strength concretes with fibrillated

polypropylene fibre . . . . . . . . . 229
A. Bentur, S. Mindess and J . Skalny
Behaviour of fibrous-composites under im pact and blast loading . 240

S. K. Kaushik and V. Menon
Dynam ic tensile fracture of carbon fiber reinforced cements . 251

N. Banthia and T. Ohama
Flexural fatigue strength, endurance limit, and im pact strength of

fiber reinforced refractory concretes . . . . . . 261
G. T. Wu, S. K. Shivaraj and V. Ramakrishnan
Im pacts of fibre reinforced concrete slabs . . . . . 274

D. Chauvel, M . Razani, P. Hamelin and J . C. Perfumo
Applications for FR C (B)

Experience in steelfiber reinforced concrete applications 284
X. Destree
Building panels m ade with natural fibre reinforced alternative

cements . . . . . . . . . . . 296
V. Agopyan and V. M . John
Properties and application of steel polypropylene and polyester fibre

J . K. Patel, JV. B. Desai and J . C. Rana
High volume applications of collated fibrillated polypropylene fiber 316

R. C. fellers
X
SFRC vertical joints between large precast concrete panels . 326

H. M . S. Abdul-Wahab
Modelling FR C
A model to predict restrained shrinkage cracking of fiber reinforced
concrete . . . . . . . . . . . 334
M . Grzybowski, S. P. Shah and M . E. Karaguler
Structural modelling and m echanical behaviour of steel fibre

P. Stroeven and W. Guo
Simple models for the structural behaviour of thin steel fibre

reinforced concrete plates . . . . . . . . 355
C. F. Kearns
Constitutive modeling of steel fiber reinforced concrete under direct

tension and compression . . . . . . . . 363
P. Soroushian and C.-D. Lee
D am age evolution in FR C m aterials modelling and experimental

obser vat i ons. . . . . . . . . . . 378
H. Stang and S. P. Shah
Toughness Measurements
Influence of m aterial structure of SFRC on toughness index . 388

L. Hebda, L. Rudzinski and A. Burakiewicz
An identity chart for steel fibres . . . . . . . 401

D. Nemegeer
Fracture characteristics of high strength concrete and FR C materials 411

F. Benaiche and B. Barr
Toughened behaviour and mechanisms of synthetic fiber reinforced

norm al strength and high strength concrete . . . . . 420
V. C. Li, S. Backer, Y. Wang, R. Ward and E. Green
Im provem ents in the workability and hardened cement paste quality

of steel fibre reinforced concrete . . . . . . . 434
J . Sustersic, S. Urbancic, A. Stefancic and P. Sheppard
XI
FR C Beams and Columns

Deform ation characteristics of reinforced concrete beams containing
steel fibers . . . . . . . . . . . 444
B. H. Oh, H. J . Lee and S.-L. Lee
Flexural design of reinforced concrete beams incorporating steel

fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
P. Soroushian and A. Reklaoui
U ltim ate strength of reinforced lightweight fibrous concrete beams 467

M . JV. Hassoun, H. Behdad and A. Sawalma
Behaviour of fibre-reinforced concrete deep beams containing

openings . . . . . . . . . . . 479
JV. E. Shanmugam and S. Swaddiwudhipong
Study on shear failure of steel fibre reinforced concrete short columns

in consideration of arrangem ent of ties . . . . . . 489
H. Tashiro, T. Tanaka, T. Ro and K. Hirose
Mechanical Properties/Fatigue
Properties and flexural perform ance of steel fiber reinforced
refractory concretes . . . . . . . . . 499
S. K. Shivaraj, V. Ramakrishnan and G. Y. Wu
An analysis of post-peak loading conditions in fibrous concrete

composites . . . . . . . . . . . 513
JV. L. Lovata
M echanical properties of various types of fibre reinforced concretes 523

H. JVakagawa, S. Akihama and T. Suenaga
Fatigue strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced concretes . 533

G. L. Vondran, M . Nagabhushanam and V. Ramakrishnan
The perform ance of concrete containing high proportions of steel

fibres with particular reference to rapid flexural and fatigue loadings 544
J . E. Butler
Durability Studies
M arine d u rability of steel fibre reinforced concrete of high
w ater/cem ent ratio . . . . . . . . . 553
P. S. Mangat, B. T. Molloy and K. Gurusamy
X ll
Ten year flexural durability tests on cement sheets reinforced with

fibrillated polypropylene networks . . . . . . 563
D. J . Hannant
D urability of steel fibrous concrete used for the m anufacture of

containers for nuclear waste storage . . . . . . 573
F. Dubois and H. Nouguier
Estim ation of frost resistance of fiber reinforced concrete 582

S. Lai
Cracking and moisture penetration in fibre cement sheeting . 592

J . G. Keer, G. Xu and R. Filip
Effect of therm al incom patibility on fiber-reinforced latex modified

concrete . . . . . . . . . . . 602
A. Sharif, M . H. Baluch and /. Basunbul
FR C Slabs and Pavements

Restoration of concrete floors with steel-fibre concrete for aircraft at
Frankfurt A irport, West G erm any . . . . . . 610
M . Grondziel
Analysis of steel fibre reinforced concrete pavements based on infinite

elem ent analysis . . . . . . . . . . 620
S. K. Kaushik, R. M . Vasan, P. N. Godbole and S. K. Khanna
Plastics fibre reinforced concrete (PFRC) composite manhole cover

technology . . . . . . . . . . . 630
0. P. Ratra
Punching shear behaviour of lightweight concrete slabs with steel

fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
D. D. Theodorakopoulos and R. JV. Swamy
Experiences with steel fibres in concrete floor slabs 651

E. G. F. Chorinsky
Combined Loading on FR C Members

A study on the influence of fibre reinforcement in concrete . 656
R. Sridharan, K. Rajaguru and V. Arumugam
Effect of fibres on the strength of reinforced concrete beams under

combined loading . . . . . . . . . 664
M . A. Al-Ausi, H. M . S. Abdul-Wahab and R. M . Khidair
Xlll
Design of fibre-reinforced concrete rectangular members under axial

compression, bending and torsion . . . . . . . 676
A. K. Sharma
Simply supported steel fibre reinforced concrete beams under

combined torsion, bending and shear . . . . . . 687
S. K. Kaushik and P. J . Sasturkar
Index of Contributors 699

1
METHOD FOR OPTIMIZING

THE COMPOSITION OF METAL-FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETES
P. ROSSI, N. HARROUCHE, AND F. de LARRARD

Division Materiaux et Structures pour Ouvrages d'Art
Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees
58, Boulevard Lefebvre
75732 Paris cedex 15
France
ABSTRACT
A method for optimizing the compositions of m eta llic-fih re-rein forced

concretes (MERC) is proposed. It involves optimizing the granular
skeletons of these concretes for the desired workability. The method is
applied to the compositions of fibre-reinforced concretes for use in
reinforced concrete structures. The metallic fibres investigated are
Dramix steel fibres from Bekaert and metallic glass ribbons developed
at the Pont-a-Mousson Research Centre (St Gobain Inc. , France) .
INTRODUCTION
An examination of the literature concerning methods of designing the

compositions of MFRCs shows that these methods, most of which are
empirical [1, 2, 3], are based primarily on a large number of
experimental studies and lead to recommendations that, while of use to
the engineer, seem to us to be limited and ill suited to the composite
material that fibre-reinforced concrete is.
We believe that the composition of a MFRC must be specific to a
particular industrial application and lead to a composite material that
is optimized for a particular objective. The optimized composite
materials produced when the objectives are an MFRC that is highly
workable, very strong (intrinsic compressive and tensile strength
values), or capable of contributing to the ductility of a structure
will be very different [4].
In this article, we propose a very general method of composition
that is already used for ordinary concretes [5] and high-strength
concretes (with silica fume) [6] and has been adapted to
metallic-fibre-reinforced concretes [7].
2
DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD USED
The method used is the Baron-Lesage method [5], developed in our

laboratory about fifteen years ago to optimize the granular skeletons
of ordinary concretes. This method is based on two key assumptions that
have been amply confirmed by experience:
1. For water and cement contents fixed at the outset (fixed W/C),
the most workable concrete is the most compact and its mineral skeleton
is optimal.
2. The optimal proportion of aggregates does not depend on the

nature or volume of the cement paste (water + cement).
To apply this method to the composition of MFRCs, we must

introduce a third assumption (which can be confirmed after the fact):
3. The addition of metallic fibres does not affect the validity

of the first two assumptions.
In practice, we determine the composition of our MFRC in three

stages:
1. We fix at the outset the W/C and the percentage of fibres to

be incorporated.
2. We vary the sand/gravel ratio and determine the workability of

the fibre-reinforced concrete at each ratio (we shall see later how
this workability is determined). This allows us to plot workability
versus the sand/gravel ratio and so determine the sand/gravel ratio at
which workability is greatest (Fig. 1). Referring to assumption no. 1
of the method, we then regard this sand/gravel ratio as the optimum for
our fibre-reinforced concrete.
3. On the basis of assumption 2, it is then possible to increase

or decrease the quantity of water and cement, while holding the
water/cement ratio constant, to obtain the desired workability.
C0
Figure 1. Determination of the optimal S/G ratio

3
Remarks
1. The sand/gravel ratio is varied starting from the composition

of a control concrete that does not contain metallic fibres, itself
optimized by the Baron-Lesage method. This control concrete uses the
same mineral constituents , the same cement, and the same water/cement
ratio as the fibre-reinforced concrete.
2. Both the control concrete and the MFRC are plasticized. A

quantity of superplasticizer complying with French recommendations in
this area is fixed at the outset, in the first stage of optimization of
the material. Then, in the second stage, the quantity of
superplasticizer is varied at the same time as the quantities of water
and cement to attain the desired workability.
This adaptation of the Baron-Lesage method to the optimization of

MFRCs has already been used by Serna-Ros [7] and Paillere [8] , but
with some significant differences from our approach, which we are now
going to review:
1. These researchers kept the quantity of cement constant and

equal to the quantity in the control concrete, while we prefer to keep
the water/cement ratio constant. Their choice accordingly leads to
MFRCs having higher water/cement ratios than our concretes and
containing less cement (smaller total volume of cement + water). From
the standpoint of mechanical strength, then, the MFRCs optimized by
this way have matrices that are weaker (because they are more porous)
and cement paste-metallic fibre bonds that are not as good as those in
our fibre-reinforced composites (because there is less cement paste
around each fibre). Furthermore, the cost saving achieved by holding
the quantity of cement constant is negligible by comparison with the
extra cost of adding the metallic fibres.
2. The second major difference concerns the experimental method

used to determine the workability of the MFRCs. Serna-Ros used the
Abrams cone (so well known internationally that there is no need for a
description here), which in our opinion has two major drawbacks with
MFRCs:
* The Abrams cone may be regarded as a "static” test, since it

determines the ability of the concrete to be placed by gravity. But it
is very difficult to measure significant slumps with MFRCs (and that is
what the Abrams cone measures), making the determination of the optimum
sand/gravel ratio very imprecise.
* The second drawback is the small volume of concrete tested in

Abrams cone measurements. We consider the 6 litres the cone contains
too small to be representative of the rheological behaviour of the
fresh MFRC, especially when the fibres incorporated in it are from 50
to 60 mm long.
4
These two drawbacks do not exist, or are greatly attenuated, with

the experimental method we use, since we determine the workability of
our MFRCs using the LCL Maniabilimetre developed by Lesage at the LCPC
[9].
This instrument characterizes the workability of the concrete by a

flow time in the presence of external vibrations. This Maniabilimetre
can test 30 litres of concrete (five times as much as the Abrams cone!)
and amounts to a "dynamic" test that is more representative than the
Abrams cone of the rheological behaviour of the fresh MFRC under site
conditions. We are going to briefly describe this instrument, which is
well known and widely used in France.
IETEEMIKIATION OF TEE WORKABILITY OF MFRCS USING TEE LCL WORKABILIMETER
The device is an open rectangular mould with an external vibrator and a

removable vertical partition that divides it into two conpartments.
One compartment is filled. The partition is then removed and the
vibrator and a chronometer are triggered at the same time. The time
the concrete takes to flow to a fixed mark is measured.
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of the test showing the various

stages of the procedure used to determine the workability of a
concrete.
1. Filling of mould.
2. Striking off.
3. Removal of separator
the vibrator and the
chronometer are
started .
The concrete reaches

the mark on the end
plate;the chronometer
is stopped ; end of
test .
©
Figure. 2. Successive stages of the test in the LCL Workabi limeter
5
To situate the reader, it should be noted that, for an ordinary

concrete for engineering structures, French recommendations call for a
flow time of between 10 and 15 seconds in the LCL Workabilimeter .
CONSTITUENTS OF THE CONCRETES INVESTIGATED
Two types of metallic fibres were studied: cylindrical DramixR fibres

made by Bekaert, which have hooks and are stuck together in
plate-shaped groups (this approach was chosen to forestall clumping
when the concrete is placed) and metallic glass ribbons made by
Pont-a-Mousson, which take the form of very thin ribbons of variable
length and width [10]. These fibres are made by cooling molten iron
extremely rapidly, fixing the metal in an amorphous (non-crystalline)
state.
Their amorphous state makes these metallic alloys very strong
(tensile strength of the order of 2,000 MPa) and highly resistant to
corrosion (the addition of about 5 % chromium to the iron makes the
alloy practically rustproof). All of the geometrical characteristics
of the fibres used are given in table 1.
TABLE 1
Geometrical characteristics of the fibres used in the study
Type of fibre Length Width Thickness Diameter Density

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kg/m3)
Bekaert 30 / / 0.50 7800
60 / / 0.80 7800
Pont-a-Mousson 15 1 0.027 / 7200
30 1.7 0.025 / 7200
60 1.7 0.025 / 7200
Table 2 gives all information about the constituents of the

prepared fibre-reinforced concretes other than the fibres.
6
TABLE 2
Other constituents of the MFRCs
Constituent Type Source Density

(kg/m3)
Cement OPC La Frette-Cormeilles, 3150
"CPA HP" France
Sand, 0/5 mm Round, lime- Martot, France 2650

quartz
Gravel, 5/20 mm Chips, lime- Bernieres, France 2610

quartz
Superplasticizer Melment Plast SKW Trosberg, FRG 1127

(Dry content 20%)
RESULTS CONCERNING THE COMPOSITIONS OF THE MFRCs
As we stated in the introduction, the aim of this study was to

determine the compositions of MFRCs for use in reinforced concrete
structures. We therefore imposed on ourselves the obligation of
producing MFRCs having the same workability as an ordinary concrete
used in reinforced concrete structures. We stated earlier that in
France such a concrete must have a flow time of between 10 and 15
seconds in the LCL Workabilimeter, and accordingly took this time range
as the workability required of all our MFRCs.Figure 3 shows an example
of the granular skeleton optimization curve obtained using the
Baron-Lesage method.
Figure. 3. Example of granular skeleton optimization curves obtained

using the Baron-Lesage method.
7
Curve (A) shows the first stage of optimization described above. It

can be seen that the sand/gravel ratio is in fact optimized at the end
of this stage, but that the flow time in the workability test is less
than the value initially chosen. The quantity of superplasticizer was
accordingly reduced in the second stage, from 2 % to 0.7 %, to obtain
the desired time (curve (b)). It can be seen that the position of the
optimum is the same in curves (a) and (b), bearing out assumptions (2)
and (3) on which our optimization method is based (all of the MFRC
compositions bore out the assumptions).
Table 3 gives the compositions of the MFRCs made with both types
of fibre and of the control concrete.
TABLE 3
Compositions of MFRCs and of control concrete (per m3)
Length Fiber Cement Water Super- Sand Gravel Sand Flowing

of fiber Plast Gravel time
(mm) (%) (kg) (kg) (%) ’(kg) (kg) (s)
Control 0 350 158 2 667 1236 0.54 15.7
0.5 400 180 1.2 720 1075 0.67 11.8
60 1.0 425 191 2 894 840 1.075 10.6
1.5 450 203 1.75 932 734 1.27 19.7

<1>
<0
<1) 1.5 435 196 1.62 869 827 1.05 13
CD
30 2.0 450 203 1.75 890 761 1.17 12.5
2.5 475 214 1.75 1042 548 1.90 7.6
0.8 460 207 1.75 889 773 1.15 14.6

C 15
o
<
fw
A0 1 495 223 2 1019 566 1.80 10.4
□
0 0.5 420 189 2 896 853 1.05 14.4
21
'< 30
10 0.8 475 214 2 1029 602 1.71 12.3
c
o
CL 0.2 483 217 2 723 903 0.8 12.4
60
0.5 485 218 2 1030 559 1.75 9.6
8
A look at table 3 suggests the following remarks:
1. It can be seen that, with all the MFRCs, the larger the
percentage of fibres incorporated, the larger the sand/gravel ratio and
the larger the quantity of cement paste (water + cement). This remark
leads to the following two conclusions:
* As far as the compactness of the concrete is concerned, the

metallic fibres seem to have the same effect as the largest gravel in
the mineral skeleton of the concrete. This point has already been
mentioned in the literature.
* Increasing the quantity of sand increases the porosity of the

concrete, and this must be offset by using more cement paste (the
cement paste fills the voids between the grains of sand). This logical
result favours mechanical bonding between the metallic fibres and the
cement paste.
2. The sand/gravel ratio increases more with the metallic glass

ribbons than with the Dramix fibres. This may be explained by the fact
that the shape of the amorphous fibres is more like a large piece of
gravel than the shape of the Dramix fibres, making the substitution of
fibre for gravel more effective.
3. The increase in cement paste is also larger with the amorphous

iron fibres than with the Dramix fibres. This point may be explained
as a logical consequence of the previous finding, but also by the fact
that the amorphous fibres have a very large specific surface (much
larger than that of the Dramix fibres) and therefore require a lot of
cement paste to achieve a satisfactory rheological behaviour (good
workability). This is a problem of the mechanics of viscous fluids.
4. The percentage of amorphous fibres that can be incorporated in

the matrix is substantially lower than the percentage of Dramix fibres.
This finding is once again a consequence of the very large specific
surface of the amorphous fibres.
5. We end this list of remarks by emphasizing that, with some

MFRCs, the flowing time is slightly outside the imposed time range.
This anomaly is caused by the sudden variations of temperature and
ambient humidity between the day when the MFRCs were optimized and the
day the specimens used for the mechanical characterization of these
concretes were cast (this article does not describe these mechanical
tests, which will be the subject of another article). The flowing
times given in table 3 are those measured the day the specimens were
cast.
9
CONCLUSIONS
The aim of the study presented in this article is to propose a

rigorous scientific procedure for optimizing the composites that MFRCs
are. The method used depends on the assumption (confirmed
experimentally) that, with a fixed water/cement ratio, the most compact
concrete is also the most workable. We have applied this method to
MFRCs intended for use in reinforced concrete structures.
We are lead to the following conclusions:
1. The compositions of the MFRCs are totally different from the

composition of an ordinary concrete, reflecting the fact that a
reinforced composite is not produced merely by adding fibres to a
pre-existing matrix.
2. In their effects on workability and compactness, metallic

fibres act much like large chippings.
3. The method of composition used leads to MFRCs containing a lot

of cement paste, which has a highly beneficial effect on bonding
between the fibres and the matrix. The remainder of this study will
deal with the mechanical behaviour of the optimized MFRCs and will be
discussed in a forthcoming article.
REFERENCES
1. Dehouse N., Lejeune A., Cuyens T. , Les mortiers et les betons

renforces de fibres d'acier . Brussels, CSTC Revue 2 , 1974 , pp. 2-14.
2. Moens J.E.C. , Steel fibre concrete mix proportioning. Philadelphia,

paper presented at the A.C.I. Convention, March 1976.
3. USCOLD Concrete Committee , State of the art report on fibre

reinforced concrete , June 1981.
4. Rossi P. , Acker P., Malier Y. , Effect of the steel fibres at two

different stages : the material and the structure . Materiaux et
Constructions, 1988 , Vol. 21 , pp. 3-12 .
5. Lesage R. , Etude experimental de la mise en place du beton frais,

Research report no. 37, LCPC, June 1974.
6. de Larrard F ., Formulation et proprietes des betons a tres hautes

performances . Research report no. 149, LCPC, March 1988.
7. Serna Ros P., Etude de la contribution des fibres metalliques a

1'amelioration du comportement du beton au cisaillement . Doctoral
dissertation in Engineering , Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees,
1984.
10
8. Paillere A. , Godart B. , Contribution des fibres metalliques a

1'amelioration du comportement des stuctures en beton . Proceedings of
the First International Rilem Congress "Combaning Materials : design,
production and properties , Capman and Hall, 1987 , vol.2, pp.686-693 .
9. Baron J. , Lesage R. , Pour une etude pratique de la maniabilite :

le maniabilimetre Lesage du Laboratoire Central des Ponts et
Chaussees", Bulletin de Liaison des LPC , no. 13, 1965.
10. de Guillebon B., Sohn J.M. , Metallic Glass Ribbons: New Fibre
Concrete Reinforcement", Proceedings of Rilem Symposium on Developments
in Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete, edited by R.N. Swamy, R.L.
Wagestaffe, and D.R. Oakley, Sheffield, 1986.
11. de Larrard F. , Mix-design Method for High-Strength Concrete .

Supplementary paper, 3rd International Conference on Silica-Fume, Fly
Ash, Silica-Fume and Natural Pozzolans inConcrete, Trondheim, Norway,
1989.
11
OPTIMIZATION OF SIFCON MIX
H.W. REINHARDT
C. FRITZ,
Darmstadt University of Technology,
West Germany
ABSTRACT
Uniaxial tensile tests have been performed on various mixes of

SIFCON (Slurry Infiltrated Fibre Concrete) with the aim to im
prove mixing techniques and mechanical properties. An optimum
mix has been developed showing excellent workability, ductil
ity, and strength.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete technology is the art of compromises or, in another
way, the science of optimization. The product consists of a few
ingredients which are mixed in various combinations, transpor
ted and placed by different methods, compacted and cured. Theo
retically, one knows how to design a concrete mix in order to
adjust the properties to specific needs, technical and economi
cal ones. This is true for plain concrete, but it is not yet
true for fibre reinforced concrete.
One product which is still under development is SIFCON,

which is an acronym and stands for Slurry Infiltrated Fibre
CONcrete. It has been first proposed by Lankard [1] and has been
further improved by others [2,3,4]. Opposite to conven-tional
fibre reinforced concrete, SIFCON contains such a high
percentage of fibres that the concrete cannot be premixed any
more. The fibres are placed in the forms and slurry or mortar
with fine sand is infiltrated into the fibre skeleton. The
process of placing the fibres and infiltrating the matrix is a
new variable which can be optimized together with the approp
riate types of fibres.
The following will deal with a series of tests with various

SIFCON mixes which have been tested in uniaxial tensile
experiments.
12
2. EXPERIMENTS
Variables
The whole testing programme contained the following variables:
water/cement ratio, amount of steel fibres, orientation of
fibres, procedure of fibre placing, prodecure of slurry infil
tration. Due to limited time and learning while doing, not all
possible combinations have been tested. Table 1 shows the vari
ables. As can be seen, there are quantifiable variables or
TABLE 1
Variables of testing programme
Variable Range
water/cement ratio 0.35 and 0.45

type of fibre Dramix 30/.5 and 60/.8, EE, Harex,
Wirex
percentage of fibres 6 to 14 % Vol.
placing procedure sprinkled in form, vibrated in form

sprinkled at once or in layers
others which are weaker. The latter may cause more scatter since
they certainly depend on accidents which are not recor-ded.
Specimens
If a clear cut specimen for a tensile test would be manufac
tured with usual dimensions, one would encounter a serious wall
effect. One or two dimensions of the specimens may be smaller
than the length of the fibres, i.e. the fibres are automatical
ly lined out in a certain direction. Therefore flat plates have
been produced with 96 mm height, 400 mm width,and 625 mm length.
The fibres were sprinkled from above which led to a preferably
horizontal fibre orientation. In the two other di-rections, the
orientation was randomly. The plates were sawn into strips of 96
x 35 x 625 mm and tested in the length direc-tion.
After placing of the fibres, the cement slurry was poured

into the fibre skeleton and sometimes vibrated or not. The
specimens were cured one day in the mould, then 5 days under
plastic sheets, and finally 23 to 28 days stored at 20°C and 65
% r.h. until testing.
Specimens were sawn at an age of 5 days. It turned out that

a diamond saw could be used after some trials. The worked
surface always remained rough with some protruding fibres.
13
Loading device
Although there is good experience with steel plates glued to the
faces of the specimens, we doubted whether the expected high
strength of the material would allow this procedure. In-stead, a
mechanical gripping device of Carl Schenck Company, Darmstadt,
was used which works as follows (see Fig. 1): A base plate is
fixed centrically and perpendicularly to the rod which transmits
the force from the actuator and load cell. A steel block
consisting of two halves slides along the base plate and pushes
two parallel grips against the specimen. The clamping force is
adjusted by a bolt and met together with two sets of plate
springs. Whenever the specimen changes its transverse dimension,
the grips follow automatically.
The places where the grips hold the specimen are coated by
an epoxy layer in order to provide parallel and axially out
lined sides. This measure is necessary in order to avoid clamp
ing moments.
The specimens' elongation was measured with two LVDTs over

the total free length. Additionally, a pair of LVDTs with 100 mm
base was fixed to the middle of the specimen.
steel block
plate spring
base plate
uniaxial
centric
actuator and l o a d cell
Fig. 1 Gripping device for tensile tests
TESTING RESULTS
Stress-displacement curves
The primary results of the tests are the complete stress-dis
placement (= total elongation) curves. Figs. 2 to 6 show a
selection of all results. Fig. 2 shows the results of three
types of fibres with the same amount of fibres and one result
for a higher fibre content. A longer fibre and a lower w/c ratio
have been used in Fig. 3. The EE fibre has been applied in
several experiments, the results of which are plotted in Fig. 4.
The fibres have been compacted by vibrating.
14
stress (N/mm2)
15.0
1 H a r e x 3 5 - . 1 5 8. 5V %
2 W i r e x 2 5 -. 4 8 .5V.$b
3 L)ramix30-.5 8 .5 V ^ •
10.0 4 D r a m i x 3 0 - . 5 1 3 .5 V $
5.0
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 .20.0 25.0
elongation(mm)
Fig. Stress-displacement curves of various mixes with
w/c ratio 0.45
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

elongation (mm)
Fig. 3 Stress-displacement curves of a mix with long fibres

and w/c = 0.35
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 2 0. 0 25.O

elongation (mm)
Fig. I Stress-displacement curves for a short fibre mix with

w/c = 0.35
15
A blend of two fibres has been used for Fig. 5. First, the
Dramix 60/.8 fibre has been sprinkled and vibrated. Then, the
shorter EE fibre (18/0,5) has been sprinkled aiming at a further
condensation of the fibre skeleton. By this method 10.5 % Vol.
have been achieved in the mix. The result of four tensile tests
is depicted in Fig. 5. To improve the blending method, the
Dramix and EE fibres were sprinkled intermittedly which resulted
in an almost same amount of fibres. The slurry had to be more
workable in order to penetrate into the dense filt of fibres
wherefore a w/c ratio of 0.45 was chosen. Theresults of the
fibre tests are shown in Fig. 6.
stress (N/mm2)
15.0
7 Dramix 6 0 - . 8 6.5 V o l%
EE 18-.5 4 . 0 V o l °/o
10.0
5.0
0 .0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
e l o n g a t i o n ( mm)
Fig. 5 Stress-displacemnt curves for a mix with a fibre blend

(vibrated) and w/c = 0.35
elongation (mm)
Fig. 6 Stress-displacement curves for a mix with a fibre blend
(non-vibrated) and w/c = 0.45
Visible cracking and failure

In order to facilitate cracks to be recognized, the surface of
the specimens was painted with a thin layer of lime-water. This
layer is brittle, and tiny cracks of 0.02 mm may be detected.
During the tests, the stress-displacement evolution was watched
16
in order to pay due attention to the occurrence of cracks, as

soon as non-linearities occurred in the curves. At that moment,
a cracking zone developed from one side of the specimen spread
ing steadily to the other side. Fig. 7 shows two characteristic
examples. Most specimens failed by one single cracking zone
under a right angle to the exterior normal force (Type a). Some
specimens failed by developing an inclined crack first, which
caused rotation of a part of the specimen. Thereafter a second
crack developed in some distance to the first and parallel to
each other with the difference of crack displacement distribu
tion. The third crack link-ed the pivot points of the two first
cracks. The crack occurred due to the shear force between the
two triangles (Type b).>Fig. 7c illustrated the crack
development. Presumably, cracks no. 1 and 2 are mainly tensile
cracks whereas no. 3 is a shearing crack.
Fig. 7 Cracking pattern of two specimens

a) Straight and perpendicular to the tensile force
Fig. 7 Cracking pattern of two specimens

b) zig-zag pattern inclined to the tensile force
c) schematization of zig-zag crack development
17
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Stress-displacement curve and fracture energy

The stress displacement curves of Figs. 2 to 6 have common
features: they start rather steeply, begin to incline, reach a
top, and decay in a smooth way. What is usually indicated as
first cracking point is not detectable for sure. There is a
steady increase of stress and strain. At the peak stress there
is a visible crack which starts to expand, but there must be
many cracks before. Looking to Fig. 8, there is a considerable
hysteresis over a measuring length of 100 mm. Uncracked con
crete could not produce such an energy loss. To calculate
approximately the number of cracks, one may use the fracture
energy of plain concrete which is consumed until peak stress.
Assuming ft = 4 MPa and £0 = 10“4 , then Go = % 4 • 10"4 • 100 =
2 • 10“2 N/mm = 20 N/m. The area under the curve until the top
is G f ,o = 1200 N/m. The nubmer of cracks is then n = G f ,o/Go =
60, i.e. every 1.6 mm a crack. The width of the cracks is
elongation minus elastic deformation devided by the number of
cracks, i.e. w = (0.2 - 10"4 • 102 )/60 a 0.003 mm which is not
visible with the naked eye.
If the fracture energy G f is calculated for a single crack,

the energy dissipated by distributed cracking should be taken
into account. On the other hand, if fracture energy of a
structural tensile member should be estimated, the energy of the
bulk material and the energy of the decisive visible cracks have
to be summed up.
Figs. 2 to 6 are evaluated. The G f values for the total

specimens, i.e. distributed plus visible cracks are given in
Table 2 together with tensile strength ft and stress free crack
opening So .
Fig. 8 Loading and unloading of a portion of a specimen

without visible cracking
18
TABLE 2
Total fracture energy of specimens with 625 length, mean values
Mix Fibre Fibre w/c ft 5o Gf No.crack Remarks

No. type Vol.% ratio MPa mm kJ/m2 zones
1 Harex 8,5 0,45 7,0 9,2 20,1 1 without
30-0,15 vibration
ii
2 Wirex 8,5 0,45 4,4 10,6 20,9 1
25-0,4
H
o
3 Dramix 8,5 in 9,2 19,0 60,5 1

30-0,5
4 Dramix 13,5 0,45 1-4,1 34,9 134,1 2 with
30-0,5 vibration
VI
5 Dramix 7,4 0,35 6,7 26,0 57,8 1
60-0,8
if
6 EE-fib. 9,9 0,35 7,8 10,0 28,8 1
25-0,5
7 Dramix 6,5 first
60-0,8 Dramix
0,35 6,9 22,9 56,4 1 then
EE-fib. 4,0 EE-fibre
18-0,5 both with
vibration
8 Dramix 6,1
60-0,8
0,45 10,7 20,8 72,4 1 first
EE fib. 4,2 a layer
18-0,5 Dramix
then a
layer
EE-fibre
and s.o.
Comparing mixes nos. 1 to 3, the influence of the type of

fibres can be seen. The tensile strength increases from Harex,
via Wirex to Dramix where the stress value at 5 = 10 mm is
identical. Since the fibres are almost even long the last aspect
is expected. If fibre content is increased, there is a large
increase in tensile strength and fracture energy in case of
Dramix 30/.5. Longer fibres (Fig. 3) lead to a more ductile
behaviour, i.e. it takes larger displacement to pull out the
fibres, but tensile strength decreases. On the other hand, if
shorter fibres are used (Fig. 4), tensile strength increases and
stress free displacement decreases. Fracture energy decreases as
well. These two facts led to the idea that a combination of long
and short fibres should behave best. A first attempt (Fig. 5)
showed that the assumption is in principle correct, strength and
fracture energy went up. However, the best result could be
achieved with a new manufacturing technique. First, a layer of
long fibres is placed, then short fibres are sprinkled into the
coarse skeleton, then another layer is placed, and so on until
the form was filled. Then, the slurry is poured and not vibrated
19
in order to preserve the existing fibre package. The result

(Fig. 6) is optimal as tensile strength, fracture energy, and
stress free displacement are concerned. Also the workability is
good since the water/cement ratio has been raised to 0.45.
Scatter of properties
All specimens are hand made. Although it was tried to work as
uniformly as possible, there is always scatter of fibre distri
bution, orientation, and volume within a specimen. This can be
seen during testing since cracks may start at any place and
maybe another crack develops, i.e. there are two places with
less fibres than at the other places or the orientation is such
that less fibres are orientated in the principal tensile direc
tion. This phenomenon depends partly on the small size of the
specimens but surely also on the random placement of the fibres.
Before large structural parts are to be made, the aspect of
scatter of fibres has to be studied more extensively.
From Figs. 4 to 6, the scatter can be estimated. Table 3

shows the lowest and highest values of ft and G f together with
the coefficient of variation. It can be seen that the mixes have
almost the same scatter. A coefficient of variation of
TABLE 3
Scatter of results of mixes no. 6.to 8.
Mix ft , MPa Gf , kJ/m2

no. min max v '% min max V r%
6 7,2 8,9 7,3 22,1 49,5 36,6

7 6,5 7,4 5,5 45,7 74,8 22,6
8 8,6 12,3 15,4 60,7 78,7 8,9
10 % for ft and 20 % for G f seems usual. This is in the same

order of magnitude as encountered with plain concrete in
uniaxial tensile testing [5].
CONCLUSION
SIFCON mixes have been investigated in uniaxial tensile tests.

The results lead to the following conclusions:
- Tensile strength up to 14 MPa could be achieved.
- Before peak stress, extensive cracking occurs with crack

width of about 0.003 mm, i.e. invisible for the naked eye.
- The fracture energy has to be divided into energy consumed by

distributed cracking and energy dissipated at a single crack.
- Crack formation is either at a right angle to the principle

20
tensile stress or inclined in a zig-zag shape.

- Fracture energy ranges in the order of 70 kJ/m2 .
- An optimum mix can be achieved with a blend of long and short

fibres.
- The scatter of the mechanical properties is similar to the
one of plain concrete.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The financial support received from the German Science Founda

tion (DFG) is greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
1. Lankard, D.R. and Newell, J.K., Preparation of highly rein

forced steel fibre reinforced concrete composites. Proc.
Intern. Symp. "Fibre reinforced concrete", SP-81, ACI,
Detroit 1984, pp. 287-306
2. Balagaru, P. and Kendzulak, J., Flexural behaviour of slurry

infiltrated fibre concrete (SIFCON) made by using condensed
silica fume. In "Fly ash, silica fume, slag, and natural
puzzolans in concrete", SP-91, ACI, Detroit 1986, pp.1215
-1229
3. Cheney, S., Carson, J. and Swift, H., Sifcon impact perfor

mance. Conf. Interaction of structures with non-nuclear
munitions, Mannheim, March 1987, pp. 557-581
4. Naaman, A.E., Wight, J.K. and Abdon, H., SIFCON connections

for seismic resistant frames. Concrete International, 1987,
11, pp. 34-39
5. Wolinski, S., Hordijk, D.A., Reinhardt, H.W., Influence of

aggregate size on fracture mechanics parameters of concrete.
The International Journal of Cement Composites and
Lightweight Concrete, 1987, 9, no.2, pp. 98-103
21
A REPAIR APPLICATION OF POLYPROPYLENE

FIBRE REINFORCED SPRAYED CONCRETE
SIMON AUSTIN
PETER ROBINS
Structural Materials Research Group
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Technology, Loughborough
United Kingdom
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the recent repair of Budbrooke water tower, a Victorian
brick structure located in Warwickshire, with sprayed concrete containing
polypropylene fibre reinforcement. Severn Trent Water, the owners of the
tower, instigated the project because of their concern over spalling of the
brickwork structure. The repair consisted of a 35mm layer of polypropylene
fibre reinforced concrete (fibres at 0.5% by weight) with a non-fibrous flash coat
to finish. The specification and contract documentation were written to
incorporate a research and development programme to evaluate this relatively
new material in both the short and long term. On the western face of the
structure five trial areas were sprayed; four of these were different fibre
reinforced mixes and one was mesh reinforced.
In-situ fibre contents were determined from wet analysis of fresh concrete
removed from the structure and from test panels. Fibre losses were found to be
in the range 35-40%, similar to the material losses; in-situ fibre contents were
consequently close to the dry mix contents. Flexural strength and toughness
index data was obtained from beams cut from test panels.
The paper concludes with a discussion of the findings of a six month inspection
which showed that the repair has generally performed satisfactorily to date.
22
INTRODUCTION
There are few recorded applications of sprayed concrete containing

polypropylene fibres. In 1984 ACI Committee 506 (1) commented that there was
no data available, and the situation has changed little since then. Boyes (2)
mentions the use of the material as a trial partial lining of a transfer tunnel
between quarries in North Wales. The mix contained about 0.1% volume of
polypropylene fibres as replacement for conventional galvanised mesh
reinforcement. Caledonian Mining have sprayed a significant amount of
polypropylene fibre concrete; however, most of their work has been for HM
Government in defence and high security applications (such as prison walls)
and consequently little information relating to their work has been published.
A recent major contract was the lining of Chellow Heights, a Victorian

granite faced open reservoir, as part of its conversion into a covered potable
water storage reservoir. Over 4000 of the hewn granite vertical sides were
coated with a thin (50mm nominal) coating of polypropylene fibre reinforced
sprayed concrete with a brushed finish to produce a smooth cleanable surface. A
3:1 pre-bagged mix containing approximately 1 kg per m3 (0.1% volume) of
fibrillated polypropylene fibres was specified.
The low fibre content of around 0.1% volume used on the above projects
is typical of the dosage level recommended by polypropylene fibre
manufacturers to control plastic and drying shrinkage in cast concrete. Such
small fibre additions will have little effect on strength properties of sprayed
concrete, though if shrinkage cracking is controlled this will improve the
durability of the material. Krenchel (3) has reported the use of much higher
fibre contents in Denmark. A sprayed polypropylene fibre concrete containing
2.0% volume produced a flexural strength of 6MPa, which compared with 8MPa
achieved by steel fibres at 1.5% volume in the same mix. Moreover, the tensile
strain at ultimate load of the polypropylene fibre concrete was eight times that
of a plain control concrete (the steel fibre concrete strain being four times that of
the plain).
BUDBROOKE WATER TOWER
The structure
The fibre reinforced repair of Budbrooke water tower came about as part of an
ongoing collaboration between Severn Trent Water and the authors on the use
of sprayed fibre concrete for the repair of STW structures (4). The Victorian
water tower consists of a steel tank supported by a brickwork structure which
had deteriorated badly in places due to weathering (Figure 1). Both the mortar
joints and the bricks themselves had been affected with spalls around 20mm
deep in some areas (Figure 2).
23
Figure 2. Deteriorated brickwork
Selection and specification of repair material

Initially a 50mm thick mesh reinforced sprayed concrete repair had been
envisaged by STW. We suggested that trial areas of sprayed fibre concrete be
included, but STW finally decided to use a 35mm thick fibre reinforced coating
throughout because of the reduction in volume of material required. Steel fibre
24
flexural strengthening was not a major requirement, and the steel fibre losses
through rebound on such a thin layer would have been very high (perhaps
around 70%). Also, the structure was located close to a residential area with a
children's playground immediately adjacent to one face; in this situation any
steel fibres protruding from the coating or left on the ground following
construction would have been hazardous to the general public.
Polypropylene fibres were selected as being a safe reinforcement which

according to literature and manufacturer's information offered shrinkage crack
control and some flexural strengthening if used in significant quantities.
The specification called for all loose material to be removed by high

pressure water jetting (minimum 200 bar). The brickwork was to be repaired
with a 35mm layer (-5 to +10mm tolerance) of 3:1 sand/cement mix containing
0.5% by weight of 12mm long Krenit polypropylene fibres. This was
subsequently modified to include a plain flash coat as described below. The
contract also required five trial areas to be sprayed on one face of the structure;
these involved the use of the 12mm fibre at 0.25% and 0.75% by weight, a 6mm
fibre at 0.5% by weight, and a 50mm thick mesh reinforced (100 x 100 x 3.5mm)
area. The purpose of these test areas was to allow long term monitoring of the
different sprayed concretes.
CONSTRUCTION
Spraying process
The contractor's initial set-up involved the following: manual site-batching
and mixing using a simple drop weight concrete mixer; the use of a damp sand;
and a standard piccola type rotating barrel gun without an auger feed. During
pre-construction work, the contractor experienced difficulty in mixing and
spraying the fibre mix with this arrangement of plant and materials. A change
to a dry (pre-bagged) sand alleviated some of the mixing problems but the
nozzleman continued to have occasional difficulty with spraying, partly because
of the inconsistency of the fibre mix. We had ourselves sprayed the material
without difficulty, using a forced action concrete mixer to pre-blend the dry
materials and a Reed gun. The contractor was unable to obtain this type of
equipment and gained approval for the existing set-up using a pre-bagged sand.
Some balling of fibres did subsequently occur during batching, and these were
removed by hand before entering the gun.
Surface finish
The original specification had called for a single 35mm layer of fibre concrete.
However, during pre-construction testing the presence of fibres on the surface
and doubts over the unevenness of the finished surface caused STW some
concern. The contractor and STW therefore agreed that the 35mm fibre concrete
layer should be cut back by trowel and then flash coated with a plain gunite.
The flatness of the final finish was generally very good and well within the
tolerance specified.
25
Test areas
The specification called for a number of test areas to be sprayed on the western
face with different fibre content/fibre type as described previously. All test areas
were cut back with a steel float and given a flash coat of the same material
within 30 minutes. All the mixes proved to be easily sprayable with the
exception of the 0.75% 12mm Krenit mix, which would appear to exceed the
maximum useful dosage. There appeared to be excessive amounts of fibres in
situ and the mix had to be sprayed on the wet side. However, in-situ fibre
content tests suggest that the dry mix fibre content was greater than the 0.75%,
possibly being nearer to 1.0% by weight.
At the time of spraying the test areas on the structure, 1.2m x 0.6m x
35mm panels of the four fibre mixes were also sprayed; these were subsequently
transported to Loughborough and used to obtain beams for flexural testing.
Figure 3 shows the 0.5% 12mm fibre mix being sprayed onto the structure,
together with a completed test panel below it.
Figure 3. Spraying of trial area and test panel
FIBRE CONTENT AND STRENGTH TESTING
In-situ fibre contents

In-situ fibre contents were measured on two occasions. Samples of 0.5 to 0.75 kg
were cut out from the fresh concrete and a wet analysis carried out to determine
the proportion of fibres present. The in-situ fibre contents, as a percentage of the
26
wet material (WFQ), are given in Table 1. The in-situ fibre contents as a
percentage of dry material (FQ) have been calculated by assuming a
water/cement ratio of 0.45 and an in-situ aggregate/cement ratio of 1.65. These
figures were selected on the basis of limited fresh analysis of the sprayed
samples. This low aggregate/cement ratio represents a material rebound of
around 34% for the original 3:1 mix; this relatively high figure is not unrealistic
considering the thinness of the layer being sprayed and the method and distance
of spraying.
TABLE 1
In-situ fibre contents
Test area Sample In-situ fibre content ? by weight)

Wet material, WFCi Dry material, FC
1 1 (panel) 0.47 0.55

(0.5% 6mm fibre) 2 (structure) 0.74 0.87
3 (structure) 0.60 0.70
2 1 (panel) 0.20 0.23

3 (structure) 0.20 0.23
3 1 (panel) 0.35 0.41

3 (structure) 0.36 0.42
4 1 (panel) 1.0 1.17

3 (structure) 1.0 1.17
structure 1 0.48 0.56

(0.5% 12mm fibre) 2 0.64 0.75
3 0.33 0.39
Fibre losses (rebound) were calculated on the basis of total quantities

sprayed (5) on samples taken from test areas 2 and 3 and found to be in the range
of 35 - 40%. This is of a similar order to the material loss and hence the in-situ
fibre contents of these mixes (0.25% and 0.5% 12mm fibre) are approximately the
same or slightly lower than the dry mix fibre contents. This fibre loss will in
part have been the result of fibres balling together during the mixing process
and then being discarded before the material entered the gun. The fibre loss in
test area 1 (0.5% 6mm fibre) was clearly much less, which is probably due to the
shorter fibres mixing better into the material before being put into the gun and
spraying more easily. The fibre loss in test area 4 (0.75% 12mm fibre) appears to
be negligible, which is unlikely; the very high in-situ fibre content (average
1.2%) might have been the result of incorrect batching.
27
The overall average in-situ fibre contents are thus very close to the dry
mix fibre contents, which infers that the fibre and other material losses are of
approximately equal proportions. This is in contrast to steel fibre reinforced
sprayed concrete where the rebound of the fibres is usually appreciably higher
than material rebound.
Strength tests
Four beam specimens, nominally 100mm wide x 40mm thick x 500mm long,
were cut from each of the four test panels and tested in flexure under four point
loading over a 300mm span at 28 days. The limit of proportionality (LOP) stress,
peak stress (modulus of rupture) and toughness index (I) were determined from
the load/deflection curve of each specimen. Toughness indices were calculated
in accordance with ASTM C1018 (6). The average thickness, strength and
toughness for each material are given in Table 2.
TABLE 2
Strength test results
Test panel Thickness LOP stress Peak stress Toughness indices

(mm) (MPa) (MPa) 15 n o 130
1 40 3.9 5.2 5.7 10.9 24.6

(0.5% 6mm fibre)
2 43 4.6 5.6 4.9 8.2 15.7

(0.25% 12mm fibre)
3 38 4.7 6.6 5.4 9.6 21.9

(0.5% 12mm fibre
4 49 2.9 5.1 6.6 14.7 43.0

(0.75% 12mm fibre)
This table shows that for the 12mm fibre, the 0.5% mix (0.48% in situ) was
stronger than the 0.25% mix (0.25% in situ) and the 0.75% mix (1.2% in situ).
The latter can be explained by the high water content and difficulties in spraying
this quantity of fibres; the LOP strength is therefore low but significantly the
peak strength is 75% higher than the LOP, compared with 20 - 40% for the other
three mixes. The strength of the 0.5% 6mm fibre mix is of a similar order to the
0.25% 12mm fibre mix, but the 6mm fibre’s in-situ content of 0.7% is almost
three times greater.
The toughness of 6mm fibre and 12mm fibre mixes at 0.25% and 0.5% is
similar and close to the theoretical elasto-plastic values of 5, 10 and 30 (with the
exception of the I30 value of one mix). The toughness indices of the 0.75%
12mm fibre mix were even higher, being at levels in excess of any that we have
measured previously, including steel fibre sprayed concrete.
28
SIX MONTH INSPECTION
General appearance
A preliminary inspection of the structure was carried out in June 1988 and a
thorough six month inspection in August 1988. The structure was found to be
in generally good condition with minor shrinkage cracking at construction
joints. Photographs of the south and west elevations are shown in Figures 4
and 5.
Figure 4 Southern elevation
The contractor had clearly been successful in obtaining a flat finish with sharp
returns at corners and edges. The surface colour is generally quite even,
although the southern elevation is patchy above the arches. Some surface
staining has occurred along the top parapet due to rusting of the water tank.
Locally there are a few whitish deposits where salts in solution have reached the
surface. The test areas are visible near the bottom of Figure 5.
Figure 5 Western elevation
Cracking
Most of the cracks observed were hairline in size (< 0.25mm) and occurred at
construction joints formed at external corners of the structure. In order to
produce a sharp return at corners, as specified by STW, the contractor used
timber battens to form the first face (Figure 6); thus there was no fibre
continuity at the joint, resulting in vertical shrinkage cracks. A few other
hairline cracks had occurred on flat faces, but again these appeared to be at day
joints formed during construction.
A third type of minor cracking occurred at the corners of openings on the

northern and western elevations of the control room area, presumably as a
result of stress concentrations.
The worst crack was located on one corner of the extension to the control
room (eastern elevation). The crack was 6mm wide at the base and it appears
that the fibre concrete layer has debonded from the relatively new brick
substrate. The reason for this poor bond was unclear.
30
Figure 6 Corner construction detail
Permeability
A very limited number of permeability measurements were made on the test
areas of the structure. Two types of test were applied: the BS 1881 Initial Surface
Absorption Test (ISAT) (7) and a new test (Egg) developed at Loughborough
which has similarities with the Figg test but which does not entail drilling a
hole in the structure. The ISAT is a water absorption test whilst our new test is
an air pressure drop test.
The ISAT values of test areas 2 and 5 were 0.07 and 0.08 to 0.21 m l/m 2/s
respectively and are below the 0.25 m l/m 2 /s limit which the Concrete Society
(8) categorise as 'good'. The Egg test results for test areas 4 and 5 indicated that
the surface was micro-cracked at the location of the tests whereas the results
obtained in test areas 1 to 3 were all indicative of 'good' concrete. Thus it
appears that the 6mm fibre at 0.5% and the 12mm at 0.25% and 0.5% did not
detract from the inherent potential low permeability of good quality sprayed
concrete.
31
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank Severn Trent Water for their permission to include
material resulting from work funded by them and for their cooperation in
evaluating the use of sprayed fibre concrete as a repair material. We would also
like to thank Mowlem Northern Ltd for their assistance on site during
construction.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 506, State-of-the-art report on fibre reinforced

shotcrete. Concrete International, 1984, 6, No. 12, pp. 15-27.
2. Boyes, R.G.H., Assimilating concrete progress. Civil Engineering,

1986, August, pp. 43-53.
3. Krenchel, H., Private correspondence, August 1986.
4. Austin, S.A. and Robins, P.J., Sprayed fibre concrete. Report for
Severn Trent Water, Department of Civil Engineering,
Loughborough University of Technology, January 1987, 124 pp.
5. Robins, P.J. and Austin, S.A., Sprayed steel fibre concrete, Part 1 -
production and installation. Concrete, 1985,19, No. 3, pp 17-19.
6. ASTM C1018-85, Flexural toughness and first-crack strength of fibre

reinforced concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1985, 8 pp.
7. BS1881 : Part 5 : 1970, Methods of testing hardened concrete for other

than strength. British Standards Institution, London, 1970, 38 pp.
8. Concrete Society, Permeability testing of site concrete. In

Permeability of concrete and its control, London, 1985, pp 1-69.
32
STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF MESHED VINYLON FIBRE REINFORCED MORTAR WITH NEW

ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES
HIROZO MIHASHI, NOBORU KOIDE and KAZUNOBTJ HIRAI

Dept, of Architecture, Tohoku University, Sendai 980, Japan
TADASHI YAMAMOTO
Electric Technology Res. & Dev. Center, Tohoku Electric
Power Company Inc., Sendai 980, Japan
KAZUO MIZOGUCHI
Vinylon Sales Dept., Unitika Kasei Ltd., Osaka 54-1 > Japan
ABSTRACT
Even though lots of strong fibers such as carbon, aramid and vinylon
fibers are contained in mortar, they do not work as reinforcements unless
the mortar itself and the mortar/fibre interface have sufficient strength.
On the other hand, less weight materials which have often lower strength
need to be effectively reinforced to resist the acting loads.
In this paper, experimental studies of effective reinforcement
techniques using vinylon fibres are presented. Newly developed vinylon
triaxially bonded mesh was used to reinforce three different types of
mortar. Two of them are using special light weight artificial aggregates
which were made from fly ash. Mechanical properties of the composite
materials are especially studied. Finally, influences of the strength of
matrix and the mesh arrangement are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Various studies have recently been carried out on strength properties of

reinforced mortar with new materials such as carbon, aramid, vinylon and
some other fibers. In most cases, short fibers were used as reinforcements
for cementitious matrices to prevent the brittle fracture. Even though
lots of strong fibers are contained in mortar, they do not work as
reinforcements if the strength of mortar itself and mortar/fiber interface
is not sufficiently high. On the other hand, low density materials which
are often rather weak need to be reinforced effectively to resist the
acting loads.
Fly ash from coal-burning power plants has been widely used in
concrete. Although huge amount of fly ash is produced in Japan, less than
33
only 25% of them are effectively used. Yamamoto developed a kind of

artificial aggregate in 1986 that was called fire sand [1]. Fire sand was
made from cement and fly ash. The characteristic properties of the
artificial sand are following: rather light (oven dried specific gravity is
about 1.44); fire-proof materials. Recently he developed another light
weight artificial aggregate which was called pulp sand, by means of the
similar way to fire sand but adding an organic fibre. This new material is
much lighter than natural sand and has a much wider surface area with fibre
reinforcements. The oven dried specific gravity is 0.96.
High modulus vinylon fibre was invented by Unitika Kasei Ltd. and it
has been regarded as one of the potential new materials used in place of
asbestos for fibre reinforced cementitious composite materials. It has
some very attractive characteristics. For example, Type AB vinylon has
high strength (1 .23x10%Pa), high modulus (2.95x1O^MPa), good alkali-
resistance, good affinity with cement past and the specific gravity is 1.3*
Recently vinylon triaxially bonded mesh was also developed.
The purpose of this paper is to find some effective reinforcement
techniques of light weight mortar with vinylon fibers. Vinylon triaxially
bonded mesh was used to reinforce three types of mortar including special
light weight artificial aggregates made from fly ash. Strength properties
of the composite materials and the effectiveness of meshed fibre
reinforcement in comparison with short fibre reinforcement were
experimentally studied. Finally, influences of matrix properties and mesh
arrangements are discussed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Program and Procedures

The materials tested and the -corresponding reinforcement conditions which
were chosen in this program are shown in TABLE 1 . Throughout the study,
three types of mortar were studied and high-early strength Portland cement
was used. Aggregates used in mortar were crushed natural stone, fire sand
and pulp sand. Composition of the pulp sand is fly ash, wet organic fibre
(water content 200%) and cement whose proportion is 0.36, 0.^3 and 0.21 by
weight. The mix proportions of the three types of mortar are given in
TABLE 1
Experimental program
Series Type of Fibre Arrangement and Distribution
Vinylon Triaxially Vertically Distributed or

I Bonded Mesh Horizontally Distributed
Chopped Strand Randomly Distributed

II Vinylon (15mm) in Three Dimensions
Vinylon Triaxially Horizontally Concentrated

III Bonded Mesh at the Bottom of the Beam
34
TABLE 2
Mix proportions by weight and flow of the three types of mortar
Type Aggregate W/C S/C* Super Plasticizer Flow (mm)
S Crushed stone 0.35 1.50 243

F Fire sand 0.35 1.04 1% of the weight 227
of cement
D Pulp sand 0.35 0.86 104
* where S/C was kept constant in volume per cent.
TABLE 2. Volume percent of sand-cement ratio was kept constant, though it

is described in terms of weight percent in TABLE 2. The flow of each
mortar is also shown in TABLE 2.
Physical properties of vinylon triaxially bonded mesh (Type TSH-1820)
are as follows: weight is 45 g/m' , tensile strength is 166 N per a warp
filament and 184 N per a diagonal filament; elongation is 4*6 % per a warp
filament and 6.4 % per a diagonal filament; number of filament per meter is
58 for warp and 56 for diagonal.
In series I, the influence of the reinforcement direction of vinylon
triaxially bonded mesh was studied. Layers of the mesh were embedded
perpendicularly to (Case H) or in parallel with (Case V) the loading
direction. In series II, fibre reinforced mortar with chopped strand
vinylon (15mm) was tested to study the effectiveness of the meshed
reinforcement system. Series III was programmed to investigate the
effectiveness of the distributed layers arrangement system. Mortar
specimens with a concentrated arrangement of vinylon triaxially bonded mesh
were tested. FIGURE 1.(a) shows the difference of mesh arrangement between
series I and series III.
All specimens were cast in steel moulds. FIGURE 1.(b) shows the
relation between casting direction and loading direction in the case of
vertical position mesh arrangement (Case V) in series I. In the case of
horizontal position mesh arrangement (Case H), both directions coincide.
After demoulding, they were cured in water of 20°C until the test age of 7
days.
Total fibre content was 1.2 vol.% in series I. If the fibre content
only of the longitudinal direction is counted, it is about 0.5 vol.%.
Cover depth of the first layer was about 5 mm and totally 20 layers of the
mesh were embedded. In series II, fibre content of chopped strand was 1.2
vol.% for all types of mortar and the case of 3*0 vol.% was also programmed
only for mortar of crushed natural stone. Specimens in series III
contained totally 0.6 vol.% of vinylon triaxially bonded mesh. Influence
of fibre content on flexural strength were studied in another paper [2].
Mortar prisms (40mmx40mmx160mm) were subjected to center-point bending
load at span length of 100 mm. After bending tests, one piece of the
broken prism was tested under compressive load and the other piece was
loaded in double shear in series I and series II.
Evaluation of Toughness
Toughness is a kind of measure indexes of the energy absorption capacity of
materials. These indexes are used to characterize the fracture resistance
of materials when they are subjected to static, dynamic and impact loads.
35
Mesh layer
Vertically Distributed Horizontally Distributed Horizontally Concentrated

Mesh Arrangement Mesh Arrangement Mesh Arrangement
(20 layers) (20 layers) (10 layers)
(a) Mesh Arrangement in Series I and III.

Loading Direction
o
4->
(J
cu i
oE
1
-40mm-
(b) Loading and Casting (c) Reinforcement with Vinylon
Directions. Triaxially Bonded Mesh.
FIGURE 1. Section of test specimens and reinforcing system with mesh.
Energy absorbed by the specimen is represented by the area under the load-
deflection curve. According to JCI Standard SF4 [3]» flexural toughness T
was evaluated from the area under the load deflection curve divided by the
section area of the beam, whose integration limit was a point with
deflection of 1/150 of the span length. Tmax was also evaluated in the
same way but the limit was the point with deflection of the maximum load.
RESULTS
TABLE 3, 4 and 5 show the results of series I, II and III, respectively.

All of these results are the mean values of at least three specimens.
Density was measured on condition that only the surface of specimens was
dried. Although flexural strength at the first peak and the maximum
flexural strength are shown in TABLE 3 in case of series I, both of them
coincided in cases of series II and III. Flexural Young’s modulus was
calculated as a reference value from the first ascending part that was
rather linear. Since it is highly influenced by the surface roughness and
warping of the specimen, the value does not always describe the real
physical property. Specific flexural strength was calculated as a strength
index which meant the maximum flexural strength per unit density.
While density of pulp sand mortar was about 80 % smaller than natural
sand mortar, the value of about 10 % less than that is expected on dry
36
TABLE 3
Test results of series I
Compressive
arrangement
.—
Stress(MPa)
Deflection
.10 (MPa)
Str. (MPa)
Str.(MPa)
CO
Str.(Mpa)
Fist Peak
Toughness
Strength
Specific
Flex. E
Shearing
(1 /150)
Flexural
CO
Density
(t/nP)
(N/mm)
Matrix
CD cdS
^max
$3 S B
43 Ph \
—
tuo S
3 -P
mesh
0 cd
I"
- 2.3 - 10.7 4.69 4.9 0.11 0.14 0.14 72.9 9.8
S H 2.3 8.9 15.9 6.96 2.9 1.73 1.42 4.95 44.3 7.4
V 2.3 11 .1 13.6 5.93 3.8 1.63 1.27 4.57 76.9 12.1
- 1 .9 - 6.5 3.37 2.9 0.15 0.10 0.10 55.5 7.7
F H 1.9 8.4 15.6 8.09 4.0 2.60 1.43 8.17 40.5 7.1
V 1.9 6.8 14.4 7.46 3.2 1.83 1 .13 5.06 60.9 10.5
- 1 .8 - 6.7 3.77 3.1 0.09 0.09 0.09 32.5 6.1
P H 1.8 6.9 16.1 8.98 3.1 2.77 1 .12 11.10 33.3 5.9
V 1 .8 6.9 13.8 7.70 2.5 2.04 1 .20 5.64 33.5 6.7
TABLE 4
Test results of series II
Compressive
Fibre Cont.
Deflection
CO
Str.(Mpa)
Toughness
Str.(MPa)
Str. (MPa)
H cd
Strength
Specific
(1 /150)
Flexural
Shearing
(t/m3 )
(N/mm)
Density
Ph
(Vol. % )
S 3a
Matrix
Pmax
.5 S3 S B
XCV 43 Ph \
CD I tUD £3
H O 3 -P ^
t- O cd
Eh
i
1 .2 2.3 9.8 4.30 2.3 0.32 0.49 0.28 65.5 10.9

S
3.0 2.1 8.8 4.13 2.6 0.30 1.23 0.46 40.4 7.8
F 1.2 1 .9 8.6 4.50 2.5 0.21 0.94 0.25 56.9 9.5

P 1.2 1.9 7.1 3.79 2.8 0.30 0.81 0.29 38.9 6.8
condition. Density of mortar with 3 % fibre content in series II is 93 %

less than that with 1.2 % fibre content. Flexural strength of meshed fibre
reinforced mortar is much higher than those not only of plain mortar but
also of fibre reinforced mortar with chopped strand. On the other hand,
37
TABLE 5
Test results in series III
Fibre Cont.
Deflection
Str.(Mpa)
Toughness
Strength
CO
Specific
(Vol. %)
Flexural
(1/150)
CO
(N/mm)
Matrix
-po-\ <D ctiE
at Pmax
•H B
\ £ mm
CO
KCV &t»DPh\
£ -P
CD ^ I
CD 3 -P^
Q rH O O ctf
pL| T— Eh
S 0.6 2.3 9.6 4-23 2.4 0.30 0.65 0.26
F 0.6 1.9 8.2 4-38 2.2 0.36 0.72 0.20
P 0.6 1 .8 8.1 4-42 2.2 0.24 0.73 0.20
compressive strength is not increased so much by fibre reinforcement but

even decreased in case of horizontally distributed mesh arrangement except
in case of pulp sand mortar. Horizontal mesh arrangement obviously gave
larger values of peakload and thecorresponding deflection than those
ofvertical mesh arrangement, independently of the type of mortar.
Horizontal position of mesh arrangement gave flexural strength of about 16
MPa, while vertical position of mesh arrangement gave the value of about 14
MPa. It should be noticed that specific flexural strength was increased
more than 200 % in cases of fire sand mortar and pulp sand mortar by meshed
fibre reinforcement. Toughness is remarkably increased by fibre
reinforcement in series I, though short fibre could increase it a little in
series II. Shearing strength was obviously increased by meshed fibre
reinforcement arranged in vertical position.
Typical load deflection curves of the tests in series I, II and III
are shown in FIGURE 2, 3 and 4, respectively. The first peak load in
series I is not so much increased by the fibre reinforcement. The
sharpness of the first peak is remarkably less in the case of pulp sand
mortar matrix than that of other two types of mortar. Elongation of fibre
reinforced mortar withvinylon mesh is much larger than that with short
fibre vinylon. Deformation behaviour after the first peak in case of
concentrated mesh arrangement (series III) is quite different from that in
case of distributed mesh arrangement (series I). In series III, the load
capacity was kept at a certain level even after the first peak but it did
not increase.
DISCUSSION
Influences of mesh type and mesh arrangement on flexural strength,

toughness T and toughness Tmax of fibre reinforced materials are shown in
FIGURE 4> 5 and 6, respectively. Obviously the effectiveness of fibre
reinforcement with vinylon triaxially bonded mesh is much higher than that
with short fibre. Short fibre embedded in matrix transfers the stress only
through the mortar/fibre interface. In the case of meshed fibre
reinforcement, however, stress transfer is performed not only through the
mortar/fibre interface but also by means of locking system into matrix.
38
(a). Crushed stone sand mortar (a). Crushed stone sand mortar
DISPLACEMENT (mm)
(b). Pulp sand mortar

(b). Fire sand mortar
FIGURE 3. Typical load deflection
curves in series II.
(c). Pulp sand mortar

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
FIGURE 2. Typical load deflection FIGURE 4.. Typical load deflection

curves in series I. curves in series III.
Flexural strength of meshed fibre reinforced materials was influenced

by the direction of mesh arrangement but not by the mechanical properties
of matrix. It means that the most dominant stress transfer mechanism of
meshed fibre reinforcement is the locking system into matrix. This
mechanism makes it possible the remarkable increase of the specific
flexural strength in case of light weight mortar.
Although the vertical position of mesh arrangement had more fibres in
the external filament (FIGURE 1), flexural strength of such specimens were
lower than that with the horizontal position of mesh arrangement. Once the
(MPa)
S t r e n g th
F lexu ral
FIGURE 5. Influence of mesh type FIGURE 6. Influence of mesh type FIGURE 7. Influence of mesh type
and mesh arrangement on and mesh arrangement on and mesh arrangement on
flexural strength. flexural toughness at flexural toughness at
(span length)/150. the maximum load.
40
external filaments sufficiently deform, crack may easily propagate and the
loading capacity may rapidly decrease. On the other hand, the horizontal
position of mesh arrangement has many layers to resist crack propagation
and a wide nonlinear part is performed throughout the section area. As a
result, the large deflection at the maximum load leads to the higher value
of toughness in case of horizontally distributed mesh arrangement. In case
of concentrated mesh arrangement, even the horizontal position might not
increase the maximum load after the first peak because of the same reason
as that of the vertical position of distributed arrangement.
Such a deformable layer as that performing a plastic deformation may
cause a splitting effect on brittle matrix under a compressive load. That
is the reason why the compressive strength of meshed fibre reinforced
mortar was smaller than that of plain mortar in the horizontal position of
mesh arrangement (S-H and F-H in TABLE 3)« FIGURE 8 shows the relation
between compressive strength and fibre reinforcement. In case of pulp sand
FIGURE 8. Relation between Compress- FIGURE 9« Relation between Shearing

ive strength and fibre strength and fibre rein
reinforcement. forcement.
mortar, the organic fibre contained in pulp sand might resist cracking due
to the splitting effect and the compressive strength was not reduced. It
suggests that the fibre reinforcing effect of pulp sand might reduce the
sharpness of the first peak of load deflection curve shown in FIGURE 3»
though neither flexural strength nor toughness'of plain pulp sand mortar
are higher than that of other types of mortar. Pulp sand mortar may have a
certain capacity to absorb the fracture energy of micro cracking and to
prevent unstable crack growth.
41
Influence of the direction of mesh arrangement on shearing strength is

somewhat different from that on flexural strength. FIGURE 9 shows the
relation between shearing strength and fibre reinforcement. Effect of
diagonal reinforcement of vinylon triaxially bonded mesh is expected to
resist cracking due to shearing deformation.
CONCLUSIONS
1 . Even though strength of matrix materials is not high, vinylon triaxially

bonded mesh effectively reinforces it. Such reinforcement techniques
are quite useful to develop some lightweight cementitious composite
materials.
2. The organic fibre contained in pulp sand acts very effectively to
prevent microcracking from unstable crack growth in fibre reinforced
cementitious materials with mesh layers.
3. When composite materials are designed with meshes and/or sheets, not
only the fiber content but also the arrangement is very important.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Mr. S. Ootsuka for his substantial help and his steady
interest in this project. The support of the Ministry of Education, Japan
through a grant to Tohoku University (Grant No. G3850125) is gratefully
appreciated.
REFERENCES
1. Yamamoto, T., The basic study on the fly-ash sand, Proc. of the annual
meeting of Architectural Institute of Japan, 1986, pp. 621-622 (in
Japanese).
2. Hirai, K., Mihashi, H., Ootsuka, S. and Koide, N., Experimental study on
strength properties of vinylon fibre reinforced mortar, Review of the
42nd General Meeting/ Technical Session, The Cement Association of Japan,
1988, pp. 356-359.
3. Japan Concrete Institute, Method of test for flexural toughness
parameters for fibre reinforced concrete, Standard SF4, JCI Standards
for Test Methods of Fibre Reinforced Concrete, 1983, pp. 45-51.
42
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF FRC MATERIALS

WITH ADDED MICROFILLER
J a s p e r S. R . B u c h & H e n r ik S t a n g
Department of Structural Engineering
Technical University of Denmark, Building 118
DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark.
ABSTRACT
The permeability and mechanical behaviour of a cement based material is closely related
to the microstructure of the material.
Adding microfillers to the cement changes the microstructure and as a consequence of
this, the total porosity (and thus the permeability) of the material is reduced.
The present work describes the mechanical behaviour of cement paste with added
microfiller, reinforced with various amounts of polypropylene fibres.
The test specimens have been exposed to uniaxial tension and the results are reported.
Keywords: Fibre Reinforced Cement, Microstructure, Permeability, Porosity, Micro
filler, Mechanical Behaviour.
INTRODUCTION
Microfillers are added to cementitious materials for mainly two reasons. The first is that
the combination of cement particles and microfiller particles reduces the total porosity of
the particle system. A reduction of the porosity results in a reduction of the permeability
of the mixture, thus making it more resistant to various attacks from agressive agents
(e.g. sulphates, chlorides) in the environment.
The second reason is that the presence of microfiller particles modifies the mechan
ical properties of the cementitious material. The modifications obtained depend on the
mechanical properties of the microfiller material as well as the size distribution of the
particles.
An other way of modifying the mechanical behaviour of a cement based material is to
add a fibre reinforcement. The ability of the fibre reinforcement to modify and improve the
43
mechanical behaviour of the cement based composite material depend on the properties
of the matrix material. On the other hand it is a well know fact that the adding of fibres
often changes the characteristics of the matrix material, because the mixing conditions
change when the fibres are added.
The present work represents an attempt to clarify the complex interrelations between
matrix composition, fibre reinforcement, porsity and mechanical behaviour.
The matrix sytem used in the present investigation consists of Rapid-hardening Port
land cement and a combination of microfillers consiting of clay and silica fume. The fibres
used are chopped polypropylene fibres.
In the following a description of the test procedures will be given along with a de
scription of the theoretical background for the determination of porosity. Since the test
program is currently in progress, only a limited number of experimental data will be given
here.
However, a complete investigation of one matrix system is given including a deter
mination of the porosity and mechnical behaviour expressed in terms of initial Young’s
modulus, stress and strain at first crack, and finally stress and strain before final stress
drop.
DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS
The test specimens were made from Rapid-hardening Portland cement, clay, silica fume,
polypropylene fibres, water and superplasticizer.
The clay was of Danish origin. The composition is primarily illite and kaolinite with
a fairly low (< 20%) contents of smectite, and a calcium contents of 18 - 19%. After
exposure to hydrochloric acid the weight loss was about 25%, indicating that some of the
clay minerals are soluble in acid.
The silica fume was of the type Elkem Silica with an average particle size of 0.13 -
0.16 pm .
The polypropylene fibres used were rod-shaped with dimensions of about 35 pm • 35
fim • 3 mm delivered by Danaklon, Vejle, Denmark.
The superplasticizer used was Cemton SP62, marketed internationally under the name
’Mighty’, a naphthalene based superplasticizer with a dry matter contents of 42%.
THEORY
The pore system in hydrated cement consists of two kinds of pores: gel pores and capillary
pores. If accidental air is entrapped in the cement paste, this air has to be taken into
account as well.
The hydrated cement or cement gel consists of the hydration products plus the water
physically adhered to the surface of the hydrates. This water, gel water , is located in
so-called gel pores. Typically, the diameter of these gel pores is about 2 nm.
Since the volume of the solid hydration products is less than the sum of the absolute
volumes of the dry cement and the water, there is a residual space within the gross volume
of the hydrated cement. This residual space takes the form of capillary pores with a typical
diameter of about 1 pm . The capillary pores can be filled with air or water depending on
the original water/cement ratio and on the availability of water during curing.
44
For a mixture of cement and water, Powers and Brownyards [1] found that the volume
of the gel water Vgw is given by
= 0.19ca (1)
where c is the mass of original dry cement and a is the degree of hydration. The volume
of capillary water Vcw was given as
^ - 0.36a) c (2)
where w is the mass of water used in the mixture.

When c grammes of cement is fully hydrated it has combined with 0.23c grammes of
water to form 1.23c grammes of cement gel. The density of this cement gel gg is 2.51
g/m l. Therefore, the volume of cement gel Vg (excluding the gel pores) at any stage of
hydration, is given by
= w (3)
Knowing that the density of dry unhydrated cement guc is 3.15 g/ml, the volume of
unhydrated cement Vuc is given by
(l - q )c
3.15 1 }
The gross total volume of cement paste can now be witten as
Vtot = Vuc+ Vg - f Vgw + Vcw + Vair (5 )
By weighing the test specimens both above and below water, Vtot can be determined. The
amount of entrapped air Vair can then be calculated as
Vair = Vtot - (Vuc + Vg + Vgw + Vcw) (6 )
Here, we will define the gel porosity pg as
_ Vgw (n\
Vg — Tr (•)
Vtot
Similarily, the capillary porosity pc is given by
cw
Pc = 7r~ (8)
vZt
The air porosity patr is
V
v atr /n\
Pair = 77 (9 )
Combining these porosities, the total porosity ptot can be expressed as
Ptot = Pg + Pc + Pair (10)

45
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The ingredients were mixed in a Braun food processor by first mixing clay, silica, water
and superplasticizer. When a homogenous mixture was obtained, the fibres were added
and fully dispersed before the cement was added as the last component.
In all cases the water/cement ratio was 0.30, and the weight ratio of superplasticizer
to the sum of clay, silica and fibres was 0.15. Table 1 shows the fibre contents as the ratio
of fibre volume to the total volume, the clay/cement weight ratio and the silica/cement
weight ratio for the different mixtures.
Matrix Fibres Clay/Cement Silica/Cement

1.1 0.05 0.10 0.15
1.2 0.06 0.10 0.15
1.3 0.07 0.10 0.15
1.4 0.08 0.10 0.15
1.5 0.09 0.10 0.15
1.6 0.10 0.10 0.15
2.1 0.05 0.20 0.05
Table 1: Composition of mixtures.
The paste was put in acrylic moulds and allowed to set for 24 hours. The finished test
specimens (Figure 1) were then cured in water for 7 days and tested after further 21 days.
*______________________________ 200------- --------------------------------- , jJO,
-* IA
........................ V
nO in
|
c r o s s section A - A
Figure 1: Finished test specimen. Measures in mm.
The specimens were exposed to uniaxial tension in an Instron 6022 Series Materials
Testing Machine set up as a closed loop testing machine, running in strain control. Two
extensometers each with a length of 50 mm were used.
RESULTS
In the calculations, the following assumptions have been made:
• Clay, silica, fibres and the dry matter in the superplasticizer were regarded as inert
materials, i.e. the water was used solely for hydrating the cement and no chemical
reactions took place in the filler materials.
46
Figure 2: Experimentally determined porosities in test specimens series 1 and 2.
• After 1 day, the degree of hydration a was 0.33 and after 28 days, the degree of
hydration a was 0.71.
Note that with a water/cement ratio of 0.30, the maximum possible degree of hy
dration is a max = 0.30/0.36 = 0.83.
The validity of the first assumption is questionable. It is well known that the silica reacts
to a certain extent with the lime liberated during the hydration of the cement, forming
calcium silicates which give the finished product a higher strength. By ignoring silica as
an active component, the calculated porosities should be regarded as upper limits. Figure
2 shows the calculated porosities after 28 days of curing.
The stress/strain relationships were determined for all specimens after the curing
period and the determination of porosity.
A typical stress/strain curve is shown on fig.3. The stress/strain curves are charac
terized in the following way: The initial Young’s modulus E0 is determined as the initial
slope of a polynomial fit of the beginning of the stress/strain curve. The first drop in
stress is assumed to indicate the formation of the first larger crack and the stress and
strain associated with this drop is designated G\ and e\ , respectively. The formation of
the first crack in not catastrophic and is followed by an additional stress increase, which
eventually is followed by a stress drop. This second part of the stress/strain curve is char
acterized by the peak stress <j2 and the corresponding strain e2 . See fig.3. The influence
Matrix E0 (GPa) (%) a! (MPa) £2 (%) a2 (MPa)

to
1
1
CO
4*.
1 21.1 6.20 5.36

O
o
o
o
2 17.5 2.66 • 10-2 3.19 2.49 • 10-1 4.58
Table 2: The mechanical characteristics of the two matrix types with 5% fibres,
of matrix system on the mechanical behaviour is shown in table 2 where the two matrix
47
Axial s tr e s s (M P a;
5.0 0
4.00
3.0 0
2.00
1.00
Axial strain (%)

0 . 0 0 i i i i i i i i i i i i i ....................... i i i i i i i i i |
0.00 0 .5 0 1.0 0 1.5 0

Figure 3: A typical stress/strain relationship for the tested specimens showing
<Ti, £i and <72, £-2*
systems described above - both reinforced with 5% fibres - are compared. Clearly, the
matrix which is low in clay and high in silica behaves initially in a relatively brittle way
compared to the matrix which is high in clay and low in silica.
The response of the relatively brittle matrix to the fibre reinforcement is outlined in
figs.4 to 6.
The experimental values for the initial Young’s modulus as function of the fibre volume
concentration are compared with the theoretical predictions of a composite material theory
[2] and [3] assuming that the matrix and the fibres are linear elastic. The experimental
values follow the theoretical predictions up to 8% fibre content while the behaviour of the
specimens with 9 and 10% fibre concentration is not explained by the theory.
A similar pattern is observed when the stress at first crack as function of the
fibre concentration is considered. For fibre concentrations up to 8% a stress development
similar to that recorded in [4] - where infinitely long uniaxial polypropylene fibres in
cement paste were investigated - is observed. However, for fibre concentrations above
8% a drop in o \ is observed. This is noteworthy since an increasing cr\ was observed
in [4] up to 14% fibre content and since the present investigation does not disclose any
significant change in porosity for high fibre volume concentration.
Fig. 6 shows that the adding of fibres introduces a significant increase in the ductility
of the material expressed in terms of strain at the first crack as well as strain at the
second stress peak. Again the fibre effect seems to be optimal at a volume concentration
of about 8%. This is consistent with the experimental results described above but the
findings reported here do not give any explanation of this behaviour since no significant
changes in porosity is reported for the specimens with high volume concentration.
48
Figure 4: The experimental Young’s modulus Eo observed in the high silica matrix
compared with a theoretical prediction based on linear elastic composite material theory
assuming randomized fibre distribution and E matrix = 22 G Pa, ^matrix = 0-2, Efn,re =
10 G Pa, Vfibre = 0.4
Figure 5: The experimentally observed stress at first crack as function of fibre volume
concentration. Matrix type 1.
49
Figure 6: The experimentally observed strain at first crack S\ and the strain at the second
stress peak e2 . Matrix type 1.
CONCLUSIONS
A testing procedure is described which can evaluate the micro-structure as well as the
mechanical behaviour of a fibre reinforced cement based composite material.
The testing procedure identifies three different types of porosity and characterizes the
mechanical behaviour of the material in tension.
The method is presently adopted in a program which investigates the interrelation be
tween microstructure, fibre reinforcement, and mechanical behaviour. Two sets of prelim
inary results are reported including a detailed description of porosity and and mechanical
behaviour.
REFERENCES
[1] Powers, T. C. and Brownyards, T. L., Studies of the Physical Properties of Hardened
Cement P aste , Bulletin 22, Research Laboratories of the Portland Cement Association,
Chicago, 1948.
[2] Levin, V.M., Determination of Effective Elastic Moduli of Composite Materials.

Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR . Vol.220, no. 5, 1975, pp. 1042-1045.
[3] Stang, H., Strength of Composite Materials with Small Cracks in the Matrix. Int.
J. Solids Structures. Vol.22, 1986, pp. 1259-1277.
[4] Krenchel, H. and Stang H., Stable Microcracking in Cementitious Materials. Paper
presented at The 2nd International Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites - BMC 2,
Cedzyna, 20-22 Sep. 1988, Poland. To be published.
50
FIRST APPLICATIONS OF ARAPREE

Arie GERRITSE
Hollandsche Beton Groep NV, R&D Department
Rijswijk, The Netherlands
JUrgen WERNER
Akzo, Fibres and Polymers Division
Wuppertal, FRG
ABSTRACT
Arapree is a composite made up of continuous Twaron (aramid) fibres

and an epoxy resin. This n ew material is used as prestressing tendon
in concrete structures.
This paper contains a brief presentation of the short-term and long
term properties of Arapree. The main part of this contribution deals
with some applications of Arapree and designs in which Arapree has been
incorporated.
INTRODUCTION
In the last decades fibres have been developed that are extremely
suitable for the use as reinforcement in a great variety of products.
The three most promising types of fibres of this kind are carbon-,
glass- and aramid fibres. These fibres have in common that they show
excellent strength properties and a high stiffness in comparison with
"classic" fibres. Among the numerous applications their use as reinfor
cing material in concrete is also envisaged.
The joint research program of the Dutch chemical group Akzo and the
(also Dutch) contractor HBG is mainly aimed at the development of
effective applications of aramid in concrete.
After a preliminary investigation using Twaron, the brandname of the
aramid fibre produced by Akzo, for random short fibre reinforcement it
was decided to develop more effective reinforcing (tensile) elements in
combining Twaron fibres and epoxy resin to a composite called Arapree
(ARAmid PREstressing Element). This composite is specifically suitable
to be applied as a prestressing tensile element.
TYPES OF ARAPREE
In table 1 the presently available types of Arapree tensile elements

are summarized. As can be seen Arapree is produced as rectangular and
as round elements. A parameter which is not given is table 1 concerns
the surface profile type. Several patterns have been developed for
rectangular strips whereas round Arapree is available as a plain or
ribbed bar. In spring 1989 the production of "endless" strips has
started.
A number of reasons for impregnating the fibres can be formulated,

such as:
-transmission of shear stresses in the anchorage zone and in
the vicinity of an incidental fibre rupture
-optimal use of fibre strength
-improvement of chemical resistance
-handling of the elements
-UV-protection. If applied in concrete this aspect does not
play any role. Only in case of external prestressing this
might be significant.
51
TABLE 1: AVAILABLE TYPES OF ARAPREE
Shape Composite- Number Fibre-

cross-section of filaments cross-sectic
[Twaron HM]
rectangular [mm2 ] [mm2 ]
round [mm]
rectangular 0,5*20 30.000 3,3

1,4*20 100.000 11,1
2,8*20 200.000 22,2
5,6*20 400.000 44,4
round 2,5 20.000 2,2
5 100.000 11,1
7 200.000 22,2
The bundles of Twaron in an Arapree strip are non-twisted. The strip

or bar is formed by having the fibres passed eyelets and combs and
subsequently impregnate the bundles with an epoxy resin.
SHORT TERM PROPERTIES OF ARAPREE
The most important short-term properties of Arapree are given in

table 2. It should be emphasized that the formulation of strength and
stiffness data of Arapree is based on the fibre cross-section. By doing
so a more accurate value of the composite characteristics can be given
since this excludes the influence of the resin content.
TABLE 2: SHORT TERM PROPERTIES OF ARAPREE
Property Value Dimension
Axial tensile strength 3000 *) N / m m 2 ***)

Youngs modulus 125-130 **) k N / m m 2 ***)
Failure strain 2,4 Z
Density 1250 kg/ m 3
Transverse compressive strength c a .150 N/mm2
Interlaminar shear strength ca. 45 N/mm2
Poisson ratio 0,38 [-]
Thermal expansion coefficient -1,8*10 1/°K
Electrical resistance
- in air 7«10:LS Ohm* cm
- water-saturated 7*107 Ohm* cm
*) Characteristic value * 2800 N / m m 2

**) Modulus given is based on measurements in the range between
10 to 501 of the ultimate strength.
***)Values for Arapree valid for a composition of aramid fibres and
an epoxy resin and -to avoid confusion- only related to the effective
fibre cross-section.
Arapree is an almost fully linear elastic material. Contrary to steel

it does not experience any yielding.
52
LONG-TERM PROPERTIES OF ARAPREE
The long term behaviour of prestressed Arapree in concrete can best be

illustrated by figure 1. It shows the so-called stress-rupture curve
of Arapree which can be defined by the relation between the sustained
(constant) stress in the fibres and the average life time of the element.
It is clear that in order to ensure structural safety over a period of
100 years the stress-curve (also indicated in fig 1) should not cross the
stress-rupture line.
RELATIVE STRESS
[p e rce n ta g e of the char, short term strength]
LOG(TIME) [TIME IN HOURS]

figure 1 Stress-rupture behaviour of Arapree
The question rises whether an occasional overload up to 801 of the short

term strength after 50 years for instance would lead to the rupture of
Arapree. To judge this, one must compare the actual stress-level with
the residual strength at that particular moment (also given in fig. 1).
In the given example a sudden overload (but of short duration) will not
cause any rupture since the residual strength of Arapree in an alkaline
environment will not fall below a level of 85% of the short term strength
in a period of 100 years.
53
ANALYSIS OF ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ARAPREE
In order to obtain a good overview of the effective fields of application

it is essential to make a thorough analysis of the advantages and
disadvantages of Arapree in comparison with steel. The main differences
are summarized in table 3.
TABLE 3: ARAPREE (DIS)ADVANTAGES
Advantages Arapree Disadvantages Arapree
* High strength
* Low density * Behaviour at temperatures
* Insensitive to corrosion above 200°C
* Insensitive to chlorides * Actual price level requires
* Non-magnetic specific applications
* Non-conductive
* Fatigue behaviour
* Return to original shape
after overload
FIRST APPLICATIONS
The first application of Arapree concerned its use as a prestressing

element in concrete fence posts in a noise barrier along a motorway
near Rotterdam. The Arapree-part of the noise barrier has a length
of ca. 200 m and consists of cantilever posts (3.7 m) with polyme-
thylmetacrylate (PMMA) panels in between. The project has been
realized in summer 1988.
Ninety fence-posts, most of them having a cross-section of 220*220
m m 2 , were prestressed with 8 rectangular Arapree strips of the
f200000 type.
(see figure 2).
The initial prestressing force was 280 kN (8*35 kN). Due to relaxati
on of the Arapree and stress losses caused by creep and shrinkage
of the concrete this value will decrease to a level of about 210 kN.
The design load on the fence posts leads to tensile stresses in the
cross-section that exceed the tensile strength of the concrete.
Unlike concrete prestressed with prestressing steel, cracking will
not affect the durability of the structure thanks to the fact that
Arapree is insensitive to corrosion. Especially here, in an environ
ment where the presence of deicing salts must lead to special
precautions in order to ensure the structural durability, the use
of Arapree could be recommended.
In this project the Arapree strips were prestressed by means of a
normal jack. This jack was coupled to a special anchorage device,
that consists of a conical housing in which two polyamide clamping
wedges are placed . These polyamide wedges ensure a good distributi
on of the clamping stresses (see figure 3).
To facilitate the prestressing procedure a special Arapree-jack was
recently developed.
54
figure 2: Fence Post figure 3: Anchorage device
A problem that had to be faced, concerned the splitting stresses in

the anchorage zone. Rectangular Arapree with a surface profile (Type
C) shows an excellent bond behaviour. Consequently, a concentration
of splitting stresses at the top and bottom ends of the posts will
result. Sufficient precautions to prevent the hazard of splitting
cracks in the anchorage zones, were taken, such as:
taping the strips close to the top and the bottom end of the
posts
placing spiral reinforcement, also made of an aramid composite,
in the anchorage zone
The first measure reduces the bond between the strip and the concrete
whereas the latter will lead to a reduction of the crack-widths in
case they should arise.
The provisions proved to be adequate. Hardly any cracks could be
observed.
One extra fence post was used for a load capacity test. The result
of this test is presented in figure 4. As can been seen considerable
decrease of the stiffness after cracking appeared. (Such a phenome
non had already been observed in a load test on a balcony slab). Just
before failure 8 cracks had been formed with an average crack spacing
of about 150 m m and a crack width varying from 0,3 to 1,0 mm. It can
be concluded that a structure prestressed with a fully linear elastic
material like Arapree shows major deformations before failure occurs.
55
J7 \7 ^ M7 W W W W
3 7 0 0 mm
load [k N /m ]
d eflection of point B [mm]
figure 4: Load-test on a fence post prestressed with Arapree
The second project in which Arapree was used as a prestressing

element is currently realized. Arapree is used in several hollow
core floor slabs in the so-called "Huis van de Toekomst" (House of
the f u t u r e ) .
The aim of the project in general is to demonstrate what kind of
technological innovations will be incorporated in dwelling houses in
the near future. The ne w prestressing material Arapree drew the
attention of the originators of this project.
The hollow core floor slabs have a span of 6 metres. A cross section
of these slabs is given in figure 5. They are prestressed with six
rectangular f400.000 strips. (The initial prestressing force on
the slab was about 400 kN).
144 228 228 228 228 144
1200
figure 5: Hollow core slab prestressed with Arapree

56
Only minor adaptations had to be taken to integrate the production

of the holl o w core floor slabs into the normal production of pres
tressed floor slabs. In the production process the addition of
lateral or spiral reinforcement was impossible. For that reason
more attention was paid to the other measure mentioned above to
reduce the hazard of splitting cracks.
In the same project Arapree is also used as a prestressing tendon
in a cavity wall (vertical prestressed masonry).
In figure 6 a cross-section of this wall is presented.
The length of the wall is

40 m. The tendons are paced
every 330 m m and are anchored
in the foundation slab.
After the completion of
the wall the tendons have
been stressed and subsequent
ly anchored on bond with the
concrete lintel.
For this application the
rectangular f200.000 strip
with profile type C has
been used. This profile
type C has a rather rough
surface pattern which results
into an anchorage length of
only 75 mm.
It should be remarked that
by using Arapree instead of
prestressing steel no
additional measures were
required to prevent corrosion
of the prestressing element.
300
figure 6s Cavity-wall
DESIGNS
At the moment (april 1989) several other applications are also

studied. In these studies an optimal use of the advantages of Arapree
is pursued. It appears that the non-corrosive character, the excel
lent fatigue behaviour and the insensitivity to electromagnetic
current are the most important advantages.
Two other projects could serve as examples of the advantages of the
non-corrosive behaviour of Arapree.
a: The design of a pedestrian bridge prestressed with Arapree

b: A fish ladder close to a hydroelectric power plant in the
Netherlands.
ad a:A design of a pedestrian bridge prestressed with Arapree has

been made. Due to some external factors that did not have
anything to do with the material Arapree the realisation of
57
this project has been delayed. Yet it is interesting to present-

the design of this bridge, since it is an example of how the
specific advantages of Arapree could be used to arrive at a
solution that would hardly have been possible, if only conventi
onal materials like steel and concrete were available.
The bridge consists of two prestressed shells in the form of
hyperbolic paraboloid (see figure 7). The Arapree tendons are
used as external prestressing elements and because of Arapree’s
insensitivity to corrosion foam concrete can be used to fill
the space between the deck and the shells. Severe durability
problems would have emerged if (unprotected) prestressing
steel had been applied.
figure 7: Design of a pedestrian bridge prestressed w i t h Arapree
ad b:Another project in which the insensitivity of Arapree to

corrosion is used, will (most probably) be realized in autumn
1989. It concerns the construction of a fish ladder parallel
to a hydroelectric power plant in the Netherlands. The fish
ladder is formed by a cascade of barrages in the river thus
giving fish the possibility to pass the power plant.
Each barrage, consists of concrete foundation piles with small
panels in between. Several requirements are set to these panels,
such as:
* light weight in order to facilitate the handling of these

panels.
* adequate durability
Normally, tropical hardwood is used for such a facility.
However, the use of this material is under discussion in the
Netherlands and good alternatives are welcomed. Such an alterna
tive is found by producing concrete panels prestressed with
(non-corrosive) Arapree.
58
The projects that have been presented all show that the specific
material characteristics of Arapree are used either to improve the
durability of concrete structures or to arrive at "structural
solutions" in reinforced or prestressed concrete that would not have
been possible in case steel had been used as a tensile element.
PERSPECTIVES. GENERAL FIELDS OF APPLICATIONS
The preceding paragraphs have already indicated some of the possibi

lities of Arapree. In table 4 some applications have been summarized
as well as the criteria that have led to the presumption that the
given application might be successful.
TABLE 4 EFFECTIVE APPLICATIONS
Low density
Aggressive environment
CRITERIA Dynamic loading
Non magnetic/
conductive
APPLICATIONS Non corrosive
Concrete in tidal zone X X

Presence deicing salts X X
Reconstruction sector X X
Storage tanks for manure X X
Wall panels X X
Shells X X
Concrete sheet piles X X
Non-magnetic/non- X
conductive construction
Railway-sleepers X X
Arapree is a ne w product meant to become an alternative to prestres

sing steel. And indeed, the mechanical and chemical properties of
Arapree give rise to assume that this has been achieved. For the
moment, the use of the specific advantages of Arapree is required
to obtain effective applications in terms of either cost-savings or
quality improvement. Further development of the product and the
equipment will undoubtedly lead to an increase of the use of Arapree.
REFERENCES
1. New Materials for prestressing; prof. F.S. Rostasy, TU-Brauns-
chweig
Proceedings of the FlP-symposium Jerusalem, sept. 1988.
2. Nefmac brochure (Nefmac combination/Shimizu)
3. Study of braided aramid fibre rods for reinforcing concrete

M. Tanigaka et all; IABSE-symposium, Helsinki 1988.
4. High strength fibrous bar of Aramid; Preliminary note of Mr.

K u r a n c h i . Shinko wire
59
5. Brochure of Bridon Composites, Great Britain
6. Symposium on engineering applications of Parafil ropes

Imperial Colege, London, january 1988
7. Prestressing with aramid tendons; A. Gerritse, H.J. Schllrhoff

(FlP-congress Delhi 1986)
8. Prestressed Concrete Structures, with Arapree

A. Gerritse, H.J. SchUrhoff, E. Maatjes (AlPC-congress Paris
1987)
9. Arapree, The prestressing element composed of resin bonded

Twaron fibres.
A. Gerritse, J. Werner; Brochure Akzo and HBG, September 1988
10. Hochleistungs Verbundstabe aus Glasfasern als Bewehrung im

Beton- und Erdbau; H.J. Miesseler and L. Preis; Bauen mit Kunst-
stoffe 2/88
11. Prestressing with Arapree; the artificial tendon; A. Gerritse,

HBG.
Proceedings of the symposium on "Les matdriaux nouveaux pour
la pr6contrainte et le renforcement d ’ouvrages d ’art".
Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chauss6es, Paris October 1988
12. S&E publicatie; Vezelversterkt cement en beton; Uitgegeven

door de Nederlandse Betonvereniging, augustus 1982.
(S&E publication; Fibre-reinforced cement and concrete; The

Dutch Concrete Society (Betonvereniging), august 1982 (in
Dutch).
60
BEHAVIOUR, DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF

POLYACRYLONITRILE FIBRE CONCRETE
Dr.-Ing. H. HAHNE
Hoechst AG Werk Kelheim, FRG
Prof. D r.-Ing. G. KONIG
Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, FRG
D r.-Ing. J.-D . WORNER
Konig und Heunisch, Frankfurt, FRG
ABSTRACT
During the la s t f iv e years the development of p o ly a c r y lo n it r i1 e fib re
concrete led to an interesting material for modern structures. Depending on
the special demand the behaviour of elements can be influenced by choosing
different fib re types and amounts. From a parametric study the influence of
fib re amount, fib re length and other parameters on the mechanical charac
t e r is t ic s could be understood. Based on the results of spacing-concept
methodology a simple design attempt is shown. F in a lly some recent applica
tions of p o lyacrylo n itrile fibre concrete are presented.
INTRODUCTION
In order to substitute asbestos in fibre cement products a high tenacity
p o lyacrylo n itrile fib re called DOLANIT^ was developed by Hoechst. To match
the requirements of different fie ld s of applications (fibre cement, fibre
mortar, fib re concrete, break and clutch lin in gs etc) a fibre type program
was e stab lish e d which contains fib re s from 13/zm diameter up to 104f(.m
diameter and lengths from 2 to 60 mm.
During the la st five years the development of p o lyacrylo n itrile fibre
concretes and mortars lead to engineering materials with interesting cha
ra c te ris tic s. Depending on the special demand the desirable material pro
perties can be gained by choosing different fib re types and amounts.
61
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYACRYLONITRILE FIBRE CONCRETE

The experimental investigations concerning the properties of polyaeryloni-
t r il e fib re concrete were focussed on
* workability
* bond between fibres and concrete
* compressive behaviour
* flexural behaviour
* shrinkage cracking
A ll the experiments reported herein were conducted at the "In stitu t
fur Massivbau der Technischen Hochschule Darmstadt". To get information
about the influence of different parameters a study was performed in which
the following variations were considered:
* maximum size of aggregates ( 2 to 16 mm )
* length of fibres ( 6 to 24 mm )
* diameter of fibres ( 18 to 104 yum )
* amount of fibres ( 0 to 40 kg/m3 = 0 to 3.5 Vol.% )
* cement content ( 300 to 700 kg/m3 )
The central mix of the parametric study contained:
o
1700 kg/m aggregates 0/8mm
400 kg/m portland cement PZ45F
20 kg/m3 ( = 1.7 Vol.% ) DOLANIT 11 104jum/6mm
For getting good workability superplasticizer was added usually. The
main results of the parametric study can be summarized as follows:
Workability
The adding of fib r e s increased the water demand to reach a s a t is fy in g
workability which was qualified during mixing, casting and compaction of
the f ib r e concrete. Fig . 1 shows the re la tio n between f ib r e amount and
necessary watei—cement ratio . The curve was calculated from a regression
analysis using the experimental data. Up to a certain level of fib re amount
the watei—cement r a t io could be sustained. Above t h is le v e l ( fo r the
example of fig . 1 th is means above 20 kg/m ( = 1.7 Vol.% ) a strong in
crease of the water demand was observed.
62
aggregates: 0 /8 m m
cement: 4 0 0kg /cbm PZ45F
fibres: Dolanit 1 1 104/um /6m m
Fig. 1 Relation between fib re amount and water-cement ratio

Fig. 2 gives the necessary watei—cement ratio as a function of the
f ib r e length. From t h is fig u re i t can be stated that the use of longer
fibres demands more water.
Fig. 2 Relation between fib re length and water-cement ratio
Bond between fib re s and concrete

The bond effect can be determined by different means. The conventional way
is a p u ll-o u t te s t using s in g le fib r e s . In case of p la s t ic fib r e s t h is
method leads to problems because the cross-sectional maximum force of a
single thin fib re is small. Within th is work simpler methods were used to
achieve information. One is an pull-out test with several fibres embedded
with different lengths. From the observed fa ilu re mode, the respective
embedded length and the fib re strength a fic tiv e bond strength of 4 N/mm
63
was calculated. In addition to th is method the v is ib le fib re lengths were

measured after a ll types of destructive experiments (bending, compres
sion ). Again the known fibre strength and the measured maximum v is ib le
fib re length give hints about the bond. From numerous of these observations
the above stated bond strength was verified as a mean value.
Compressive behaviour
The use of DOLANIT did not affect the compressive strength greatly. In case
of large fib re amount, small fib re diameters or long fibres the additional
water demand lead to a slig h t decrease of the compressive strength.
On the other hand one can see a strong influence of the fibres after
exceeding the maximum stress. Due to the effect of the fibres the concrete
became more ductile (Fig. 3).
S train [% o]
Fig. 3 Typical stre ss-strain -relatio n sh ip in compression
Bending behaviour
The fle x u ra l behaviour was tested with specimens of d iffe re n t s iz e s to
cover some scale effect:
Concrete prisms 10cm/10cm/50cm and mortar prisms 4cm/4cm/16cm were
used. The bigger specimens were tested by a displacement controlled load at
midspan to get the load-deflection relation, while the small specimens were
investigated with respect to the modulus of rupture only. Figures 4 and 5
present some results from the parametric study. Both figures lead to the
same conclusion: The bending strength increased with in cre asin g fib r e
amount up to a certain level. In case of further increased fib re amount a
slig h t decrease of the modulus of rupture was stated.
64
cement: 40 0kg /cb m P Z 4 5F
fibres: Dolanit 1 1 104/xm /6m m
Fig. 4 Modulus of rupture, prisms 10cm/10cm/50cm, span 50cm
12-|
10-
cement: 4 0 0 kg /cb m P Z 4 5F
8-
fibres: Dolanit 1 1 104/xm /6m m
Q.
D
"DO 2-
O
E
—I— —I
— —I
— “i
10 20 30 40
fibre am o un t(kg/cbm )
Fig. 5 Modulus of rupture, prisms 4cm/4cm/16cm, span 10cm

The reasons for th is behaviour may be: As mentioned above additional
water was used in case of large fib r e amounts. The la rg e r water-cement
ratio results in smaller concrete strength. From theoretical investigations
i t is clear that a cracked fib re concrete cross-section needs a big amount
of f ib r e s to show high bending strength. T h is means that the measured
modulus of rupture fo r small fib r e amounts is u s u a lly governed by the
matri x-behavi our.
Shrinkage cracking
The influence of p o lyacrylo n itrile fibres on the early shrinkage cracking
was tested with concrete rings produced around a s t if f steel core. During
the storage in a clim atic room the development of cracks was registered.
From the small scale laboratory experiments i t was concluded that an amount
65
of 5 kg/m^ (= 0.45 Vol.%) Dolan i t 11 104 m/6mm is enough to prevent early

shrinkage cracking. Large scale tests are now carried out.
REFLECTION ABOUT DESIGN

One common way to describe the effect of fibres in cementitious media is
the so called 'spacing concept1. This formulation unfortunately leads to
expressions which are not useful for practical applications. Using the
results of the spacing concept and the experimental data a step towards a
simple design method based on equivalent concrete stress was elaborated.
Eq. 1 gives the re la tio n for the equivalent concrete strength fo r pure
tension.
£* = I t I S ' V - P f T)
with equivalent concrete ten sile strength
B * =■
efficien cy factor describing the bond effect
qtr -
H = efficien cy factor describing the effect of
fib re orientation
v = fib re amount by volume
= fib re strength
For the both efficien cy factors the following values are used: The
e fficien cy factor describing the effect of fib re orientation depends on
numerous parameters such as mixing, fibre thickness, f le x ib ilit y of fibres,
load level. Other researchers gained values between 0.33 and 0.7. As far as
DOLANIT is concerned a value of 0.5 seems to be appropriate. Further re
search w ill be done to give a more definite value. The other efficiency
factor which describes the bond effect is related to the necessary embedded
length which enables a ten sile fa ilu re of the fibre. For straight fibres
lik e DOLANIT the efficien cy factor can be displayed as a function of the
ratio between actual fib re length and c r it ic a l fibre length ( c r it ic a l fibre
length = 2 necessary embedded length for ten sile strength)(fig. 6).
actual fibre length / critical fibre length
Fig. 6 Efficiency factor describing the bond effect

66
The relevan t e ffic ie n c y facto r fo r DOLANIT 1 1 , 104 m/6mm can be

determined to 0.5 taking into consideration the above mentioned bond
strength of 4 N/mm . An increase of the fibre length by a factor of 2 leads
to an e fficien cy factor of 0.75.
Fig . 7 shows a comparison between measured bending strength and
calculated ten sile strength.
Fig. 7 Comparison between measured modulus of rupture and calculated pure

te n sile strength
Although th is comparison cannot be used for a general ve rificatio n

some important aspects have to be noted:
F irs t of a ll the applied equation leads to conservative values. The
underestimation is mainly caused by the neglection of the matrix influence
(sim ila r to usual building design the concrete is assumed to be cracked).
In addition no attempt was made to consider the nonlinear stress d istrib u t
ion in case of bending. As far as thick elements are concerned th is assum
ption may be r ig h t, fo r thinner cro ss-se c tio n s the procedure has to be
modified to be more r e a lis t ic . Further research w ill describe the bending
behaviour including both effects theoretically.
APPLICATIONS
The laboratory tests prove that po lyacrylo n itrile fibre concrete has advan
tages such as:
* reduced shrinkage cracking
* ductile behaviour
* high modulus of rupture
Together with different construction companies a lot of projects were
done some of which are liste d below:
67
Facade elements
For sandwich panels a crack free surface is desirable. Usually steel rein
forcement i s placed fo r t h is purpose. In order to prevent corrosion a
minimum thickness of the outer panel is required. Using DOLANIT th is d is
advantage could be overcome. Fig. 8 shows a typical cross-section for a
sandwich facade element with fib re concrete.
fib re c o n c re te ( 0 ,5 % Vol. Dolanit 11 10£jum/6mm)

in s u la tio n __________ ,
o
CO
s te el rein fo rced c o n c re te
Fig. 8 Sandwich facade element

An actual development went a step further because a structure was
searched with a minimum radar-wave reflection For th is purpose a sandwich
element without any steel reinforcement and without steel connectors was
b u ilt. Both plates were made of fibre concrete. For the connection between
outer and inner concrete g lass-fib re composite connectors / I / were placed.
Edge beam of bridges
The primary target of th is application was not to minimize the steel rein
forcement but to reduce the cracks due to early shrinkage (fig . 9).
m ~~
up to now: using DOLANIT:
Fig. 9 Edge beam of bridge

68
As fo r the current p ra c tice of construction of bridges, v is ib le

cracks develop in the edge beam frequently. Reasons for th is unfavourable
behaviour may be stresses caused by restrained shrinkage of the edge-beam-
concrete on the older bridge-concrete and ten sile stresses due to thermal
contraction in early age. Before placing the concrete preliminary mixing
tests together with a ready-mix-concrete-supplier showed that i t was pos
s ib le to mix the planned composition. Because the goal was to reduce shrin
kage cracking a fib r e amount of 10 kg/m (= 0.85 V o l.% ) DOLANIT 11 104
m/6mm was chosen. Additional laboratory tests ve rified that the bond be
tween concrete and ordinary reinforcement was not affected (fig . 10).
P u ll-o u t displacem ent (mm)
Fig. 10 Bond of ordinary reinforcement

So far three bridges have got edge beams with p o lyacrylo n itrile fibre
concrete and are p erio d ically inspected.
Industrial floors
Especially in the chemical industry there is a big demand for tight floors.
As the laboratory experiments showed the favourable behaviour of fibre
concrete concerning the crackformation i t suggested it s e lf to use th is
material for industrial floors. The steel reinforcement was designed to
obtain crack widths smaller than 0.1 mm and 10 kg/m (=0.85 Vol.%) DOLANIT
11 104/u.m/6mm were chosen as a secondary reinforcement. Prior to the pro
duction large scale mixing tests were performed to adjust the admixtures in
order to meet the handling requirements. After completion of some p ilo t
projects permanent inspection w ill give information about the long term
behaviour.
Beside the presented projects there are a lot of other applications
such as
small prefabricated elements

pavement
noise reduction walls
repair mortar
plaster with fibres etc.
69
CONCLUSIONS
P o lyacrylo n itrile fib re concrete has been tested in laboratory and fie ld
investigations. In addition to the experimental work a f ir s t attempt for a
simple practical design method was made. From the results gained so far
p o lyacrylo n itrile fib re concrete seems to be a favourable material for
elements which have to f u l l f i l special requirement concerning
* shrinkage cracking
* d u c tilit y
* flexural strength.
According to the requirements the necessary fibre ammount has to be
adjusted. As fa r as only e a rly shrinkage is concerned 5 kg/m (= 0.4
Vol.%) Dolanit 11 104/tm/6mm were found to be enough. For s tric te r require
ments esp ecially for restrained elements the amount of fibres should be
determined under consideration of the ordinary reinforcement. The f ir s t
attempt for a simple desgin procedure w ill be further developped to con
sider the nonlinear stress distribution.
REFERENCES
1. Wade, G.T., M.L.Porter, D.R. Jacobs: M Glass-Fiber Composite Connectors
for Insulated Concrete Sandwich Walls", IOWA State University, ERI-
88202, 1988
70
DEFORMATION CHARACTOR AND STRENGTH CAPACITY OF NEW MATERIAL

FIBERS REINFORCED CEMENT MORTAR IMPREGNATED BY INORGANIC POLYMER
Hironobu ONO
Assist. Prof., College of Eng., Chubu Univ., Kasugai,JAPAN
Sakichi OHGISHI
Prof. Civil Eng., Nagoya Inst, of Technology, Nagoya,JAPAN
ABSTRACT
Strength and deformation charactor of fiber reinforced cement mortar(frc)

and inorganic polymer(ceramic) impregnated mortar(as call;CIC)were investi
gated experimentally. The reinforcing effects of ceramic,metalic and plastic
fibers were tested on the strength,toughness and bond ability of frc.
And mechanical properties of CIC was investigated. Test factors in this study
are as follows; fiber materials,contents,length,impregnation materials,ele
vated temperature and freezing cycles. Combination system,frc-CIC was tested.
The test results showed that amorphous metal,silicon carbide and polyarylate
fibers are very useful to improve the mechanical properties of cement mortar.
New composite system frc-CIC has large toughness and resitance for freezing..
INTRODUCTION
FRC has been developed about twenty years ago, by S.Golgfein[l]for nylon,A.J.
Majumdar [2] for alkali resistance(a.r.) glass, J.P.Romuldi [3] for steel,M.A.
Ali [4] for PAN-carbon,and S.Ohgishi [5] for aramid fibers respectively. The
research on polymer impregnated concrete (PIC) was introduced by M.Steinberg
[6 ] inBNL. The steel and a.r.glass fiber has been utilized widely for concrte
construction and many precast members in Japan.
However,the polymer fiber of all kinds (vinylon, polypropylen,nylon,poly
ethylene etc.) have a large temperature dependence,and a small restraint for
the crack propagation in concrete. There is adoubt of corrosion in steel
fiber,and thecarbon fiber has a small bond capacity for cement matrix.
Traditional PIC is acombustibility,and inability for fire. That is,these con
ventional fibers have some problems concerning durability under severe envi-
roments as follows; high temperature,sea or sulphate matter,weathering act
and chemical attack. From this point of view, new material fibers with stable
properties were employed in this test. For the same purpose, the inorganic im
pregnation materials instead of organic monomer were used. Alkoxide silicon
[Si(0R)4] and alkyl alkoxysilane [R'Si(0R)n ] as inorganic oligomer were applied
in this investigation.
71
Table 1 Kinds of fiber and mechanical properties used for frc tests.
Reinforcing Dencity Dia. of filament Tensile st. Modu. of elasti. Elonga Heat
fiber (g/cm3) & number of fila. at(kg/mm2) Et (10**kg/mm2) tion,% rest.°C
Silicon carbide 2.55 cf)15x 500 (pm)*2 -300 2.05 1.3 >1000
0 Tyrano(Si~Ti-C-0) 2.40 0 9x1600 (pm) *3 250 2.0 1.5 >1100
•H
E Boron-tangusten 2.60 0140 mono(pm) 350 4.0 1.0 >1200
to Alumina 3.20 017x1000 (pm)*4 180 2.10
u 1.0 >1200
<u
u PAN-carbon 1.78 0 6x3000 (pm)*2 210 2.00 1.4 ** 800
Alka. resi. glass 2.80 02Ox 160 (pm)*l 170 0.75 2.0
rH Amorphous metal
CO 7.52 0100 mono(pm) 350 1.56 2.8 <500
■U Titanum 4.51 0300 mono(pm) 73 1.85
(U 6.0 <500
SB Mild steel 7.80 210x600 mono pm 71 2.05 £0.2 <500
u Aramid (Kev-49) 1.45 012x4000 (pm)*l
<u 282 1.34 2.4 -250
I Vinylon
rH
,7- 182E
lg2p
1.30 014x1000 (pm)*4 94 0.26 7.2 -200
O 1.30 014x1000 (pm)*3 110 0.23 7.2 -200
Polyarylate 1.41 022x 300 (pm) 330 0.85 3.9 -250
Sizins agents of strands; *1 vinyl acetate, *2 epoxy resin, *3 polyethlen oxide
*4 polyvinyl resin,
SELECTION OF REINFORCEMENT FIBER
The desirable properties of reinforcing fiber for concrete are as follows

; the stability for heating, the resistance for oxidation,weather and chemical
corrosion. In addition, the high strength,large elongation, high modulus of elas
-ticity of fiber are requiered. In the study,the nine kinds of new material
fiber as shown in Table 1 were employed,that is,silicon carbide,tyrano(Si-Ti-
C-0 compound),alumina(AI 2O 3 with component Si02 15%wt.),PAN-carbon as ceramic
series, amorphous(amor.)metal(Fe-Co-Cr-B),titanium as metalic series, and
aramid(kevler 49),polyarylate as polymer series. In addition to these group,
the steel,a.r.glass and vinylon as conventional fiber was applied also to
cement mortar. The many fibers in the ceramic series have the high strength,
large stability for the heating of 1000°C over, and hold the resistance for
several chemical attacks. The dencity, diameter of filaments, number of fila
ments in astrand, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and elongation of
these strands are shown in Table 1. Although the polymer fibers have
not almost the heat resistance, but the aramid and polyarylate fibers have
the high strength and excellent corrosion resistance for the sea water.
The relation between the modulus of elasticity and the tensile strength
of all kinds of fiber isshown in Fig.1 .
Fibers', 0 pan carbon(h.s.)
In this figure,there are the many types in O Pilch carbon(h.p)
0 PAN carbon(h.m)
carbon fiber which indicate high strength 0 Pilch carbon(g.p.)
high performance, high modulus of elas • Silicon carbid#
• Alumina
ticity and general performance. 2E ^ □ Bolon
v<? ■ Glass
CORROSION RESISTANCE OF METALIC

FIBERS
Fig.2 shows the potentiodynamic pola

rization curves for the metalic fibers ( 200 400 600 800
mild steel,piano wire,stainless steel SUS Modulus of elasticity, E,(GPa)
304,amor.metal and titanium) in (a) the

IN-HC1 , (b) 5% - NaOH solusion and (c) Fig.l The modulus of elasticity
3.5% - NaCl solusion at 20°C. and tens.strength of fibers
72
I'
-0.4 -0.2 0 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 \.4 -OA - 0 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0 6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0 6 0 8 1.0 1.2
V o ltage (V /S .C .E .) V o ltage (V/S.C.E.) V o lta g e (V/S.C.E.)
Fig.2 Potentiodynamic polarization curves for metal fibers
From the test results, it is known that 1) for the acid lN-HCl,the steel
and piano wire has not quite the corrosion resistance,but SUS-304 and amor,
metal show the good resistance,titanium has the excellent resistance especial
-ly, 2) for the alkali solusion 5%-NaOH,the all metalic fibershold the cor
rosion resistance by reason of growing the phase of passive stage on the
surface of fiber, 3) for3.5%wt. salt solusion, the steel and piano wire are
attacked by corrosion damage remarkably,however the current in high voltage
zone is very small in the amor.metal,sus-304 and titanium , so these three
fibers showed the excellent corrosion resistance.
TEST PROCEDURE
Mix proportion by weight of base mortar is C/W/S/SP= 1/0.5/0.7/0.006,in

here SP ; superplasticizer. The size of test specimens are prepared two types
of 6x60x250mm plate,and 40x40x320mm bar. Flexural test methods are shown in
Fig.3 (a) for plate specimen, in Fig.4 for the beam. The fiber was mixed in
the mortar by handling. Condition of added fiber is varied as contents= 1,2,
3 and 4%/vol., length of fiber If = 3,10,25 and 4 0mm. Tensile strength of frc
was measured by pure tensile test for frc. plates, and by the split test for
frc -bar. All specimens were cured in water 20°C for 28days and tested under
the wet condition. The flexural toughness 0.8Tf for the plate specimen was
(a) Flexural test method (b) Flexural toughness, (c) Absorption energy,
for frc-plate 0 .8Tf in frc-plate W Q in frc beam
Fig.3 Flexural test method of plate, and evaluation of 0.8 ^f and W G .
73
estimated by the method as

shown in Fig.3(b), and the Lineary varying displacement
/measuring gauge (0M6)
energy absorption,WG for the (Cantilever type with w. s.g.)
beam specimen was estimated
by method as shown Fig.3(c).
The heat resistance of frc
was tested at elevated temp-
rature, 105,160,240 and360°
C. And the freezing-thawing
test was done at 1 0 0 ,2 0 0 ,
and 300 cycles. Fig.4 Test arrangement for flexural
strength on frc-beams
TEST RESULTS
Test results on the flexural,tensile strength,both strength ratio for

tha plain mortar and flexural toughness,0 .8^f of frc-plate specimens were
listed in Table 2 , and that of the frc-beam specimens were shown in Table 3
From the results,it is known that the reinforcing effect is very different
the flexural strength ratio of frc for plain mortar is 2.48 to 6.50.
Table 2 Test results on strength and toughness on frc plate, 6 x60xl60mm .
Materials Flexural st,. Ob (N/mm2) Tensile st,, Gt (N/mm2) FI. toughness

of length I f = 25 or 30mm const. If = 25 or 30mm const. C,sTf (N.mm)
fibers volum 1 % | 2 % | 3 % ratio 1 % | 2 % 1 3 % ratio 3%/vol ratio
Plain mortar 9.7 1.00 1.06 1.00 29.4 1.00
Silicon carbide no test 19.5 2.01 no test 4.42 4.17 628 21.35
o
•H Tyrano no test 12.4 1.28 no test 1.31 1.24 407 13.83
dj Boron - tungsten 19.7 20.4 at 2% 2.03 4.60 5.90 at 2% 5.57 646 21.96
U
0) Alumina no test 16.4 1.69 no test 2.46 2.32 450 15.3
o PAN - carbon no test 14.8 1.53 no test 3.74 3.53 204 6.92
A.R. glass no test 18.2 1.88 no test 3.40 3.21 694 23.6
1—1
CO Amorphous metal 14.2 15.2 at 2% 1.57 2.02 2.27 at 2% 2.14 2841 96.6
4-i
0) Mild steel no test 23.2 2.39 no test 5.16 4.87 548 18.6
S3 Titanum 9.3 10.2 11.7 1.21 0.85 1.59 1.99 1.88 565 19.2
QJ
Aramid (Kev-49) 12.6 16.4 20.0 2.06 3.08 4.25 4.50 4.25 1382 47.1
SI
iH , RMS 182P 10.3 9.7 10.6 1.09 1.49 2.89 2.95 2.78 639 21.7
O Vinylon ^ lg2E
PL| 8.9 10.3 11.3 1.16 2.24 3.62 3.71 3.50 1074 36.5
Table 3 Test results on strength and toughness of frc beam,40x40x300 mm .
Material Flexural strength, Gb (N/mm2) Tensile st.,at N/mm V f I. tough.

of If = 25 mm constant fiber; 3%/vol const. I f = 25 mm const. W0 (N/mm)
fibers 1% | 2% | 3% ratio) 4% 5 mm| 10 | 15 | 25 |40mm 1% | 2% | 3% ratio 3% ratio
Plain mortal 5.60 1.00 5.60 3.42 1.00 34 1.00
Silicon carb. 15.6 24.6 26.0 4.64 28.1 14.2 15.2 17.4 25.6 30.6 7.16 9.20 9.70 2.84 785 23.1
Tyrano no test 18.4 3.29 10.3 - 11.6 18.4 15.2 no test 5.34 1.56 451 13.3
Alumina no test 29.9 5.34 no test no test 8.64 2.53 282 8.3
PAN - carbon 13.5 15.3 17.1 3.05 15.6 no test 5.25 7.55 7.01 2.05 228 6.7
A.R. glass no test 21.4 3.82 11.1 - 15.2 21.4 no test 6.89 2.01 445 13.1
Amor, metal 21.0 36.4 at2% 6.50 - no test 9.40 12.7 at2% 3.72 4208 123.8
Mield steel 10.5 12.5 24.5 4.37 27.4 no test 4.60 5.65 7.89 2.30 795 23.4
Aramid Kev49 no test 28.9 5.16 no test no test 10.3 3.02 1339 39.4
Polyarylate no test 31.6 5.64 13.4 14.7 19.1 31.6 43.6 no test 10.1 2.96 1930 56.8
Vinylon 182E 7.8 12.5 13.9 2.48 11.5 9.5 8.9 11.9 13.9 13.5 4.05 5.20 5.40 1.58 607 17.9
74
CONSIDERATION AND DISCUSSION
Efect of Fiber Material on Stress-Defrection Diagram of FRC

Fig.5(a), (b) and Fig.6 (c) , (d) show the flexural stress-def lection diagrams
in frc-plate, and flexural load-deflection curves in frc-beam with contents Vf
= 3%/vol. constantly without amorphous and boron fiber. These four illustrations
show that,the each reinforcing fiber material gives the difference diagram each
other,and shows a style peculiar (a-6 )or (p - 6 ) diagram. It is considered that,
the load deflection curves depends on the three mechanical factors offibers as
the tensile strength, elongation ability and bond capacity to cement matrix .
The characteristics of fiber reinforcement is found in the form of descending
part of (a-5)or (p- 6 )curves especially. The stress-deflection diagrams
for the frc-plate is reformable simplified as shown in Fig.7(e),and asinFig.7
(f)for the frc-beam. These figure are able to grouping as follows;
Group A, or I Amorphous metal,polyalylate
Group B, or IE Aramid, Silicon carbide,mild steel
Group C, or HI Bor on, Alumina, A.R.glass ,
Group D, or IV PAN-carbon, Vinylon, Titanium,Tyrano
Group E, or V Plain mortar,potassium titanium,Zirconium Oxide
Fiber content ; 3 * /.vol. const. Fiber content ; 3*/.vol. const.

(only for Amorphous m etal f. and Boron fiber (only for Amophous m etal f. and Boron fiber
: 2 */./vol.) :2 V./vol.)
p 6 * 60* 225 <Wet condition) p 6*60*225 (W et condition)
it m m
(Vinylon) \
,RMS 162E
F 35002
'v^/RMSl82p
— Alkali ret.
Carbon Tiber Qlass liber
2 3 A 5 6 1 2 3 A 5 6
Center defrection of plates (<5:mm) Center defrection of plates (£ :m m )
(a) Part 1 (b) Part 2

Fig.5 Flexural stress-deflection diagrams in various frc-plates.
C/W /S = 1/05/0.7. S.P. *0.006C

B x D x L “ A0xA0x320mm B S|»100mm
C/W/S-1/0.5/0.7, S.P.-0.006C £
V j-3*/./vo l., If-25m m ,
Bx0*L« A0xA0*320mm o [Q r ~ ^ ----
Wet specimen. Test age: 28days V| ■ 3V./vol., If*25mm, a/D«0.2 j 6> - ‘ .
wet specimen. Test age: 28days Sl*300mm
o 3 v Mild steel
i 2
-1 i
2 3 A 5 6 7 8 9 I0
I 2 3 A 5 6 7 8 9 Displacement of load point: #(mm)
Displacement of load point : <?(mm)
(c) Part 1 (d) Part 2

Fig .6 Flexural load deflection diagrams in various frc-beams.
75
Groups ;
Typ* F lb *r
A Amorphous m *la l
I Am orphous-metal,
Polyarylate,
Aramid , Silicon ca rb id *
B Mild s t* * i llb * r
Boron Aluminum o x ld *
Alka li r*s glass llb * r Aramid, Mild steel,
’ Carbon llb *r(P A N ) Silicon carbide,
O Vinylon H b * rt Tyrano llb * r
Titanium llb * r M Tyrano, Alumina,
P la in , Potassium tlta n a t*
E AJVGlass,
Zirconium oxld*
D is p la c e m e n t, V PAN-Carbon,
Vinylon
(e) for frc-plates,6x60x160 mm (f) for frc-beams,40x40x300 mm

Fig.7 Grouping of simplified form on (p - )curves in various frcs.
The flexural toughness of amorphous metal and polyalylate frc is largest among
the ten kinds of fiber;that?s Wo = 4208,1930 N/mm at Vf=2-3% , and these ratio
for plain mortar is 123.8,56.8 respectively ( see Table 3) . From our pre
liminary test, ti was found that,potassium titanate,K 2Ti 60 i3 and zirconium
oxide, Zr 02 fiber has not quite the reinforcing effect for frc because of
fiber length is too short(lmm under) and the quality is excessive brittle
ness .
Bond Ability of Fiber and Optimum Fiber Length
Reinforcing effect of fiber infrc depends largely on the bond ability.The

bond capacity of fiber between the cement matrix, was investigated by the pull
out test on strand as shown in Fig.8 . The test specimens were formed by the
steel mold of Bricket and the high-early - strength portland cement. The test
length of strand embeded into the cement paste was varied at 5,10,15,20,25
and 30 mm. The number of strands embeded per one specimen are four pieces.
The relation between the embeded length of strand and pull out or tear off
load is shown in Fig.9. From the test results,it was known that the bond ca
pacity of each strands are different, and the critical length which the strand
pull out and tear off at the same time, is about 15mm for the alumina and tyrano
fiber, and about 22mm for the silicon carbide. So,it can be estimated that the
reasonable fiber length of alumina and tyrano is about 30mm, one of the silicon
carbide is about 45 mm. In generaly,a sizing material is employed for the
strand consisted of the multifilaments in order to bundle. The sizing agents
may have some influences for the bond ability. The sizing chemical agents of
strands used in this investigation are
shown in hoot note of Table 1.
C /W /S * 1/0 5/0.7, Wet specimen,
Test age 7 days. Curing in water, 20*C
Krmber of p u ll exit o r
te a r o f f arror^ 4 atran d *
a t l a n d a 4 a t . out ^ o u t. Jtea x j 4 t e a r of
S ilic o n
c a rb id e — o — — o — — • —
A lu m in a — □ — -•-a — — ■ —
T y ra n o — A -- — A— — A—
10 15 20 25 30
Embedment length l»(mm)
Fig .8 Bond test method of fiber Fig.9 Embeded fiber length and pull
between cement paste. out or tear off load.
76
C/W /S = 1/0 5/0.7, S.R«0.006C

B x D x S i*4 0 x 4 0 x 3 0 0 m m
I = 2 5m m ,
wet sp e c im e n T
O Plain --------------(X Mild

--------------ACarbon PAN ------ # Amorphous
1 2
F ib e r c o n te n ts V» (• /• /v o l.)
Fig. 10 Vf vs, in frc beam. Fig.11 Vf^s.Qb in frc.
Effect of Fiber Contents on Strength of FRC
Fig.10 shows the relation between the fiber contents and flexural strength
in frc beam, and Fig. 11 gives the relation of fiber contents and tensile
strength of frc obtained by split test. In Fig.10, the flexural strength
increases with the increasing of fiber contents at V f = 3%/vol. in tested
all fiber ( If = 25mm const.). However,the rising ratio of strength is small
or decrease at Vf = 4%. It is considered that the added fiber with too much
contents decreases the bond ability of fiber. The strength ratio for plain
mortar is 6.50 for 2% - amorphous metal, and 5.64 for 3% - polyalylate. But
one of vinylon and PAN-carbon is small 2.48 and 3.05 respectively. And also
dependence of fiber contents on tensile strength of frc showed the same
tendency the flexural test as shown in Fig.11.
Effect of Fiber Length on Strength of FRC
Fig.12 and Fig.13 shows the relation between the fiber length and the
flexural or tensile strength of frcs in If = 25 mm constant.The both strength
in the many tested frcs increase with the increasing of fiber length, but
reinforcement effect on tensile strength of vinylon and tyrano is scarsely
even in the long fiber 40 mm. These test results correspond with the result
on bond test of fiber; that is the optimum fiber length for silicon carbide,
45 mm is reasonable.
C/W/S = 1/0.5/07, S.R = 0.006C

B x Dx Si =AOxAOx 300mm
C /W /S = 1/0 5 /0 .7 , S.R = 0 .0 0 6 C
V| = 3*/./vol.,
BxDxSt=A0xA0x300mm, Vf=3*/./vol.
w et specimen E 12
|A0 E wet specimen
o Plain
JS & r* Q A.R. Glass

------------ □ Polyarylate
10 15 25 10 15 25
Fiber length : I,(m m )
Fiber length : If ( m m )
Fig. 12 lfVSja-fo in frc-beam. Fig.13 lfVS.Ot in frc.

77
-------------o P la in
O S ilic o n C /W /S = 1 /0 .5 /0 7 , S R = 0 .0 0 6 C C /W /S = 1 /0 5 /0.7, S.P. = 0 .0 0 6 C
° c a r b id e
A A lu m in u m BxDxS| = 4 0 x 4 0 x 3 0 0 m m , V # = 3 * /./v o l. BxDxSt = 4 0 x 4 0 x 3 0 0 m m , V( =3*/«/vol.
o x id e
I Vin I 12 If -2 5 m m ,
82E
s? t 6
------ A. A lu m in u m
Oxir<-
----------- B V in y lo n
" R M S II
105 160 240 105 160 240

T e m p e r a tu r e : 8 (*C) T e m p e r a tu r e : 0C C )
Fig.14 Elevated Temp, v s . of frc. Fig.15 Elevated Temp. vs. Q t of frc.
Influence of Heat Exposure on Strength of FRC
The frc specimens were exposed at four steps of 105° ,160° ,240°and 260°C
in a hearth. Temperature rising rate was controlled l°C/min under, and test
temperature are kept one hour,then the specimens were cooled naturally for
room temperature. Fig.14 and Fig.15 shows the dependence of flexural and
tensile strength of frcs on the heat exposure. In two figures, the silicon
carbide and alumina frcs hold comparatively the high strength at range of240°
-360°C. Ceramic fiber; silicon carbide,alumina,boron and tyrano each fibers
have the large heat resistance for 100°C. But reinforcement effect of vinylon
- frc was lost at about 160°C in order to thermo - decomposition.
Resistance for Freezing-thawing Test of FRC
Freezing and thawing test on frc was done by method of ASTMC666-77.

Freezing cycles are three steps of 100,200 and 300,but 50 cycles for plain
mortar only. The reduction of strength,weight loss and degree of dynamic
elastic modulus, E^ was examined. Fig.16 and Fig.17 shows the dependence
of freezing cycles on flexural,tensile strengths. The illustrations on
weight loss and reduction of E^ were omitted in the paper. The plain mortar
was destroyed perfectly at 50 cycles, as matter of course the strength was
zero. But aramid and polyalylate showed the very high strength even 300
cycles. The frc-CIC is very useful.
ASTM (C666-77), A-method ASTM (C666-77), A-method

C/W/S«1/05/0.7, S.R=0.004C, V,=3or2*/./vol. C/W/S =1/0.5/0.7, S.P=0.004C, Vt=3or2*/./vol.
It=25or30mm, Specimen size :4x4x16cm If=25or30mm, Specimen size: 4x4x16cm
Metal alkoxlde Impregnated mortar Metal alkoxlde Impregnated mortar
Metal alkoxlde Impregnated Metal alkoxlde Impregnated
o--- CIC O-------- CIC
o _ ___ Silicon carbide o — — Silicon carbide
A -------- Amorphous metal A - - - -Amorphous metal
D— — Polyarylate D-------- Polyarylate
Non-impregnated Non-lmpregnated
O--------Plain mortar O------- Plain mortar
• --------Silicon carbide • ------- Silicon carbide
A ——— Amorphous metal A --------Amorphous metal
■ ------- Polyarylate ■ -------- Polyarylate
A ------- Mild steel A -------- Mild steel
□ --------Aramid --------
□ Aramid
D......... Polyacetal ..........Polyacetal
□
Cycles ot freezing and thawing
Fig.16 Freezing cycles and O b Fig. 17 Freezing cycles and a t

78
Effect of Inorganic Polymer Impregnation on Strength
Inorganic impregnation materials used in this study are two types as

shown in Table 4 ; Type I is alkoxide silicon oligomer with 40% concen -
tration and Type IE is alkyl-alkoxysilane oligomer and MMA monomer. In the
Type IE ,the former is impregnated and condensation polymerized, next the MMA
is is impregnated again. The treatment of specimens was carried out by the
process as follows; first the plain mortar and frc specimens dryed perfectly
at 105°C in oven, and were exhausted in a vessel at about 1 Torr. then the
impregnation liquid was poured into vessel, finally the surface of liquid was
pressured at 5kg/cm^ for one hour by N 2 gas . Impregnated inorganic materials
were polymerized by condensation reaction at under room temprature. Polymer
loading was about 40%/free water wt. for type I and about 75%/(fr.w.wt.) for
type IE . The size of specimens in this test series are 20wx40dx300(sp.)ittm.
The test results on strength of (1) plain,(2) frc,(3) single CIC,(4)sin-
gle PIC(type H ) ,(5)frc-CIC,(6 ) frc-PIC were listed in Table 5. Fig.l 8 (a)and
(b) shows the flexural or tensile strength.
According to the results, single CIC has not the merit on strength,but
single PIC showd the large effect for strength increase. Especially,frc-CIC
and f r c - P I C of amorphous metal gave the very large strength as follow ;cf^ =
51.16 and 48.22(N/mm2), O t = 13.49 and 22. 78(N/mm2) These strength ratio
for plain mortar dryed in air is 4.72, 4.45 in flexural, and 2.79,4.68 in
tensile. The frc-CIC and frc-PIC are very useful for the improvement of
strength of concrete. But,single CIC formed by alkoxide silicon did not ser
vice the strength. It seems as the season that,this impregnation material
was permeated into the only near zone of surface of specimen, consequently
it's polymer loading is relative small.
Table 4 Properties of impregnation liquid materials
Impregnation liquid Types Consiste Soluvent PH Density

materials -ncy* wt% g/cms
I Alkoxide silicon (NMS 3006) Oligomer 40 % *1 Alchol 7 1.08
tt
Alkyl alkoxysilane (NTL5108) Oligomer 20 % *2 MeOH 7 1.04
JJL
Methyl methacrylate (MMA) Monomer 100 % *3 — - 0.96
Notes; *1 S - [ *2 blended with colloidal silica 5%/wt.,
*3 A1BN used as initiator, added at 1.2%wt/HMA-monomer,
V, #3*/./vol, C/W/S« 1/0.5/07, S.P.-0.004C

If *2 5 or 30mm, B*D*S|»20*40*300mm, dry spec.
Vf=3*/./vot. . C /W /S = 1 /0 .5 /0.7 , S.P. =0.00AC
If =30or25mm. B-D-5i=20*A0-300. Dry specimen NMS3006, NTL5I08+( m m a +n - f m d im pregn ated m ortar
Curing in water for 28days C u rin g in w ater for 28days (20*C)
And then stored in room for Aldays
And then stored in room fo r A ld a y s
Plain
5,i!2W
Amorphous
Amorphous
Polyarylate
Polyarylale
C IC
C IC
Silicon
carbide Silicon
carbide
Amorphous
Amorphous
Polyarylale Polyarylate
P IC PIC
SWcon Silicon ^ ^
carbide carbide
Amorphous Amorphous
Pdlyarylale Polyarylale
20 AO
Flexural strength :
60 ,
Ot> (N /m m z)
6 8 10 12 14 16 U 20 22 24
T ensile stre n g th : 0t(N/mm*)
(a) Flexural strength (b) Tensile strength

Fig.18 Comparison of strength in frc,CIC,PIC,frc-CIC and frc-PIC
79
Table 5 Test result on strength of frc,CIC,PIC,frc-CIC and

frc-PIC. (size of specimen;20wx 40dx 300span mm)
R e in f o r c e m e n t fr c (N/mm2 ) f r c - C I C , N/mm2 f r c - P I C , N/mm2

fib e r s F le x u r a l T e n s ile F le x u . T e n s i. F le x u . T e n s i.
P l a in m o rta r 1 0 .8 4 4 .8 7 5 .9 7 5 .2 1 1 4 .8 2 1 2 .9 7
S ili c o n c a r b id e 2 6 .1 7 1 0 .1 3 2 9 .6 2 1 2 .8 2 5 4 .6 2 1 8 .2 1
A m orp h ou s m e t a l 3 7 .0 6 1 1 .0 2 5 1 .1 6 1 3 .4 9 4 8 .2 2 2 2 .7 8
M ild ste e l 1 3 .4 0 6 .6 8 no te st no test
A ram id (K ev 4 9 ) 1 8 .1 3 8 .9 8 no te st no test
P o ly a r y la te 3 2 .0 0 1 0 .9 8 3 5 .4 7 1 2 .6 7 4 8 .3 4 1 9 .2 1
P o ly a c e ta l 1 0 .5 8 6 .8 9 no te st no test
J u te 1 3 .3 0 5 .9 1 no test no test
C IC : a l k o x i d e s i l i c o n im p r e g n a t e d c e m e n t m o r t a r (NMS 3 0 0 6 ) ,
P IC : a l k y l a l k o x y s i l a n e o l i g o m e r (NTL 5 1 0 8 ) im p r e g n a t e d a n d
c o n d e n s a t e d , t h e n MMA-monomer im p r e g n a t e d m o r t a r .
The greatest charactor is not endowments of strength but improvement of

durability of concrete. [7]
CONCLUSION
Test results on reinforcement effect of new materials fiber andinorganic

polymer impregnation in concrete are summerized as follows;
1) Amorphous metal, titanium and stainless steel ( SUS 304 ) has excellent
resistance for chemical attack of HC1 and NaCl solusions.
2) Load - deflection diagram of frc depends remarkably on fiber material,
and the diagrams are able to classificate in four or five types.
3) Amorphous metal and polyalylate fiber takes the largest magnitude of
flexural toughness among the twelve kinds of tested fiber. In second group,
aramid , silicon carbide and steel fibers is indicable.
4) Optimum fiber length in frc is estimated about 45mm for silicon carbide,
30 mm for alumina and tyrano.
5) Flexural and tensile strength of frc increase with increasing of fiber
length and fiber contents.
6) Silicon carbide and alumina keeps the heat resistance of frc at 360°C.
7) Combination composite systems of f r c - C I C and f r c - P I C applied the
silicon carbide or polyalylate are remarkable effect on strength up,
and to improve the resistance for freezing - thawing damage,
ACKNOWLEDGMENT : This report is a part of the research project supported by

Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research which provided by the Ministry for189 •
REFERENCES
1. Goldfein,S., Plastic Fibrous Rein, for Portland Cement,Tech. Report,No.
1757-TR, U.S.Army,Eng.Res.and Dev. Lab.,Oct. 16, 1963.
2. Majumdar,A.J.et a l ., Glass Technology,J?,3, 78 - 84 1963
3. Romualidi,J .P . and J. A. Mandel, Journal of ACI,j61 ,6 ,1963
4. A l i , M .A.,et al. , Carbon Fiber Rein. Cement , Cement and Concrete Res.,
2 , 2 ,201 - 212, 1972.
5. Ohgishi,S. and H.Ono, Mechanical Prop, of Cement Mortar Plates Rein, by
Polyamid, Trans.of The Japan Cone. Inst. ,6^,309 - 316, 1984.
6. Steinberg, M. et al. , Cone. Polymer Material, First Topical Rep., BNL,
50 1 3 4 (T-509),USBR Gen., Rep., 41 1968.
7. Ohgishi,S and H.Ono, Strength and Durability of Silica Polymer Impreg
nated Concrete, Review of The 41st General Meeting, C A J ,176-179,1987.
80
PVA FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENT SHEETS: PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES
SHEN RONGXI and YANG RUISHAN

China Building Materials Academy,
Guanzhuang, Beijing 100024, China
ABSTRACT
Two kinds of PVA fibres, both high modulus type and modified
type, have been used as asbestos alternatives to produce
non-asbestos FRC sheets on Hatschek machine. For counteract
ing the poor cement retention capacity of these fibres
a suitable auxiliary agent was selected. Large size PVA
fibre reinforced cement flat sheets were produced successfully
by Hatschek process. The properties of these sheets were
tested and compared with that of AC sheets and 5% asbestos
containing FRC sheets.
INTRODUCTION
In consideration of the deficiency of high quality asbestos

and the health hazard caused by asbestos dust, much research
works on using other fibres as alternatives to produce
non - asbestos FRC products on existing machines have been
carried out in many countries [1], [2]. Among several
alternatives polyvinylalcohol fibre (PVA fibre) is considered
as the more suitable one. In this paper our preliminary
experience in production of large size non -asbestos FRC
sheets on Hatschek machine by using PVA fibre is sumed
up.
PVA FIBRE AS REINFORCEMENT OF CEMENT
Two kinds of PVA fibre, both high modulus type (HM-PVAF)

and modified type (M-PVAF), are used for producing FRC
products by Hatschek process. TABLE 1 gives the physico-
mechanical properties of these fibres produced by Beijing
Vinylon Factory.
81
TABLE 1
Properties of PVA fibres for producing FRC products
Specific Diameter Length

Fibre type gravity (m m )
(M )
HM - PVAF 1 .30 14 - 16 4, 6
M - PVAF 1 .30 10 - 12 4, 6
Tensile Young's modulus Elongation

strength(Mpa) (GPa) at break(%)
1100 - 1300 25-28 7-8

800 - 850 12 - 14 11 - 12
PVA fibres for producing FRC products have several

advantages as follows: (1) high aspect ratio, (2) high
ultimate tensile strength, (3) good chemical compatibility
with portland cement, (4)good affinity with water, (5) faster
drainage rate, (6) no health risk from their use. Though
the Young's modulus of HM - PVAF is higher than that of
cement matrix only in a degree and the Young's modulus
of M - PVAF is even lower than that of the latter, both these
fibres may still have good effect on the bending strength
of their FRC products due to the good interfacial bond
between the fibres and cement matrix.The good interfacial
bond is contributed to the following factors: (1) the
non-circular cross section of the fibres. It can be seen
from the microscopic photographs of the cross section
of HM -PVAF and M-PVAF (FIGURE 1 and2), (2) hydrogen bridges
between the fibres and cement matrix.
FIGURE 1. Microscopic photo FIGURE 2. Microscopic photo

graph of cross sec graph of cross sec
tion of HM— PVAF tion of M—PVAF
( x 600 ) ( x 1200 )
82
The shortcomings of PVA fibres are: (1) poor cement

particle retention capacity, (2) tensile strength and
Young's modulus of the fibres may decreased considerably
under autoclaving condition, (3) no good effect on the
non - combustibility of FRC product, if much PVA fibres
are added to it. It is our research task that how to
full utilize the advantages of PVA fibres and to overcome
their shortcomings in production of non-asbestos FRC products.
EFFECT OF ASBESTOS CONTENT ON PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES

OF FRC SHEET CONTAINING PVA FIBRE
A research for ascertaining the effect of asbestos content

on production and properties of FRC flat sheet containing
PVA fibres was carried out at a pilot plant in Wuhan [3].
The loss percentage of solid particles (mainly cement
particles) through the screen cylinder of the Hatschek
machine was measured, the quality of fresh flat sheets
formed was evaluated and the properties of the hardened
sheets were tested. The formulations used in the research
are shown in TABLE 2. The observation and test results
obtained from using these formulations to produce flat
FRC sheets are given in TABLE 3. It can be seen obviously
from the test results that (1) the loss of solid particles
increases considerably with the reduction of asbestos
content. When the asbestos content decreases to 0.9%,
the delamination of the fresh sheets could be observed.
When no asbestos is added, the delamination of the fresh
sheets is so serious that no any product could be obtained,
(2) the bending strength of FRC sheets decreases and at
the same time their porosity increases with the reduction
of asbestos content. When the asbestos content decreases
to 0.9%, the frost resistance of the sheets is very bad.
TABLE 2
Formulations of FRC sheets containing PVA fibres and asbestos
Mix proportion (weight —%)

Series
HM-PVAF HM-PVAF Cellulose Portland
number
( 6 mm ( 4 mm Asbestos
f ibre cement
length) length)
I 1.68 — 4.49 4.09 89.79
II 2.03 — 3.38 4.50 90.09
III— a 2.30 — 1 .50 4.60 91 .60
III—b 1 .40 0.90 1 .50 4.60 91 .60
IV 2.30 — 0.90 4.60 92.20
V 2 .30 — — 4.70 93.00
83
TABLE 3
Results of using various formulations to produce
FRC flat sheet
Loss of Appearance Properties of hardened sheet

Series solid of (at age of 14 D)
particles fresh
M0R(L) Water Bulk den - Forst
number (%) sheets
absorp sity resi
(MPa)
tion (%) (g/cm3 ) stance
I 16.3 Normal 17.7 25.6 1.46 Good
II 19.2 Normal 18.8 25.5 1 .47 Good
III— a 34.6 Normal 13.4 28.9 1.40 Good
III—b 38.8 Normal 13.4 28.0 1 .43 Good
IV 42.4 Partial delamination 5 .1 41 .0 1.25 Very bad
V 52.2 Serious delamination — — — —
SELECTION OF AUXILIARY AGENT FOR PVA FIBRE
It is necessary to find out a suitable auxiliary agent

for counteracting the main shortcoming of PVA fibres and
reducing the loss of cement particles in filtration process.
A good auxiliary agent for this purpose shall meet the
following requirements: (1) well dispersing in water and
forming a stable suspension, (2) absorbing much cement
particles in the water, (3) easy to obtain and not too
expensive. A research on selecting the auxiliary agent
for PVA fibre was performed in our laboratory. A lot
of auxiliary agents were choiced for comparison. They
were (a) polyethylene fibrids (PF), (b) a special absorbent
with a code name 1Q X ', (c) sodium betonite (SB), (d) fibrous
brucite (FB), (e) powdered sepiolite clay (PSC). A vacuum
filtration apparatus in common use was applied in this
research. The prepared fibre -cement slurry containing
certain auxiliary agent was poured into the Buchner funnel
having a 0103 mm perforation plate covered with a 100
mesh screen. The water with certain quantity of solid
particles was extracted from the slurry, filtrated through
the screen and flowed into a glass bottle under the vacuum
pressure. For each test the vacuum pressure was held
constant at 150 mm mercury and the suction duration was
10 seconds. The loss of cement particles in filtration
process by weight percentage was measured and this value
was regarded as a criterion to evaluate the cement particle
retention capacity of an auxiliary agent.
The formulations used to select the auxiliary agent are

listed in TABLE 2 and the test results are shown in
TABLE 5.
84
TABLE 4
Formulations for selecting auxiliary agent
Series Mix proportion of :

raw materials (weight —%)
number M—PVAF Portland
Pulp PF QX SB FB PSC
(4mm length) cement
a 3 3 — — — _ — 94
b 3 3 3 — — — — 91
c 3 3 — 3 — — — 91
d 3 3 — 5 — — — 89
e 3 3 — — 5 — — 89
f 3 3 — — 10 — — 84
g 3 3 — — — 5 — 89
h 3 3 — — — — 10 84
TABLE 5
Test results for selecting auxiliary agent
Series
a b c d e f g h
number
Loss of
cement 3.11 1.14 0.64 0.69 1.96 1.56 2.17 1.61
particles
(wt—%)
Relative 100 36.7 20.6 22.2 63.0 50.2 69.8 51 .8

value
It can be seen from TABLE 5 clearly that the special

absrobent 'Q X ' gives the best effect for retaining cement
particles.
PRODUCTION OF LARGE SIZE PVAF REINFORCED CEMENT FLAT SHEETS
PVAF reinforced cement compressed flat sheets in the size

of 2440x1220x5 mm were produced successfully by Hatschek
process in Zhong— Wu Non— Asbestos Fibre Cement Products
Pilot Plant. The raw materials used for producing the
sheets were HM — PVAF, M — PVAF, pulp, auxiliary agent 'Q X ',
mica flake, portland cement etc. The addition of mica
flake was for the purpose to guarantee the non— comustibility
of the products.
In general three screen cylinders are used for the

Hatschek machine to produce asbestos cement sheets, however
two screen cylinders were enough for the same machine
to produce PVAF reinforced cement sheets due to the higher
drainage rate of the non— asbestos fibre— cement slurry.
85
For further reducing the loss of cement particles

in filtration process a high molecule floculating agent
was added to the fibre-cement slurry before the slurry
had flowed into the cylinder vats. High pressure water
jet cutting device took the place of rotating circular
knife for cutting the edges of the green sheets, A 9000T
hydraulic press was used to compress the green sheets
under the specific pressure of 250 kg/cm2 . The temperature
of steam curing for the sheets was not higher than 70°C.
PROPERTIES OF LARGE SIZE PVAF REINFORCED CEMENT FLAT SHEETS
Sampling
The test specimens for various use were cut from two PVAF
reinforced cement compressed sheets at the age of 28 days
according to FIGURE 3. The size, number and use of these
specimens are shown in TABLE 6. For measuring the flexural
load - deflection curves five specimens in size of 250x50 mm
were cut from the sheet perpendicular and parallel to
the machine direction respectively. For testing non
combustibility 20 specimens with diameter of 25 mm were
cut off too.
i
200
! c d
a b
e
---- A
200 «-
//—/7---
e
a b
1 c d
200
T
FIGURE 3. The position and number of the test specimens
to be cut from the sheet
86
TABLE 6
Size, number and use of the specimens cut from the sheet
Symbol
of Size (mm) Number (pieces) Use
specimen
a 250 x 250 2 Bending strength

b 250 x 250 2 Watertightness
c 100 x 100 2 Water absorption and
bulk density
d 100 x 100 2 Frost resistance
e 100 x 200 5 (in each direction) Impact strength
Test method
Bending strength: The specimens to be tested were

immersed in water for 24 Hrs. The test was performed
on a type FBK-100 testing machine. The distance between
two supports was 215± 1mm. The load was applied to the
specimen along its centre line. After reassembling the
broken pieces, the load was applied again along the centre
line at right angle to that of the first test. The average
bending strength of the sheet in the two directions was
calculated.
Impact strength: The test was performed on a type

XCJ — 40 charpy machine. The distance between two supports
was 70 ±0.3 mm. The average impact strength of the sheet
in the two directions was calculated.
Water absroption and bulk density: These properties

were tested according to the conventional testing method.
Watertightness: A glass tube in the size of ())35x300 mm

was sealed on the middle of the specimen. Cleaning water
was filled into the glass tube to a height of 250 mm.
The duration of the test was 72 Hrs.
Frost resistance: The specimens were subjected to

25 freeze thaw cycles. Each cycle included freezing at
— 20±2°C for 90 minutes and thawing at +20±2°C for 30 minutes.
Flexural load-deflection curve: The test was performed

on a type W D - 5 universal testing machine. The distance
between twosupports was 200±1 mm. The flexural load-
deflection curve was automatically recorded.
Non — combustibility: The test was performed according

to the China Standard '065464-85'.
Test results
87
The test results of physico - mechanical properties of PVAF

reinforced cement compressed flat sheet in comparison
with that of AC (asbestos cement) and 5% asbestos containing
FRC compressed flat sheets are listed in TABLE 7. The
asbestos content of AC sheet is 19.8% by weight. The PVAF
TABLE 7
Properties of PVAF reinforced cement flat sheet in
comparison with that of AC and 5% asbestos containing
FRC flat sheets
5% asbestos PVAF rein

Kind of compressed flat sheet
AC containing forced
FRC cement
Bending Absolute value(MPa) 25.0 21.7 18.1

strength
Relative vlaue 100 86.8 72.4
(wet)
Impact Absolute value (KJ/m2) 2.00 2.45 3.10
strength Relative value 100 122.5 155.0
Water Absolute value(%) 14.9 14.5 18.0

absorp
Realtive value 100 97.3 120.8
tion
Bulk Absolute value (g/cm3) 1 .87 1 .85 1.77
density Relative value 100 98.9 94.6
Watertightness Good Good Good
Frost resistance Good Good Good
Non— combustibility Good Good Good
content of 5% asbestos containing FRC sheet is 2.5% by

weight. The comparison of the bending stress deflection
curve for PVAF reinforced cement, AC and 5% asbestos contain
ing FRC specimens in the two directions is shown in FIGURE 4.
From the above test results we can draw the conclusion
as follows: (1) the bending strength of PVAF reinforced
cement sheet is lower than that of AC or 5% asbestos contain
ing FRC sheet, (2) the impact strength and the toughness
in longitudinal direction for PVAF reinforced cement sheet
is higher than that for AC or 5% asbestos containing FRC
sheet, (3) PVAF reinforced cement sheet is lighter than
AC or 5% asbestos containing FRC sheet, (4) the watertight
ness, frost resistance and non - combustibility for PVAF
reinforced cement sheet are the same as that for the other
two kinds of sheet.
on AC (L)
57o Asbestos containing FRC (L)
PVAF reinforced
cement (L)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Deflection (mm)
FIGURE 4. Bending stress-deflection curves for PVAF reinforced

cement, AC and 5% asbestos containing FRC specimens
SEM OBSERVATION OF PVA FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENT COMPOSITE
The samples for scanning electron microscopic observation

were cut from the PVAF reinforced cement specimens subjected
to flexural test. After gold plating, the samples were
examinated by a type ASTM SX+EDAX scanning electron microscope
and their SEM photographes in various magnification were
taken. From FIGURE 5 it can be seen that PVAF disperse
uniformly in the cement matrix. FIGURE 6 shows that the
surface of PVAF is covered by hydration product of portland
cement.
FIGURE 5. SEM photograph of FIGURE 6. SEM photograph of

PVAF reinforced PVAF in cement matrix
cement ( x 200 ) ( x 2000 )
89
CONCLUSIONS
1. Both MH — PVAF and M — PVAF could be used as alternatives

to asbestos for producing non-asbestos FRC sheets by Hatschek
process.
2. Using PVAF to replace most of asbestos to produce FRC

sheets on Hatschek mahcine, the loss of cement particles
increases and the properties of products changes for the
worse with the reduction of asbestos content.
3. A suitable auxiliary agent has been selected for counterac

ting the poor cement paticle retention capacity of PVAF.
4. Large size PVAF reinforced cement compressed flat sheets

have been produced successfully by Hatschek process.
5. The bending strength of PVAF reinforced cement sheet

is lower than that of AC sheet, but its impact strength
and toughness in longitudinal directionare higher than
that of the latter.
6. The watertightness, the frost resistance and the non

combustibility of PVAF reinforced cement sheet are the
same as that of AC sheet.
REFERENCES
1. Asbestos Replacement, Textile Horizons, 1984, 7, 32— 33.

2. Hodgson, A., Alternatives to Asbestos and Asbestos Products,
Anjalena Pub., Co., 1985.
3. M a ., J., Shen, R., Trial production of PVA fibre reinforced
cement medium corrugated sheets, 1988 (unpublished).
90
WOVEN P O L Y P R O P Y L E N E FA B R IC S - AN A L T E R N A T IV E
T O ASBESTOS FO R TH IN SH EE T A P P L IC A T IO N S
R .N . SWAMY
D e p a r t m e n t of M e c h a n ic a l and P r o c e s s E n g i n e e r in g
U n i v e r s i t y of Sheffield, Sheffield SI 3JD, UK.
and
M. W. HUSSIN
F a c u l t y of C ivil E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t i T e k n o lo g i M a l a y s ia
K uala L u m p u r , M a la y s ia .
A B ST R A C T
T h i s p a p e r p r e s e n t s e x te n s iv e t e s t d a ta on the f l e x u r a l b e h a v io u r of l a r g e
s i z e d f la t a n d c o r r u g a t e d c e m e n t s h e e t s r e i n f o r c e d with woven p o ly p r o p y
l e n e f a b r i c s . B oth the m e s h g e o m e t r y and f ib r e v o lu m e f r a c t i o n w e r e
v a r i e d . T w o ty p e s of c e m e n t m a t r i c e s , a lig h tw e ig h t m o r t a r m a t r i x , and
a c e m e n t m a t r i x , b oth c o n ta in in g 50% c e m e n t r e p l a c e m e n t by fly a s h , and
h a v in g high w o r k a b ility an d low w a t e r - b i n d e r r a t i o w e r e u s e d . T he
d e fle c tio n , s t r a i n c a p a c ity , c r a c k i n g b e h a v io u r and u l t i m a t e lo a d c a p a c ity
of th e s h e e t s a r e th en p r e s e n t e d and d i s c u s s e d in t e r m s of the m e s h
g e o m e t r y a nd f i b r e v o lu m e . C o n tro l t e s t s in f le x u r e and d i r e c t te n s io n on
s m a l l s c a l e s p e c i m e n s a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d , and c o m p a r e d to the b e h a v i o u r
of the l a r g e r s p e c i m e n s . T he r e s u l t s show th a t w oven f a b r i c s can p ro v id e
e x c e l l e n t r e i n f o r c i n g e ffe c t, o u ts ta n d in g c r a c k c o n tro l, high d u c tility an d
v e r y good e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n p r o p e r t i e s in thin s h e e t s e c t i o n s .
INTRODUCTION
A s b e s t o s c e m e n t s h e e t in g h a s u n d o u b ted ly b e e n the m o s t s u c c e s s f u l
d e v e lo p m e n t of f i b r e c e m e n t c o m p o s i t e s in th is c en tu ry ^ an d h a s b e e n
e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d f o r ro o fin g , c la d d in g and p ipe m a n u f a c tu r e a ll o v e r th e
w o r ld . T h e unique n a t u r e of th is p r o d u c t ow es m u c h to the f a v o u ra b le
d im e n s i o n a l and c h e m ic a l s t a b i l i t y of the f i b r e s , and the s t r o n g
a b s o r p t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n the f i b r e s and the c e m e n t p a r t i c l e s . H o w
e v e r , th e v a r i o u s h e a lth p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with the h a n dlin g, f a b r i c
a ti o n and u s e of the f i b r e s and its p r o d u c t s have n e c e s s a r i l y in it ia te d
w ide r a n g i n g s t u d i e s f o r a l t e r n a t i v e r e i n f o r c i n g e l e m e n t s an d th in s h e e t
p r o d u c t s . T he s e a r c h f o r a s b e s t o s s u b s t i t u t e s h a s ta k e n s e v e r a l f o r m s -
91
th e d e v e lo p m e n t of s y n th e t ic and n a t u r a l s h o r t, d i s c r e t e f i b r e s , th e use of
c o n tin u o u s m e s h and open n e tw o r k s an d a l t e r n a t i v e p r o d u c tio n technologies
to the c o n v e n tio n a l H a t s c h e k and M a gn an i p r o c e s s e s (1 -3 ).
In th is s e a r c h f o r new f i b r e s and f i b r e f o r m s , p o l y m e r f i b r e s have

found r e a d y a p p lic a t io n b e c a h s e of t h e i r a v a il a b ili ty , r e l a t i v e l y low c o st,
high e x t e n s i b i l i t y an d good s t r e n g t h . In p a r t i c u l a r , p o ly p r o p y le n e f i b r e s
h a v e had v a r i o u s c o m m e r c i a l u s e s a s s h o r t f i b r i l l a t e d f ilm s a nd a s
m o n o f i l a m e n t s . H o w e v e r , p o ly p ro p y le n e f i b r e s a r e i n h e r e n t l y h y d r o -
p h o b ic , a n d w h ils t th is p r o p e r t y c o n f e r s d i s t i n c t a d v a n ta g e s in m ix in g
s h o r t , d i s c r e t e f i b r e s in a c e m e n t m a t r i x , th e r e s u l t i n g l a c k of a d e q u a te
p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l bond in th e h a r d e n e d s t a t e , c o m b in e d w ith the tw o -
d i m e n s i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n , d o e s not c o n tr i b u te to t h e i r b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in thin s e c t i o n a p p lic a t io n s . C o ntinuous f i b r e f o r m s a r e
t h e r e f o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e in s u c h s e c t i o n s , both f r o m bond and
r e i n f o r c i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a n d e x te n s iv e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c a r r i e d out
in i n c o r p o r a t i n g f i b r i l l a t e d open n e tw o r k s in c e m e n t m a t r i c e s , and
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s an d d u r a b i l i t y (1, 2, 4).
O pen n e t w o r k s of f i b r i l l a t e d p o ly p r o p y le n e film , h o w e v e r , a r e not the

o n ly f o r m of p r o d u c in g co n tin u o u s f i b r e s . F i b r i l l a t e d film can a l s o be
w ov en into f a b r i c s of m e s h c o n s tr u c ti o n , c o n s i s t i n g of c o n tinu ou s t a p e s .
R e s e a r c h on the u s e of w oven p o ly p r o p y le n e m e s h f a b r i c s , f o r th in cem ent
s h e e t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , c o m m e n c e d in 1980, q u ite in d e p e n d e n tly a t the
U n i v e r s i t i e s of U l s t e r an d Sheffield . A lth ou gh e a r l y r e s e a r c h a p p e a r e d
to in d ic a te th a t c o m p o s i t e s b a s e d on open n e tw o r k p o ly p r o p y le n e film
g a v e b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e th a n w oven m e s h e s (5), s u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h h a s
show n t h a t p r o p e r u s e of s u c h m e s h e s can not only p r o d u c e e x c e lle n t
f l e x u r a l p r o p e r t i e s b ut a l s o e n a b le a wide r a n g e of civ il e n g in e e r in g
p r o d u c t s an d p r o d u c t s h a p e s to be m a n u f a c t u r e d s u c c e s s f u l l y (6 -1 0 ). T h e
g r e a t a d v a n ta g e of w oven f a b r i c s is th a t th e y a r e v e r y c o n v e n ie n t to
h a n d le , a n d e a s y to p l a c e in m a n u a l o r f a c t o r y p r o d u c tio n s .
T h i s p a p e r p r e s e n t s the d e v e lo p m e n t an d ty p ic a l e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r
t i e s of c e m e n t c o m p o s i t e s r e i n f o r c e d with w oven p o ly p r o p y le n e f a b r i c s .
T h e m a t r i x f o r th e c o m p o s i t e s w e r e d e s i g n e d f o r a d e q u a te s tr e n g th ,
e x c e l l e n t flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to p e n e t r a t e th ro u g h s e v e r a l m e s h l a y e r s ,
a n d h igh d u r a b i l i t y . D a ta a r e p r e s e n t e d on s t r e n g t h , d e f o r m a tio n and
c r a c k i n g b e h a v i o u r to sho w t h a t p o ly p r o p y le n e w oven f a b r i c s can p ro v id e
a v ia b le an d e c o n o m ic r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r th in s h e e t a p p lic a tio n s .
TEST D E T A IL S
T h e d a ta p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e b a s e d on l a r g e fla t s h e e t s , 1000 x 300 x 1 0m m
t e s t e d in f l e x u r e u n d e r f o u r p o in t lo a d in g o v e r an e ff e c tiv e s p a n of 90 0m m
C o n tr o l t e s t s on s m a l l e r s c a l e cou pon s w e r e a l s o c a r r i e d out in f l e x u r e
a n d d i r e c t t e n s i o n . Both th e r e i n f o r c i n g m e s h g e o m e t r y and th e n u m b e r
of l a y e r s w e r e v a r i e d to give f i b r e v o lu m e s of 0. 24% to 22. 60% in th e
lo n g itu d in a l d i r e c t i o n .
92
T w o d i f f e r e n t ty p e s of m a t r i c e s w e r e u s e d - a low m o d u lu s lig h tw e ig h t
m o r t a r m a t r i x f o r lo w f i b r e v o lu m e s , and a c e m e n t p a s t e m a t r i x f o r low
to high f i b r e v o l u m e s . A ll the m i x e s c o n ta in e d a s u p e r p l a s t i c i z e r , and
50% b y w e ig h t of p a r t i a l r e p l a c e m e n t of c e m e n t with a good q u a lity fly ash.
T h e fine a g g r e g a t e w a s a l s o r e s t r i c t e d to a m a x im u m s iz e of 2. 36 m m .
T o r e d u c e th e b l e e d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the m a t r i x , a s p e c i a l m ix in g
p r o c e d u r e w a s a d o p te d , and t h i s p r o v e d v e r y e ff e c tiv e (11).
An e x p a n d e d c la y a g g r e g a t e w a s u s e d f o r th e lig h tw e ig h t m a t r i x . T h e
m o r t a r m a t r i x h a d a n a v e r a g e d r y d e n s i ty of 1600 k g / m 3 , and cube
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h s of 1 7 M P a a t 28 d a y s and 31 M P a at 6 m o n th s . T he
c e m e n t p a s t e m a t r i x had c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h s of 38 M P a a t 28 d a y s and
54 M P a a t 6 m o n th s .
T h e l a r g e s p e c i m e n t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out in a s p e c i a l l y d e s ig n e d
t e s t r i g , a n d e x t e n s i v e d a ta w e r e c o l le c te d on d e fle c tio n , s t r a i n s and
c r a c k i n g b e h a v i o u r . O nly ty p ic a l e n g i n e e r i n g d a ta a r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e to
i l l u s t r a t e th e p o te n t ia l of w oven f a b r i c s a s r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r th in s h e e t s .
A lth o u g h five d i f f e r e n t g r a d e s of m e s h w e r e u s e d in t h e s e t e s t s , only d a ta
r e l a t e d to 2 4 /3 1 a nd 3 1 /4 7 m e s h s i z e s a r e r e p o r t e d h e r e .
E N G IN E E R IN G P R O P E R T I E S
D e f le c tio n B e h a v i o u r
F i g . 1 i l l u s t r a t e s ty p ic a l lo a d d e fle c tio n b e h a v io u r of th e s e c o m p o s i te s ,
f o r th e 2 4 /3 1 m e s h in th e lig h tw e ig h t m o r t a r and the 3 1 /4 7 m e s h in the
c e m e n t p a s t e m a t r i x . T h e s e c u r v e s r e f l e c t the e x te n s iv e m u l tip le
c r a c k i n g a c h ie v e d w ith t h e s e m e s h e s , an d th e l a r g e n o n - l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s t o w a r d s f a i l u r e d e n o te bo th a high d e g r e e of d u c tility and l a r g e
e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n c a p a c i ty . B oth th e in itia l e l a s t i c s ta g e and th e s u b s e
q u e n t e l a s t o - p l a s t i c s ta g e w e r e d e p e n d e n t on the g r a d e an d v olu m e
f r a c t i o n of th e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . E v e n with f i b r e v o lu m e s of ab o u t 2%, the
m a x i m u m lo a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c ity w as h ig h e r th a n the f i r s t c r a c k lo a d .
S t r a i n C a p a c ity
A ll the c o m p o s i t e s sh o w e d a high a b i lity to s u s t a i n l a r g e m a t r i x s t r a i n s .
In c o m p r e s s i o n , th e lig h tw e ig h t m a t r i x c o m p o s i t e s r e c o r d e d a v e r a g e
s t r a i n s of 4000 to 7500 m i c r o s t r a i n s , w hile th e c e m e n t p a s t e m a t r i x
c o m p o s i t e s r e s i s t e d s t r a i n s of 6000 to 8500 m i c r o s t r a i n s . T h e s e high
v a l u e s a r e p a r t l y due to the c o n fin e m e n t im p o s e d on th e m a t r i x b y th e
p r e s e n c e of c l o s e l y s p a c e d p o ly p r o p y le n e m e s h e s . T h e s u r f a c e t e n s i l e
s t r a i n m e a s u r e d n e a r f a i l u r e w as g e n e r a l l y a l m o s t tw ice th e s u rf a c e
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n . T h e r e s u l t s c o n f i r m th a t both m a t r i c e s w e r e a b le to
w i t h s t a n d l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n s with 50% c e m e n t r e p l a c e m e n t s , w hich th u s
do not i m p a i r the b e h a v io u r of the p o ly p r o p y le n e s h e e t s .
93
FIG U R E 1. L o a d -d e fle c tio n b e h a v io u r

94
U ltim a te L o a d C a p a c ity
T o get s o m e id e a of the u l tim a te lo a d c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e s e c o m p o s i t e s , t h e
r e s u l t s of t h i s i n v e s ti g a tio n a r e c o m p a r e d in T a b le 1 to th o se of o th e r
i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r t e d in l i t e r a t u r e (6, 12 -1 4 ). T he d a ta p r e s e n t e d in the
T a b l e in c lu d e t e s t s on w oven f a b r i c s , open n e tw o r k s , f i b r i l l a t e d fi lm s
an d m o n o f i l a m e n t s . Since both s i z e of s p e c i m e n a nd th e r a t e of lo a d in g
in flu e n c e the f l e x u r a l b e h a v io u r of p o ly p r o p y le n e f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c e m e n t
c o m p o s i t e s (15), th e r e s u l t s in T a b le 1 m a y not be s t r i c t l y c o m p a r a b l e .
F u r t h e r , th e r e s u l t s of th e t e s t s of the a u t h o r s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m m u c h
l a r g e r s i z e d s p e c i m e n s c o m p a r e d to t h o s e of the o th e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s , and
t h i s f a c t a l s o sh o u ld be b o r n e in m in d w hile c o m p a r in g t h e s e d a ta .
E v e n w ith the above l i m i t a t i o n s , the d a ta in th e T a b le show s o m e

i n t e r e s t i n g b e h a v i o u r a l a s p e c t s . F o r e x a m p le , f o r an a l m o s t e q u a l amount
of r e i n f o r c e m e n t , the u l t i m a t e m o m e n t of s h e e t WD6 (v o lu m e 9.04%) is
m o r e th a n 2. 5 t i m e s t h a t r e p o r t e d by G a r d i n e r and C u r r i e (volum e 11%)
(6). S i m i l a r l y , s h e e t WC4 with a f ib r e v o lu m e of 3. 78% in a lig h tw e ig h t
m a t r i x gave an u l t i m a t e m o m e n t s e v e r a l t i m e s of th a t r e p o r t e d b y Baggot
( f ib r e v o lu m e 7.5% ). T h e u ltim a te m o m e n t r e s u l t s o b ta in e d b y D ave and
E l l i s , on the o t h e r h and, a r e only a b o u t 30-50% of the u l t i m a t e m o m e n t
r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d by the a u t h o r s . T he t e s t s on c o m p o s i t e s with open n e t
w o r k s w ith 6% f i b r e v o lu m e gave a b ou t 10% h ig h e r u l t i m a t e m o m e n t f o r
4. 52% v o lu m e w oven f a b r i c s but w a s a b o u t 40% l o w e r c o m p a r e d to a s h e e t
w ith 9 .0 4% w oven f a b r i c v o lu m e . A p a r t f r o m c o n f ir m in g th a t c on tinu ou s
f i b r e s giv e s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e to s h o r t d i s c r e t e f i b r e s , the d a ta in
T a b l e 1 show th a t w oven p o ly p r o p y le n e f a b r i c s can p r o v id e an e ffe c tiv e
a n d e c o n o m i c a l f i b r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t to thin c e m e n t s h e e t s .
T h e a v e r a g e d e n s i t y of the lig h tw e ig h t s h e e t s w as 1630 k g / m ^ c o m

p a r e d to 1960 k g / m ^ f o r th e c e m e n t p a s t e s h e e t s . T h e m a t r i c e s had a l s o
d if f e r e n t s t r e n g t h an d e l a s t i c m o d u lu s p r o p e r t i e s : n e v e r t h e l e s s , at f ib r e
v o lu m e s of 1 .8 8 % an d 3. 78%, th e lig h tw e ig h t s h e e t s h ad n e a r l y the s a m e
u l t i m a t e m o m e n t c a p a c i t i e s a s th e h e a v i e r s h e e t s . T h e u se of a l i g h t
w e ig h t m a t r i x is t h e r e f o r e b e n e f ic ia l in p r o d u c in g l i g h t e r s h e e t s w ith
e q u iv a le n t s t r e n g t h w h ich is u s e f u l f o r r o o f and c la d d in g p a n e l
co nstru ctio n s.
CRACKING BEHAVIOUR
C r a c k i n g b e h a v i o u r is a c o m p le x a nd r a n d o m p h e n o m e n o n , and is
in f lu e n c e d b y a n u m b e r of f a c t o r s , in c lu d in g , the g e o m e t r y of th e r e i n
f o r c i n g e l e m e n t , the n u m b e r of r e i n f o r c e m e n t l a y e r s and th e p r o p e r t i e s of
the m a t r i x . T o i l l u s t r a t e the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the w oven f a b r i c s in c o n
t r o l l i n g th e c r a c k s p a c in g s and c r a c k w id th s, ty p ic a l c r a c k p a t t e r n s fo r
th e two t y p e s of s h e e t s a r e show n in F ig . 2. S h e e ts WC3 and WC4, f o r
e x a m p le , w e r e m a d e f r o m the lig h tw e ig h t m a t r i x , an d ha d f i b r e v o lu m e s
of 1 .8 9% and 3. 78% r e s p e c t i v e l y . N e a r f a i l u r e , t h e s e s h e e t s h ad a v e r a g e
c r a c k s p a c in g s of 10 an d 8 m m r e s p e c t i v e l y with m e a s u r e d m e a n c r a c k
Re f Matrix Reinforcement Curing Condition Ultimate
moment N.m
Lightweight m atrix 8 layers 24/31 p o l y p r o p y l e n e 28 d a y s in fog 41.0

mesh, V = 3.78% (WC4) room, 20°C, RH 100%
Lightweight matrix 8 laye r s 16/16 p o l y p r o p y l e n e 28 d a y s in fog 29 . 0

mesh, V = 1 .64% (WC8) room, 20°C, RH 100%
Authors
Cement paste 4 lay e r s 3 1/47 p o l y p r o p y l e n e 28 d a y s in fog 65.6

mesh, V = 9. 0 4 % (WD6) room, 20°C, RH 100%
Cement paste 10 lay e r s 3 1 /47 p o l y p r o p y l e n e 28 d a y s in fog 144.0

mesh, V = 22 . 6 (WD8) room, 20°C, RH 100%
10 lay e r s 3^40 polypropylene 28 d a y s in w a t e r 24.8

mesh, V = 11% (d=10 mm). at 20°C
6 Cement matrix 10 lay e r s 36/40 p o l y p ro py le ne 7 months in w a t e r 29. 3

mesh, V = 11% (d=10 mm) at 20°C
6 laye r s 3 6 / 4 0 p o l y p r o p y l e n e 5 months in w a t e r 15.0

mesh, V = 11% (d=6 mm) at 2 0 PC
4% v o l u m e c h o p p e d 28 d a y s under 18.8
f i l a m e n t s of p o l y p r o p y l e n e water
(22 m i c r o n d i a m e t e r )
12 Cement paste 7 .9% volume chopped 28 d a y s u n d e r 19.4

filaments of p olypropylene water
Ultimate load capacities
(49 m i c r o n diam e t e r )
7 .5% v o l u m e of fibrillated 28 d a y s in w e t r o o m 8.1

filament at 2 0 . 6°C, RH 90%
a n d o v e n d r i e d at
5 0 ° C for 48 h o u r s
13 Lightweight matrix 7.5% v o l u m e of 28 d a y s in w et r o o m 7.4

monofilament at 2 0 . 5C, RH 90%
a n d o v e n d r i e d at
5 0 ° C for 48 h o u r s
Cement mortar 6% v o l u m e 40.5

14 of o p e n e d p o l y p r o p y l e n e
film networks
96
Lightweight mortar matrix

4 layers, 24/31 mesh, V = 1.89%
Crack spacing 10.1 mm
Maximum crack width * 63 microns
Lightweight mortar matrix

8 layers, 24/31 mesh, V = 3.78%
Cement paste matrix

11 layers, 24/31 mesh, V = 5.19%
Cement paste matrix

8 layers, 31/47 mesh, V = 18.09%
Maximum crack width « 12 microns
FIGURE 2 Cracking behaviour

97
w id th s of 45 to 65 m i c r o n s at 60-70% of the u lt i m a t e lo a d . S h e e ts WD3 and

WD7 w e r e m a d e f r o m c e m e n t p a s t e m a t r i x with f ib r e v o lu m e s 5. 19% and
1 8 .0 9 % r e s p e c t i v e l y . S heet WD3 had a final c r a c k s p a c in g 5. 5 m m with a
m e a n c r a c k w idth of abou t 40 m i c r o n s at a bo ut 60% of the u lt i m a t e lo a d .
A t f i b r e v o lu m e s of 18-22%, the c r a c k w idths a t 60% of the u lti m a te lo a d
w e r e a b o u t 20 m i c r o n s . T h e s e a r e r e a l l y o u ts ta n d in g c r a c k c o n tro l r e s u lt s
a n d show c o n c l u s i v e l y the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of w oven f a b r i c s in a c tin g a s
c r a c k a r r e s t o r s in f i b r e c e m e n t s h e e t s .
CON TRO L T E S T S
M uch of the t e s t d a ta r e p o r t e d in l i t e r a t u r e f o r both f le x u r e and d i r e c t
t e n s i o n a r e b a s e d on s m a l l s c a l e s p e c i m e n s . T h e t e s t r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d
s o f a r a r e , on the o t h e r hand, b a s e d on m u c h l a r g e r s i z e d t e s t sp e c im e n s .
T o r e l a t e t h e s e two, f l e x u r a l t e s t s on 500 x 100 x 10 m m s p e c i m e n s and
d i r e c t t e n s i o n t e s t s on 560.x 100 x 10 m m s p e c i m e n s w e r e c a r r i e d out.
T h e f o r m e r w a s, a s b e f o r e , s u b je c t e d to fo u r p o in t lo a d in g on an e f fe c tiv e
s p a n of 400 m m . T h e d i r e c t te n s io n s p e c i m e n s w e r e s p e c i a l l y d e s ig n e d to
f a i l in th e c e n t r a l gauge le n g th of 300 m m . T y p ic a l l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n - s t r a i n
r e s u l t s a r e show n in F ig . 3.
T h e c r a c k p a t t e r n s w e r e g e n e r a l l y s i m i l a r in f le x u r e an d te n s io n , and
b e tw e e n s m a l l s c a l e and l a r g e s p e c i m e n s in f l e x u r e . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r,
d i f f e r e n c e s in f le x u r a l lo a d d e f le c tio n c u r v e s , p r i m a r i l y due to the te s t i n g
m a c h i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T e s t s on the l a r g e r s p e c i m e n s r e f l e c t e d the
f lu c tu a t io n s in lo a d s a s c r a c k i n g p r o g r e s s e d (F ig . 1) w h e r e a s the t e s t s on
th e s m a l l e r s p e c i m e n s did no t e x h ib it th is m u ltip l e c r a c k i n g e ffe ct on the
l o a d d e f le c ti o n d i a g r a m s . T h e d i r e c t t e n s i o n t e s t , h o w e v e r, sh o w e d the
e f f e c t s of m u l t i p l e c r a c k i n g .
T E S T S ON CORRUGATED SH EE T S
F l e x u r a l t e s t s on c o r r u g a t e d s h e e t s of 1000 x 600 x 10 m m lo a d e d o v e r an
e f f e c tiv e s p a n of 900 m m c o n f ir m th e r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d so f a r (16). M e sh
g r a d e s of 3 1 /4 4 a n d 2 4 /31 w e r e u s e d in t h e s e t e s t s a t v o lu m e f r a c t i o n s of
3. 3 to 10% and 1. 2 to 3. 0% r e s p e c t i v e l y . At the l i m i t of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y at
28 d a y s, t h e s e s h e e t s gave s t r e s s e s of 9. 3 to 1 3 .5 M P a and 7. 5 to 9. 8
M P a r e s p e c t i v e l y . A t f a i l u r e , th e u l t i m a t e f le x u r a l s t r e s s r a n g e d f r o m
2 1 .8 to 5 4 .0 M P a f o r the c o m p o s i t e s r e i n f o r c e d with 3 1 /4 4 f a b r i c s , and
7. 5 to 2 1 .0 M P a f o r th o s e w ith 2 4/31 f a b r i c s . T h e c r a c k p a t t e r n s f o r
t h e s e s h e e t s w e r e a l s o s i m i l a r to th o s e of the f la t s h e e t s . B e a r i n g in mind
th a t t h e s e a r e b a s e d on l a r g e s c a l e s p e c i m e n s , the r e s u l t s a r e m o s t
e n c o u r a g in g , a n d f u r t h e r p r o o f of th e e x c e l le n t r e i n f o r c i n g e ffe c t of
p o l y p r o p y le n e w oven f a b r i c s in thin c e m e n t s h e e t s .
CONCLUSIONS
T h in c e m e n t s h e e t s c o n ta in in g w oven p o ly p r o p y le n e f a b r i c s a r e show n to
98
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 tensile strain (•/.)
FIGURE 3 L o a d -d e fle c tio n -s tr a in b e h a v io u r

99
h a v e e x c e l l e n t r e i n f o r c i n g e ffec t, o u ts ta n d in g c r a c k c o n tr o l, v e r y good
d u c t i l i t y and e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n p r o p e r t i e s w hen t e s t e d in f l e x u r e in both
f la t a n d c o r r u g a t e d f o r m s . S h e e ts w ith a lig h tw e ig h t m a t r i x had n e a r l y the
s a m e u l t i m a t e lo a d c a p a c i ty a s th o s e with a h e a v i e r m a t r i x fo r eq u al f ib r e
v o lu m e s . T h e in c lu s io n of 50% c e m e n t r e p l a c e m e n t with fly a s h , high
w o r k a b i l i t y an d low w a t e r - b i n d e r r a t i o s e n s u r e g r e a t e r lo n g t e r m s t a b i l i t y
f o r t h e s e s h e e t s . C o n v e n ie n c e in h a n d lin g and e a s e of p l a c e m e n t in m a n u a l
o r f a c t o r y p r o d u c t i o n s m a k e w oven f a b r i c s v e r y a t t r a c t i v e f o r r e i n f o r c i n g
cem ent sh eets.
A C K N O W LE D G E M E N TS
T h e a u t h o r s would lik e to r e c o r d t h e i r th a n k s to W illia m H a ile y an d Sons
of D undee f o r th e s u p p ly of v a r i o u s g r a d e s of p o l y p r o p y le n e f a b r i c s , and to
t h e CEG B A s h M a r k e t i n g D iv is io n f o r th e su p p ly of fly a s h . T h a n k s a r e
a l s o due to U n i v e r s i t i T e k n o lo g i M a l a y s ia f o r the s tu d y le a v e an d f in a n c ia l
s u p p o r t g r a n t e d to the s e c o n d a u th o r .
REFERENCES
1• D e v e l o p m e n t s in F i b r e R e in f o r c e d C e m e n t and C o n c r e t e . R IL E M
S y m p o s iu m , ed. R. N. Swam y, D .R . O a k le y and R. L . W ag staffe,
J u l y 1986, V o ls. 1 and 2.
2. New R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e s , ed. R . N . Swamy, Vol. 2, C o n c re te

T e c h n o lo g y a n d D e sig n , S u r r e y U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , G lasgow 1984,
p p . 200.
3. Na t u r a l F i b r e R e i n f o r c e d C e m e n t and C o n c r e t e , ed. R . N . Swamy,

Vol. 5, C o n c r e te T e c h n o lo g y and D e sig n , B la c k ie and Son L t d . ,
G la sg o w , 1988, p p . 288.
4. V itto n e , A. , I n d u s t r i a l d e v e lo p m e n t of the r e i n f o r c e m e n t of c e m e n t
b a s e d p r o d u c t s w ith f i b r i l l a t e d p o ly p ro p y le n e n e tw o r k s a s r e p la c e m e n t
of a s b e s t o s , R IL E M S y m p o s iu m , D e v e lo p m e n ts in F i b r e R e i n f o r c e d
C e m e n t and C o n c r e te , J u ly 1986.
5. G allow ay , J . W . , W il lia m s , R. I. T . , and R aith b y , K. D . , M e c h a n ic a l

p r o p e r t i e s of p o l y o l e f i n - r e i n f o r c e d c e m e n t s h e e t f o r c r a c k c o n tr o l in
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , T r a n s p o r t and R o a d R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y
S u p p l e m e n t a r y R e p o r t 658, 1981, pp. 42.
6. G a r d i n e r , T . and C u r r i e , B . , F l e x u r a l b e h a v io u r of c o m p o s ite c e m e n t
s h e e t s u s in g w ov en p o ly p r o p y le n e m e s h f a b r i c , Int. J . C e m e n t
C o m p o s i t e s a n d L ig h tw e ig h t C o n c r e te , 1983, 5, 193 -19 7.
100
7. G a r d i n e r , T . , C u r r i e , B . , an d G r e e n , H . , P e r f o r m a n c e of civil
e n g i n e e r i n g p r o d u c t s m a d e f r o m a c e m e n t m a t r i x r e i n f o r c e d w ith
p o l y p r o p y le n e m a t t i n g s , T h i r d Int. Conf. on P o l y p r o p y le n e F i b r e s a nd
T e x t i l e s , Uni. of Y o rk , O c t. 1983, 39. 1 -39. 7.
8. U n ite d S ta te s P a t e n t No. 4, 578, 301, F a b r i c R e i n f o r c e d C e m e n t

S tru ctu re.
9. UK P a t e n t No. 8421244, F a b r i c R e i n f o r c e d C e m e n t S t r u c t u r e .
10. Sw am y, R. N . , and H u s s in , M. W. , E f fe c t of c u r in g c o n d itio n s on the

t e n s i l e b e h a v i o u r of f i b r e c e m e n t c o m p o s i t e s , R IL E M S y m p o siu m ,
D e v e l o p m e n ts in F i b r e R e i n f o r c e d C e m e n t and C o n c r e te , J u ly 1986,
V ol. 1.
11. Sw am y, R. N. , a nd F a lih , F . M. , D e v e lo p m e n t of a s m a l l a g g r e g a t e
c o n c r e t e f o r s t r u c t u r a l s im i l i t u d e of s l a b - c o l u m n c o n n e c tio n s, D e sig n
of C o n c r e t e S t r u c t u r e s : T h e U se of M odel A n a ly s is , E l s e v i e r A p p lie d
S c ie n c e P u b l i s h e r s , 1985, 2 5 -3 4 .
12. D av e, N. J . , a n d E l l i s , D. G . , P o l y p r o p y le n e f ib r e r e i n f o r c e d c e m e n t,
I n t . J . C e m e n t C o m p o s ite s , 1979, 1, 1 9 -2 8 .
13. B ag g o tt, R . , P o l y p r o p y l e n e f i b r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t of lig h tw e ig h t

c e m e n t i t i o u s m a t r i c e s , Int. J . C e m e n t C o m p o s ite s an d L ig h tw e ig h t
C o n c r e te , 1983, 5, 1 0 5 -1 1 4 .
14. H a n n a n t, D. J. , Z o n s v e ld , J . J . , and H ugh es, D. C. , P o ly p r o p y le n e film

in c e m e n t b a s e d m a t e r i a l s , C o m p o s i te s , 1978, 9, 8 3 -8 8 .
15. Sw am y, R. N . , an d H u s s in , M. W . , F l e x u r a l b e h a v io u r of th in f ib r e
r e i n f o r c e d an d f e r r o c e m e n t s h e e t s , T o be p u b lis h e d .
16. I s m a i l , K . b . M . , F l e x u r a l an d t e n s i l e b e h a v io u r of p o ly p r o p y le n e
r e i n f o r c e d c e m e n t th in s h e e t s , MSc T h e s i s , F a c u l t y of C ivil
E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y T e k n o lo g i M a la y s ia , Aug. 1988.
101
PROPERTIES AND REINFORCING MECHANISMS

IN STEEL WOOL REINFORCED CEMENT
A. BENTUR
Building Research Station - Department of Civil Engineering
Technion - Israel Institute of Technology
Haifa, ISRAEL
ABSTRACT
The production of a composite by impregnation of steel wool with a cementitious
slurry can provide a material with properties comparable to asbestos cement,
i.e. somewhat lower strength but much higher toughness, with only a modest steel
wool content of about 3% by volume. In this composite the properties of the
wool fibres are utilized most effectively, taking advantage of their strength
and toughness. The composite failure was accompanied by fibre fracture (i.e.
effective strength utilization), but the fibres provided a considerable
toughening effect which was attributed to their plastic-ductile mode of
fracture.
INTRODUCTION
The efficiency of reinforcing brittle cementitious matrices by fibres depends,

to a large extent, on technologies by which large content or high aspect ratio
fibres can be incorporated in the composite. This is often met with difficulty,
in particular when using conventional mixing techniques; the fibres have a
considerable detrimental effect on the workability of the fresh mix, which
increases with the increase in the fibre content and aspect ratio. One
alternative, which has recently been suggested to overcome such limitations, is
based on the impregnation of steel wool with a cement slurry (1). The steel
wool consists of fibres formed by shaving or slitting/shredding of thin metal
sheet or foil. The fibres have irregular shape and they can be quite long and
thin (Fig. la), thus providing a reinforcing unit with high aspect ratio that
can be as large as 500. These fibres are interwined together into a non-woven
mat (Fig. lb). Detailed description of such wools is provided in Ref. (1). The
steel used for making the wool is usually of the low carbon type, but higher
quality stainless steel can also be used for that purpose. The fibres in the
wool have the potential for providing a good bond with the matrix, due to their
high aspect ratio and tortuous shape.
102
This type of reinforcement may facilitate the development of thin sheet

cementitious composites with performance that is not inferior to that of
asbestos-cement. The production process can be simple, by a hand lay-up
technique. Although the content of the fibres that could be incorporated in
this process may be limited (—4% by volume), the properties of the composite may
be sufficiently high due to the large aspect ratio and the high modulus of
elasticity and strength of the steel wool fibres. From this point of view the
Fibres are comparable or better than inorganic Fibres used for cement
reinforcement (e.g. asbestos, glass) and exceed by far the properties of various
polymer fibres which are currently being considered for asbestos replacement.
In a preliminary study (1), the feasibility of making composites by

impregnating steel wools with cement slurries was demonstrated. In the present
paper the results of an additional investigation of the properties,
microstructure and reinforcing mechanisms in such composites are presented.
Fig. 1 - The structure of steel wool.

(a) Individual Fibre; (b) Steel wool mat.
103
EXPERIMENTAL
Composites of different fibre contents (up to 3.6% by volume) and of similar

thickness (about 6mm), were prepared and tested in flexure. For th at purpose,
2
steel wool mats of different densities (0.85, 1.15, 1.55 and 1.75 kg/m ) were
used. The specimens were prepared by placing a 200x250mm wool mat in a mold
that was slightly bigger in size. The slurry was poured over the wool mat until
it was fully impregnated. Then, a metal plate of dimensions identical to those
of the mat, was placed over the imregnated wool, and pressed until the thickness
of the specimen was 6mm. The exact thickness was achieved by using 6mm spacers,
and the upper plate was clamped against the spacers for a period of 24 hours,
until the composite hardened. This is different than the procedure applied in
the previous study (1), where the pressure was kept approximately constant, and
the thickness varied, being larger in the higher density wool.
The wool mats used in the present study were of low carbon steel produced
by Deutsche Metallfasenwerk of West Germany. The slurry was a 0.30 water/cement
ratio paste, containing 2% of high range water reducer (melment L10) by weight
of the cement. The portland cement was ASTM Type I, produced by Nesher
Industries, Israel.
The thin sheet specimens were demolded after one day and then kept
continuously in lime water at 20°C until 28 days. At the age of 14 days the
sheets were cut in the longitudal direction into 20mm wide bars. At the age of
28 days these bars were tested in flexure, by 4 point loading over a span of
180mm. The load-deflection curve was recorded, and the first crack stress,
flexural strength and toughness index were calculated. The definition of
toughness index, TI, was similar to that of ASTM C1018 (area under the
load-deflection curve relative to the area up to the first crack load), except
that the area under the curve was taken to the point of maximum load. First
crack stress was calculated from the load at which the curve deviated from
linearity. The results are the average of at least six specimens. The
coefficient of variations were 5 to 15% for the flexural strength and first
crack stress, and 15 to 25% for the toughness index.
In the present study, two series of tests were carried out. The first one
was intended to determine the effect of fibre content and the second one was to
104
evaluate the effectof the orientation of the steel wool. Composites with
different fibre volume contents of 1.4%, 2.1%, 3.2% and 3.6% were obtained by
using the different density wools. The effect of orientation was studied for
one steel wool content (3.2% vol). For this purpose the wool mats were cut at
an angle of 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° with respect to the longitudinal direction
of the mat.
Some of the fractured surfaces were observed by SEM to characterize the

microstructure and mode of fracture of the composite.
R E S U L T S AND D ISCUSSIO N
M echanical Properties
(a) Effect of Steel Wool Content
The effects of fibre content on the load-deflection curves and on the mechanical
properties (first crack stress, flexural strength and TI) are presented in
Figs. 2 and 3. The fibres were particularly effective in enhancing the
post-cracking behavior, as seen by their influence in increasing the flexural
strength and TI compared to the unreinforced matrix. The enhancement of the
first crack stress was smaller, as might be expected when considering the small
volume content of the fibres, which is less than 4%. The increase in fibre
content led to continuous improvement in the properties of the composite, up to
a maximum at 3.2% fibre content. The decrease in flexural strength and TI
beyond that content reflects probably difficulties in the compaction of the
composite as the fibre content is becoming too high. Similar trends were
reported for other cementitious composites (2)-(4). The optimum fibre content
depends, apparently, on the type of fibre and the production method of the
composite.
At the range where the composite properties increase with fibre content
(0 to 3.2% in Fig. 3), a linear correlation can beestablished between the
flexural strength and fibre content, which intersects the origin, as might be
expected from composite materials theories. The properties obtained at the
optimum fibre content of 3.2% are comparable to those of commercial
105
asbestos-cement flat sheets, which were tested in the present work under similar
conditions; the flexural strength of the steel wool composite was somewhat lower
(26.0 MPa versus 38.2 MPa), while the TI were much higher (23.1 versus 4.7).
It should be noted that the maximum values of flexural strength and TI

achieved in these tests at 3.2% fibre volume content, do not necessarily
represent the full potential of this composite. Modification of the production
technology and improvement in the rheological properties of the sluriy may
enable to increase the fibre content beyond 3.2% without being accompanied by
compaction difficulties and reduction in properties. The potential strength
properties might be estimated by extrapolating the straight line in Fig. 3:
With 4% fibre volume, flexural strength of 35 MPa may be achieved, which is
similar to asbestos cement.
DEFLECTION , mm
Fig. 2 - Effect of steel wool content on the load-deflection curve
of the composite.
106
F I B R E C O N T E N T , % Vol. ORIENTATION A N G L E ,0
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Effect of steel wool content on Effect of orientation of the steel

the flexural strength, first crack wool on the flexural strength,
stress and toughness index of the first crack stress and toughness
composite. index of the composite.
(b) Effect of Steel Wool Orientation
The effects of the orientation angle on the first crack stress, flexural
strength and TI, are presented in Fig. 4. The reduction in properties with
increase in angle reflects the anistropy of the wool, in which the fibres
apparently have a preferred orientation. Yet, even at 90°, there is still
considerable reinforcing effect, and the reduction in properties with increase
in angle is relatively mild, in particular in the range of 0 to 30°. This
107
probably reflects the fact that the fibres in the wool are not unidirectional
and that each fibre has a tortuous shape (Fig. la), thus providing reinforcement
over a range of angles.
Microstructure and Fracture Mode
The fractured surface of the specimens, obtained after flexural loading, seemed
to indicate a brittle type failure in whichthe fibres fractured rather than
pulled out (Fig. 5a). High magnification of the fibres revealed that their
failure was a ductile-plastic one, with the cup and cone characteristics clearly
evident (Fig. 5b). Few of the fibres showed a pull out failure mode, but this
occurred only with fibres whose shorter end was very close to the fractured
surface (Fig. 6a). The microstructure of the cementitious matrix around the
fibres was usually very dense (Fig. 6b).
Fig. 5 - Fracture characteristics: (a) Fracture surface of the composite showing

that, in most instances there is no fibre pull-out (arrows mark the
position of the fibres); (b) Fractured fibre itself, showing a typical
cup and cone failure.
108
Around the fractured fibres, a gap could be seen between the fibre surface
and the matrix (Fig. 5b). This can be attributed to the large lateral
contraction of the fibre as it was yielding under load. The matrix which was in
apparent contact with the fibre surface prior to itsyielding, seems to be quite
dense, as seen in Fig. 6b.
The fracture mode and microstructural characteristics observed here suggest
a unique behavior and reinforcing mechanism. The dense interfacial
microstructure (Fig. 6b) and the rough surface (Fig. 7), combined with the large
aspect ratio, provide a bonding effect which is sufficient to lead to fibre
fracture. This implies a high fibre strength efficiency, i.e. utilization of
the fibre strength, which is much better than in most other steel fibre
cementitious composites where failure occurs by pull out rather than by fibre
fracture. However, the fibre fracture did not result in a brittle composite,
and the TI was quite high.Here, the toughness was apparently provided by the
plastic yielding of the fibre rather than by fibre pull out. Thus, in this
composite, the properties of the fibres could be utilized most effectively,
taking advantage of their strength and toughness. The high strength is not at
the expense of toughness, as is often the case in many fibre composites; there,
a contradiction often exists between the requirement for high strength (fibre
length much greater than the critical length) and high toughness (fibre length
equal or smaller than the critical length, to facilitate failure by pull out).
Fig. 6 - Pulled out fibres: (a) Pulled out fibre showing that its end was close
to the fracture surface of the composite; (b) The dense matrix around
the pulled out fibre in (a).
109
Morton and Groves (5) and Bowling and Groves (6) presented a theoretical
and experimental study of such mechanisms, by investigating the properties of a
cementitious composite reinforced with continuous and aligned ductile fibres.
They showed that in such systems, failure involves plastic deformation of the
fibres which are tightly gripped away from the crack, and undergo yielding in
the cracked zone. At the crack surface they become effectively debonded from
the matrix, due to the excessive contraction of the yielding metal. Groves et
al (5)(6) suggested this as a concept for achieving toughness in the composite
by a mechanism other than fibre pull out. Apparently, this „can be obtained in
the present composite in which high aspect ratio steel fibres can be readily
combined with the cementitious matrix, in the form of steel wool.
Fig. 7
Typical micrograph showing

the rough surface of a fibre
in the steel wool.
CONCLUSIONS
a. The production of a composite by impregnation of steel wool mat with a

cementitious slurry can provide a material with properties comparable to
asbestos cement (somewhat lower strength but much higher toughness) with
only a modest content of fibres, about 3% by volume. Improvement of the
production technique to increase the steel wool content to 4% without being
accompanied by compaction difficulties can potentially lead to properties
superior to those of asbestos cement.
110
b. In this composite the properties of the fibres are utilized most

effectively, taking advantage of their full strength and toughness. The
composite failure was accompanied by fibre fracture (i.e. effective strength
utilization), but the fibres provided considerable toughening effect which
is attributed to their plastic-ductile mode of fracture.
c. The properties of the wool were found to be anisotropic, and the properties
of the composite decreased with increase in the orientation angle. This
decline was modest, in particular up to 30° angle.
ACKN O W LEDGEM EN TS
The steel wool fibres were provided by Mr. R. Cree of Markets and Products, 748
M arbum Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43214, U.S.A. His comments and input in this
study is gratefully acknowledged.
REFEREN CES
1. Bentur, A. and Cree, R. Cement Reinforced with Steel Wool, Int. J. Cem.
Comp. Ltwt. Concr., 1987, 9, 217-223.
2. Akers, SA.S. and Garrett, G.G. The Influence of Processing Parameters on

the Strength and Toughness of Asbestos Cement Composites, Int. J. Cem. Comp.
Ltwt. Concr., 1986, 8, 93-100.
3. Hills, D.L. Premixed Glass Fibre Reinforced Cement, Precast Concrete, 1975,
6, 251-254.
4. Mansur, MA. and Aziz, MA. A Study of Ju te Fibre Reinforced Cement

Composites, Int. J. Cem. Comp. Ltwt. Concr. 1982, 4, 75-81.
5. Morton, J. and Groves, G.W. Large Work of Fracture Values in Wire

Reinforced Brittle Matrix Composite, J. Mat. Sci., 1975, 10, 170-172.
6. Bowling, J. and Groves, G.W. The Debonding and Pull Out of Ductile Wires
from a Brittle Matrix, J. Mat. Sci., 1979, 14, 431-442.
Ill
FRACTURE AND CRACK GROWTH IN GLASS FIBRE

REINFORCED MORTAR
A J. BUSHBY AND C.K.L. DAVIES
DEPARTMENT OF MATERIALS, QUEEN MARY COLLEGE,

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, MILE END ROAD, LONDON, El 4NS. UK.
ABSTRACT
The paper describes both fracture and crack growth data obtained for a system
consisting of Portland cement, fine sand and ground mica, reinforced with a random two
dimensional array of alkali resistant glass fibre which remain in bundles of around fifty
filaments. The glass fibre content was varied from 0-3.7 vol. %. Cracks were introduced into
a specimens in notched three point bend tests and crack growth studied as a function of applied
force at a fixed displacement rate. An attempt was made to measure an 'apparent fracture
toughness' using measured specimen compliance as a function of crack length. The difficulties
of determining a geometry and crack length independent toughness parameter are illustrated
using a number of existing analyses. The crack profile, as a function of fibre content and crack
length was studied using polished sections of the three point bend specimens, optical
examination of the surface cracks and SEM examination of the fracture surfaces. The overall
fracture pattern is seen to change with increasing crack length and with increasing fibre volume
fraction. The implications of the results are discussed in terms of the role of the fibres,
assessment of materials properties and fracture mechanics type descriptions of the fracture
process.
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical and structural behaviour of fibre reinforced cement based composites
has now been studied in considerable detail [1-6]. The work has included attempts to model
and measure specimen behaviour in tension [2,6,7], detailed studies of the cracking process
[2,4,6,8,9] and attempts to describe crack growth in 'fracture mechanics' terms [1,3,5,10-14].
The work has included studies of a variety fibres all of which produce composites of increased
'ductility'. They result, however, in very different behaviours as a result different fibre
properties, different fibre distributions and different matrix and interface behaviour.
The majority of studies on glass reinforced cements have been based on tensile
112
measurements and attempt to explain the observed stress-strain behaviour in terms of models of
matrix/fibre cracking [2,7,15]. Work in bending and compact/tension has been carried out in
an attempt to obtain 'fracture mechanics type' parameters [10,16-20]. Evidence for the form
and behaviour of cracks has been obtained from S.E.M. studies [4,6,8,9,20] which reveal the
complexity of the cracking process.
The present paper reports on the results of 'fracture mechanics type' tests carried out in
conjunction with structural studies, to ascertain the detailed nature of the cracking process. The
work extends that previously reported [19,20], attempts to analyse the results using a variety of
methods documented in the literature and used for other cement composites [11-13] and
discusses the validity and significance of the derived parameters in terms of the nature of the
cracking processes observed.
EXPERIMENTAL
Material
Materials were manufactured from ordinary Portland cement and all Constituents (mica,
Cemi-Fil glass fibres, sand and cement) were mixed dry prior to addition of water. The detail
of the materials are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1
Materials Composition
Cement Ordinary Portland cement manufactored to BS12.
Aggregates Fine silica sand: particle size range, 150-600|im. Ground mica
(Indian muscovite): particle size range, 2-40fim.
Fibres Cem-FIL 2 alkali-resistant glass fibres prechopped to 24mm length.
Cement:agregate Ratio-2:l Mica content 5 vol. %
Waterrcement Ratio-0.45-0.57. Glass fibre 0-3.7 vol. %
The moulds were sealed in polyethylene sheeting for 24 hours to allow setting and the
samples cured in a water tank at 20°C for 28 days. Specimens were cut from the wet sheets
and tested wet or were dried at 100°C before testing to ensure a zero moisture content. SEM
observations of cut and polished specimens indicated that the glass fibres were distributed in
bundles containing of the order of 50 fibres, which tended to lie randomly in the plane of the
sheet.
Specimen Geometry and Mechanical Test Procedure
The majority of the tests were carried out in three-point bending, using a test geometry
and specimen dimensions reported previously [19,20]. Notches were cut in the specimens
using a diamond saw. All specimens were tested using a Schenck Universal testing machine
at a deflection rate of O.lmm/min. The growing crack lengths were measured as a function of
force and deflection, using a illumination system and cathetometer.
Procedures for Crack Profile Studies.
Surface cracks were studied with a low power optical microscope capable of resolving
113
5-10um. On occasions the test was stopped, the crack wedged open and the specimen
unloaded. These specimens were then sectioned and polished to a surface roughness of better
than lpm prior to examination by optical microscopy. Cracks of the order of 2-3|im width
could be observed using this procedure. Some specimens were wedged apart at various crack
lengths and the fracture surfaces of these and of the totally fractured specimens were examined
by SEM.
RESULTS
Force-deflection Curves
Typical Force-deflection curves are shown in Figure la, lb, indicated on which are
2mm intervals of crack extension measured from the longest observable crack, using a low
power optical microscope.
LOAD POINT DISPLACEMENT / mm LOAD POINT DISPLACEMENT / mm
(a) (b)
Figure la/lb Force-displacement curves for (a) dry and (b) wet specimens.
The maximum force and area under the curve increase with increasing glass fibre
content; at higher fibre contents, it is possible to increase the load on the specimen as a crack
grows, an affect much more pronounced in the wet specimens.
Fracture Mechanics Type Parameters
The procedure adopted was to calculate apparent strain energy release rates (Ga) and to
convert these to apparent stress intensity factors (Ka) using the relationship (Ka)2 = G aE
where E is the elastic modulus measured during the experiment. The conversion to K a was to
make the data comparable to that of other workers and should be viewed here as purely a
numerical change. Ga or K a are calculated by four different methods illustrated in Figure 2,
a,b,c, and documented in Table 2.
114
Figure 2 Illustration of methods used to determine Ga

(a) Linear elastic
(b) Quasi-static fracture energy technique- reversible.
(c) Offset fracture energy-irreversible.
TABLE 2
Apparent strain energy release rate/apparent stress intensity factor
methods of determination
Method Equation Reference Procedure
1) K F a from analytically derived Srawley, J.E. [21]

Linear elastic
formula for bend test open cracks
2) K c a from experimentally G=i/2 P^ dc/da Fig.2a Measure

measured specimen compliance t reloading or
unloading
Fig. 2a compliance. Linear
elastic, natural
cracks.
3) rR a Quasi-static fracture G=l/2 P^ dcs [11,12] Fig. 2b Measure

energy technique (reversible t da [22,23] secant compliance.
case) Ignore permanent
deformation.
4) K IR a offset fracture energy G=i/2P?dc + P ÎR [11-13] Fig. 2c. Measure

irreversible case t da 2 da permanent
deformation, assume
Fig. 2b all work done,
drives the crack.
P = Force on specimen at a crack length a. dc/da= Rate of change of compliance

c = Specimen compliance - unloading/reloading. with crack length.
cs= Secant compliance. t= Specimen thickness.
8j r = Irreversible permanent deformation. ÎR= Rate of change of permanent
da deformation.
115
All the methods except the analytical (method 1) have utilised measurement of various
specimen compliances as a function of crack length via loading and reloading curves. These
curves were not simple and become more complex at higher fibre contents and longer crack
lengths. The loading and unloading compliances were different due in part, to the different
behaviour of the ’crack’ on opening and closing. For this reason the chord compliance has
been used to determine Ka using methods 2 and 4.
cr
£
CRACK EXTENSION / m m
Figure 3 The apparent stress intensity factor as a function of crack extension for
oven dried specimens containing 3.7 vol. % .
The K F a values calculated using the analytical formula [21] result in values which
increase rapidly with increasing crack extension. This problem arises, in part, as these
formulae are derived for non-load bearing cracks and the compliance values clearly cannot
represent the behaviour of cracks bridged by fibres [11,12,13,19]. The results of the analysis
are however shown here, in Fig. 3, for comparison purposes in the form of a crack resistance
curve i.e. (Ka versus a). The second method, applicable only to a material which behaves
as linear elastic, determines in effect the minimum elastic energy driving the major crack. This
results in very low K ca values as seen in Fig. 3.
The third method allows for the non-linear behaviour, but ignores irreversible work
done, resulting in permanent deformation (Fig. 2b); this in effect allows for more of the work
done on the specimen to drive the crack. Necessarily the resulting KRa values are higher than
the linear elastic K ca values.
The fourth method in effect assumes that all the work done drives the crack, including
all the measured irreversible work (Fig. 2c), the K ^ a values are therefore the highest
recorded.
116
All the Ka values increase with increasing crack length; the effect being greatest for wet
specimens with high fibre contents. The curves are of a similar form to those reported for
other fibre reinforced cement (11,13,23) and could be similarly described as crack resistance
curves. In the present case, however it cannot be said that the results unambiguously show
that a plateau is reached. The effect of fibre volume fraction, can of course, only be
demonstrated for a given crack extension as indicated in Fig. 4; where the apparent stress
intensity factor KIRa is seen to increase with glass fibre content.
FIBRE VOLUME FRACTION / % FIBRE VOLUME FRACTION / %

Figure 4 The apparent stress intensity factor (KIRa) versus Fibre Volume Fraction
for various crack lengths determined on oven dried specimens (a) and wet
specimens (b).
Crack Profiles
Surface Cracks: The detailed crack path observed, was dependent on crack length, fibre
content and whether the specimen was wet or oven dried. In dry specimens of low fibre
content the crack was generally straight but even here was relatively tortuous with many
changes of direction on a small scale. As the fibre content was increased the crack path became
macroscopically more irregular and sometimes appeared discontinuous. In wet specimens the
observed cracks become more macroscopically irregular, often branched and apparently
discontinuous at much lower fibre contents than for the dry specimens. The complexity of the
cracks increased with increasing crack length.
Scanning Electron Microscope observations of fracture surface: The major finding was that
fibre bundle pull out occurred to a much greater extent in wet specimens. For both wet and dry
specimens fibre breakage occurred largely in bending. It maybe that the more extensive
cracking of the matrix around fibres in wet specimens, allowed more bending and hence more
apparent pull out.
117
Observations of Interior cracks in polished sections: The scale of the cracking zones observed
was similar to that observed on the surface. Major deviations from a simple crack path on the
surface were followed by similar deviations in the section. The cracks tended to run along
bundles at a significant angle to the direction of the growing crack and were displaced or
branched at bundles near normal to the crack growth direction (Fig. 5), as has been observed
previously on the surface of specimens [4,8,9]. These effects were greatest in specimens
tested dry where on some occasions cracks appeared to go through bundles breaking fibres. In
nearly all cases the cracks skirted sand and mica particles following the interfaces over minimal
distances. Multiple cracking, generally, was observed to occur to a greater extent for long
cracks at high fibre contents tested wet, as a result of the high forces and relatively weaker
matrices compared to dry specimens.
Figure 5 - Interaction of a crack with fibre bundles.
DISCUSSION
The force-displacement curves shown in figure la, lb illustrate the 'toughening effect'
of glass fibre addition, where it can be seen that work has to be continually done on a specimen
for slow major crack growth, the magnitude of the work increasing with increasing fibre
content. Major crack growth is seen to require an increasing force above a critical fibre
content, a on effect which occurs at lower fibre contents for specimens tested wet. The
toughening effect arises from modifications to the cracking process as in any brittle/brittle
composite. The increased work done must arise largely from an increased surface area of
118
material cracked. It is the details of what cracks, where, that determines the nature and
magnitude of the effect. From a modeling point of view it is particularly important to
distinguish between fracture occurring as a result of general multiple cracking of the specimen
and fracture occurring largely as a result of propagation of a single major crack with associated
micro cracking.
The present SEM studies support the general findings [11,-13,23,24] that fibre bundle
pull out has a major effect on the fracture process. The observations on the polished sections
however show the behaviour of cracks at bundles to be complex, with cracks frequently
deviating, branching. The micro cracking that develops is hence associated with fibre bundles
and the pull out process itself leads to cracking in the matrix at some distance from the fibres.
In fact the extent of pull out is almost certainly as dependent on the nature and strength of the
surrounding matrix, as on matrix/fibre adhesion especially where bundles are not normal to the
direction of the growing crack. In this case the fibres fracture due to bending [8,24] and if the
surrounding matrix cracks, pull out can occur to a greater extent prior to fibre fracture. In the
present case it may be the different nature of the matrix at the fibres in the oven dried specimens
which limits the extent of pull out prior to fracture.
The consequence of fibre bundle pull out is that all cracks are to some extent load
bearing with work having to be done to pull out the fibres and crack the surrounding matrix to
continue propagation of the first crack. In low fibre content specimens, tested dry, especially
for short crack lengths a model of cracking by a single major crack, threaded by bundles of
fibres over short lengths, prior to breaking, does not seem unreasonable from the present
microscopical observations. The problem is largely one of how the consequent irreversible
work done in propagating the crack, can be measured and whether or how it can be included in
a useful Ga or K a type term? At higher fibre contents, especially for specimens tested wet at
long crack lengths, multiple cracking is much more evident and representation of the cracking
process by a single major crack is more circumspect.
Compliance measurements as a function of crack length were carried out in the present
work in an attempt to determine work done on crack propagation. The resulting Ka values all
increase with increasing crack length (Figure 3). This phenomena occurs for all fibre
reinforced cements [11,-13,20,21,23] and has largely been attributed to the increasing work
done to propagate a growing crack as a result of an increasing crack length threaded by fibres.
It may be expected that this work would be become constant for a given crack length, when a
threaded load bearing crack is fully developed and progresses as a whole through the material
[11-13,23]. The present data [Fig. 3] does not unambiguously suggest that such a constant
crack growth resistance is achieved. The methods used to determine Ka, in effect, result in
different fractions of the work done on the specimen to grow a crack, being included in the
energy release rate Ga and hence K a. The net result is increasing K a values, with a
maximum when all the irreversible work is included, K lRa . It cannot be said that the
119
variations of K a with crack length is different in form for any of the determinations. These
determinations are a useful representation of the effect of the fibres and fibre content only if the
cracking process is by a single crack, with the increased irreversible work being associated
largely with micro cracking and pull out of fibres at the major crack. This may be the case for
short cracks, in oven dried specimens where a steady increase in Ka with fibre volume fraction
is seen Figure 4a,. However for long cracks, especially at high fibre contents for specimens
tested wet, the apparent increases in K a with fibre content must in part be associated with the
development of multiple cracking, due to crack branching and cessation of crack growth at
glass fibre bundles. The applicability of a fracture mechanics type approach hence becomes
more dubious as the fibres become more efficient at toughening the material and especially for
tough materials at high fibre contents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Commission of the European Communities for
funding this work and one of the authors (A.J. Bushby) would like to thank the Commission
for providing a salary.
REFERENCES
1. Swamy, R.N., Linear Elastic fracture mechanics parameters of concrete. In Fracture
Mechanics of Concrete, ed. F.H. Whittmann, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, 1983, pp.411-459.
2. Hannant D.J., Hughes, D.C., and Kelly. A., Toughening of cement and other brittle
solids with fibres. Philosphical Transactions of the Roval Society London A.. 1983. 310
175-190.
3. Mindess, S., The application of fracture mechanics to cement and concrete In Fracture
Mechanics of Concrete, ed. F.H. Whittman, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, 1983, pp. 1-30.
4. Diamond. S., and Bentur A., On the cracking in concrete and fibre-reinforced cements. In
Application of Fracture Mechanics to Cementitious Composites, ed. S.P. Shah, NATO-
ARW, North Western University U.S.A. 1984 pp. 87-140.
5. Mai, Y.W., Fracture measurements of cementitious composites. In, Application of
Fracture Mechanics to Cementitious Composites, ed. S.P. Shah, NATO-ARW, North
Western University, U.S.A. 1984, pp.394-427.
6. Majumdar, A.J., and Walton, P.L., Fracture processes in fibre reinforced cement sheets.
In Application of Fracture Mechanics to Cementitious Composites, ed. S.P. Shah, NATO-
ARW, North Western University, U.S.A. 1984, pp. 157-185.
7. Proctor, B.A., The stress-strain behaviour of glass fibre reinforced cement composites, J.
Mater. Sci.. 1986, 21, 2441-2448.
8. Bentur, A., and Diamond, S., Fracture of glass fibre reinforced cement. Cement and
Concrete Research. 1984,14, 31-42.
120
9. Bentur, A., Aging process of glass fibre reinforced cement with different cementitious
matrices. In Developments in Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete, ed. R.N. Swamy,
R.L. Wagstaffe and D.R. Oakley. 3rd International RILEM Symposium Sheffield U.K.
1986 pp.73.
10. Swamy R.N. Influence of slow crack growth on the fracture resistance of fibre cement
composites. International Journal of Cement Composites: 1980,2,43-53.
11. Visalsanich. K. and Naaman E: Fracture methods in cement composites. Journal of the
Engineering Mecahnics Divisions. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers
1981, 107, 1155-1171.
12. Wecharatana M. and Shah. S.P. Slow Crack growth in cement composites. Journal of the
Structural Division. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 1982,108,
1400-1413.
13. Mai Y.W. and Hakeem M.I. slow crack growth in cellulose fibre cements J. Mater. Sci..
1984, 19, 501-508.
14. Cotterell B. Mai Y.W. and Foote M.L.. Bounding solutions for crack-growth resistance
curves in fibre reinforced cement composites: In Engineering Applications of New
Composites, ed. S.A. Paipetis and G.C. Papanicolaou. Omega Scientific, U.K. 1987 pp.
186-196.
15. Nair N.G. Mechanics of glass fibre reinforced cement: In International Symposium on
fibre Cement and Concrete. RILEM Sheffield, ed., R.N. Swamy 1975 pp.81-92.
16. Brown J.H. The failure of glass fibre notched beams in flexure. Magazine of concrete
Research 1973. 25, 31-38.
17. Harris B, Varlow J. and Ellis C.D. The fracture behaviour of fibre reinforc3ed cement,
Cement and Concrete Research. 1972, 2,447-461.
18. Mindess S. Lawrence F.V. and Kesler C.E. The J Integral as a fracture criterion for fibre
reinforced concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 1977.7,731-742.
19. Bushby A.J. and Davies C.K.L. and Nath B Structure and fracture behaviour of glass
fibre reinforeced mortars containing mica flakes. Engineering Applications of New
Composites, ed. S.A. Paipetis and G.C. Papanicolaou. Omega Scientific, U.K. 1987 pp.
228-239.
20. Bushby A.J. and Davies C.K.L.. Fracture of glass fibre-reinforced cements. Interfaces
in Composites ed. S.A. Paipetis and G.C. Papanicolaou Omega Scientific UK 1989 to be
published.
21. Srawley J.E. Wide range stress intensity factor expressions for ASTME 399 standard
fracture toughness specimens. International Journal of Fracture 1976.12, 475-476,
22. Gurney C. and Hunt. J. Quasi-Static crack propagation. Proceedings of hte Roval Society
London. 1967, A299, 508-524.
23. Mai Y.M. strength and fracture properties of Asbestos-cement composites. J. Mater. Sci.
1979, 14, 2091-2102.
24. Stucke MS and Majumdar A.J. Microstructure of glass-reinforced cement composites J.
Mater. Sci. 1976. 11, 1019-1030.
121
EFFECT OF ZEOLITE ON DURABILITY OF GRC
JIN WEI, LU HUITANG & FENGXIA

Assistant Engineer, Senior Engineer and Assistant Engineer
Research Institute of Building Materials
China Building Materials Academy
ABSTRACT
In the present work, zeolite is used as additive material of sulphoalu-
minate cement prepared for GRC to improve the durability of GRC. SIS method
(strand In Specimen) which is different from SIC is applied in an acceler
ated aging test. Frost resistance and carbonation of the cement added with
zeolite is tested and analysed by X-fluorescence. The results show that
the durability of GRC prepared by adding zeolite as an additive is
considerably superior to that without adding zeolite, with no other effect
on the performance of GRC.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, ordinary cement and alkali resistant fibre are used commonly in
many countries in making GRC. The durability of such kind of GRC is not
satisfactory in wet environments and the early performance can not be
maintained. Even if in the atmosphere, the fibre may be corroded due to
alkali environment caused by the cement. Thus, the reinforcing effect of
fibre is gradually reduced resulting in the reduction of the strength
and toughness of GRC. In China, sulphoaluminate cement and alkali
resistant fibre are used generally in producing GRC toimprove the
durability of GRC. In accordance with this, a study onzeolite used as
additive of low alkali cement is performed to enhance the later properties
of GRC.
There are a lot of different methods to investigate the durability of GRC.
However, it is difficult to estimate the durability ofspray-up GRC
attributed to orientation of fibre. SIS method and retention rate load
increment are adopted for analysis in the work in order to overcome the
above affecting factors, which is believed to be ample and accurate
in determining the reinforcing effect of fibre.
Raw Materials
(a) AR glassfibre
A Si02-Zr02-Ti02 system Ar-glass fibre was used with its diameter 11-12 ym
tensile strength 1900-2100 n/mm2, and elastic modulus 7.5x10^ N/mm2.
(b) Cement
A kind of sulphoaluminate cement was adopted. Its specific surface area
is 5320 cm2 /g. Compressive strength for 28 days was 60.7 N/mm2 and the PH
122
value of the cement slurry (cement:water ratio 1:10) was less than 11.5.
(c) Zeolite
Several kinds of zeolite were selected on the basis of the activity of
zeolite. For zeolite used in the work, the specific surface area was
25 m2/g (BET adsorption), the exchange volume of ammonium was 140.4
mgCaO/g, (40°, 5 circles), the fineness of the zeolite was 4500 cm2/g.
The chemical composition of zeolite is given in Table 1.
TABLE 1
Chemical Composition of Zeolite
Ignition g AI„0, Fe_0, CaO MgO SO, Na„0 K,0 Total

loss 2 3 2 3 3 2 2
12.95 67.02 11.11 0.67 2.81 0.93 0.03 1.09 2.76 99.37
Preparation of Specimen
The dimension and shape of the specimen used for accelerated aging and
bending test is illustrated in Fig. 1.
I 2 3
30
(1) AR-glassfibre (2) Cement matrix (3) Mesh metal trough
Fig. 1 Specimen details
The glassfibre inside the specimen is kept straight by the mold, and its
content, orientation and position can be controlled. In order to force
the specimen to be broken at the midspan when fractured, two U-shape
mesh metal troughs were embedded at the two ends of a specimen, (see
Fig. 1). The dimension of the troughs was 8x26x50 mm. The mesh size was
2 .5x2.5 mm, and the diameter of the metal wire of the mesh was 0.5 mm.
The size of the specimen (without glassfibre) used for frost resistance,
carbonization and X-ray diffraction was 30x30 mm.
Accelerated Aging and Bending Test

The specimens for aging were put into the aging chamber at 50°C and
95% RH. The specimens were not immersed in hot water to prevent the
soluble substance being dissolved out from them.
A test machine for standard cement bending strength test was employed in
this study. Care was taken that the glassfibre was in the tensile zone
123
of the specimens while the test was carried out.
Evaluation Method for Aging Results

At present, the durability of GRC is evaluated by comparison of the
strength of the aged and unaged specimens. But the strength of the matrix
would not be zero at any age. Even if the AR glassfibre was attacked
thoroughly, the strength of the GRC specimen would not be zero. So if we
use the strength of GRC to evaluate the durability of GRC, we might obtain
inaccurate results.
To avoid the faults mentioned above, we use the retention rate of load
increment of specimens to evaluate the durability of GRC. The load of
GRC specimens minus that of the matrix of specimens at similar age is
called load increment. The load increment of aged specimens divided by
that of unaged specimens, expressed as a percentage, is called the
retention of load increment.
Obviously, when the AR-glass fibre is attacked thoroughly, the retention
rate of load increment must be zero, so we can evaluate the durability of
GRC more accurately.
Experimental Results and Analysis

According to the accelerated experimental results, the retention rate of
load of bending specimens is shown in Table 2. The retention rate of load
increment of bending specimens is shown in Table 4 and Fig. 2. In order
to make a comparison, the results of the specimens made of AR-glassfibre
and sulphoaluminate cement are also presented here. In Fig. 2, the results
of the specimens made of AR-glassfibre and portland cement are given in
Fig. 2 also (retention rate of load increment).
TABLE 2
Accelerated aging results
(Strength and retention rate of load)
Time(day) 1 28 60 90 180 360

S(N/mm2) 70.2 53.1 48.2 36.5 31.7 31.3
0
R.R.L. 100 75.6 68.7 52.0 45.0 44.6
S(N/mm2) 66.9 52.7 46.6 48.2 39.2 46.9
5 R.R.L. 100 78.7 69.7 72.0 58.5 70.0
S(N/mm2) 65.2 66.4 61.0 60.9 51.0 48.0

7.5
R.R.L. 100 101.7 93.5 93.4 78.2 73.6
S (N/mm2) 66.1 67.1 64.2 62.0 60.0 59.8

10
R.R.L. 100 101.5 97.1 94.0 91 90.5
S(N/mm2) 63.9 69.5 54.9 54.8 49.3 46.8

12.5 R.R.L. 100 108.8 86.0 85.8 77.0 73.2
It is shown in Table 3, that the specimens were the same size as GRC
specimens and it was made of sulphoaluminate cement and zeolite.
Moreover, frost resistance and carbonation of SAC cement added with 10%
zeolite were experimentally tested. It is found that the frost resistance
124
TABLE 3
Bending strength of matrix
Time (day)
Sort
1 28
SAC 13.9 16.4

SAC+10ZZ 12.8 17.8
TABLE 4
Accelerated aging results
(Retention rate of load increment RRLI)
Time (days)
Sort
1 28 60 90 180 360
Strength (N/mm2)70.2 53.1 48.2 36.5 31.7 31.3

SAC Increment 56.3 36.7 31.8 20.1 15.3 14.9
RRLI 100 65.0 56.5 35.7 27 26.4
Strength(N/mm2) 66.1 67.1 64.2 62.0 60.0 59.8

SAC Increment 53.5 49.3 46.4 44.2 42.2 42.0
+ 10%Z RRLI 100 92.5 87.0 83.0 79.2 79.0
DAYS
Fig. 2 A ccelerated aging results

125
was somewhat increased when adding 10% zeolite into SAC cement. After 50
cycles of frost-resistant test, no weight loss existed and strength loss
was 2.4%, while for SAC cement without adding with zeolite, the strength
loss was 5.8%. After carbonation, the strength loss of the specimen with
added zeolite was 10%, while for the specimen without zeolite, the
strength loss was 12.4%. The early strength of the specimen with added
zeolite was somewhat lower than that without zeolite, while the late
strength of the former was higher than that of the latter (see Table 3).
Meanwhile, the analysis of PH values and X-ray diffraction of the two
specimens were performed (cement/water = 1:10). The results show that
PH values were equal and the products of the two specimens were similar.
It is found from the X-ray diffraction of the specimen with 10% zeolite
after carbonation that ettringite, which was the hydrate of the specimen,
was completely carbonated with a small amount of CACO3 and CASO4.2H2O.
But a small amount of ettringite could be seen in the specimen without
adding with zeolite.
Conclusion
1. The durability of GRC made of alkaline resistant fibre and SAC
cement with 10% zeolite added is greatly superior to that of the
existing GRC. When 10% zeolite is added, no effect on the properties
of SAC cement can be observed, but the frost resistance may be
improved.
2. The reinforcing effect of the fibre is reflected accurately by
using the retention rate of load increment to evaluate the
durability of GRC.
3. The mechanism to improve the durability after adding zeolite should
be further investigated. It seems that there are great affects
on PH values of pore water or the amount of f-CaO but PH values
were found equal.
126
B E H A V I O U R OF ST E E L F I BRE B E I N F O R C E D
C O N C R E T E U N D E R B I A X I A L ST R E S S E S
Dr. RAMZI B. ABDULL - AHAD and JASSIM M. ABBAS

Building and Construction Department
University of Technology, Baghdad-Iraq.
ABSTRACT
This study describes the behaviour of steel fibre reinforced

concrete elements, for different aspect ratio, under biaxial
stresses by using sequential loading system. Casted 240
elements (300 X 300 X 75 mm) divided into three groups were
tested. First group which contained 105 elements were tested
under biaxial compression stresses. Second and third groups
were involved 84 and 56 elements were tested under biaxial
compression-tension and biaxial tension respecively. A
sequential loading system with solid bearing was used in the
test.
It was concluded from the experimental results that the
effect of biaxial stress increased the strength of the
concrete element under biaxial compression and tension.
Whereas it decreased the strength of the elements under
biaxial compression - tension. An agreement within 10% was
obtained by comparing experimental stress - strain results
with Liu equations (4) for most biaxial stresses.
INTRODUCTION
The behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete elements in

uniaxial compressive strength, tension strength and modulus of
rupture was given alot of emphasis in the of 1975fs (2). These
investigations, however, did not provide the designer with
information relating to the behaviour of these materials under
the biaxial states of stress which exist in most real
situations (2).
This study (8) deals with the behaviour of steel fibre
reinforced concrete elements in different biaxial stresses.
The objective of this investigation was: (1) to define the
behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete elements (failure
127
envelope and stress - strain relationship). (2) to determine

the failure envelope using mathematical equations, and (3) to
compare the theoretical non linear stress - strain
relationship, by using proposed Liu equation, with
experimental results.
MATERIALS AND TESTING METHODS
A single mix of concrete with different proportion of steel

fibre was used. The proportions of cement: sand : aggregate
were 1: 1.5: 2.5 with water-cement ratio of 0.5 by weight.
Three volume percentages of steel fibre; i.e 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5
with aspect ratio of 100 and 60 were used throughout the
investigation.
Figure 1 shows the shape and dimension of the tested
elements for different biaxial strengths. All the tests at the
age of 14 days were conducted on saturated specimens. The
element number, fibre volume percent and aspect ratio for all
the test specimens were shown in Table 1. Figs 2 to 4 show the
arrangment of loading tests for the three combinations of
biaxial stresses. loads and and deformations in both
directions were recorded until failure. The deformations in
plane of the specimen were measured by using 200 mm mechanical
strain gages.
RESULTS
1. Ultimate strength:
Figure 5 and 6 demonstrate the nondimensionalized
strength data interms of biaxial stress envelope for
aspect ratio of 100 and 60 respectively. The test
results showed that the ultimate strength of the
specimens in biaxial compression was greater than unaxial
compression and it depended on ratio of applied loads,
the fiber volume percent and aspect ratio used. A maximum
strength increase was of the order of 24 and 38 percent
which were achieved at sequential stress ration (o2 = 0.5
a'c ) for plain and fibre reinforced concrete
respectivilly. For biaxial compression-tension test, the
compression strength decreased as the applied tensile
strength was increased.
It was found from the biaxial tension test that the
strength increased compared to unaxial tension. The
optimum increase was 7.3 percent for plain concrete and
79 percent for fibre concrete with fibre content of 1.5
percent.
Generally, the test results showed increase of
strength as steel fibre concrete increased up to one
percent and slightly reduced at 1.5 percent for both
biaxial compression and compression - tension tests.
128
2. Deformations:
The measurement of the strain in both directions had been
recorded at each increament of loading. Figures 7, 8 and
9 show the relation between stress and strain of various
states of biaxial loading.
3. Mode of failure:
A brittle type of failure accured in the test of the
plain concrete elements while the fibre reinforced
concrete elements failed in a ductile fashion by giving a
warning before collapse. In the case of biaxial
compression test, failure took place by cracking along a
plane parallel to the unloaded surface of the specimen.
In biaxial tension, failure accured by the formation of
crack perpendicular to the direction of the larger
tensile force. All failures occured due to the pullout of
the steel fibre before yielding.
DISCUSSION
The ultimate strength of concrete observed in this study was

similar to previous investigations (1, 4, 5, 6) as shown in
Fig. 10. There is a general agreement that the strength of
plain and fibre concrete under biaxial compression may be
considerably higher than in uniaxial compression. The ultimate
strength envelope is almost a straight line for the
compression - tension zone. It was noticed that there was an
increase in strength in the case of biaxial tension than
uniaxial tension. Such increase was expected according to the
maximum strain theory (1) (3) .
The role of steel fibre appears in refine properties of
plain concrete under biaxial stresses in strength, ductility
and toughness which makes elements expected high capacity of
deformation which prevent growth of cracks in compression and
give more ductility in tension which causes more strength. In
addition to the above results, a mathematical formula defining
a failure envelope were derived. Figure 10. shows the portion
of the proposed failure envelope depending on stress ratio for
different biaxial stresses.
1. Biaxial Compression:
(a) 0 < a < 0.376
Op = o' c (1 + a (A - a))
Where A = 2.1 for plain concrete

A = 2.145 for fibre concrete
(b) 0.376 < a < 1.0
ap = a'c (1.104 + B a /(I - a))
Where B = 0.02 for plain concrete

129
B = 0.35 for fibre concrete
2. Biaxial Compression - tension
0 < a < oo
ap = a 't / (a " cs)

Where C = 1 for plain concrete
C = 0.8 for fibre concrete
3. Biaxial Tension
1 < a < oo
(jp = a'tfc / (1 - Da)
Where
a 'tfc = ° tnc (x " v f) + D

D = 0.495 v f L/D (Ref. 7)
Where
(jp = ultimate strength
o' £ = unaxial tensile strength
o 'c = unaxial compressive strength
a = stress ratio (cr^ / cr2)
a'tfc = unaxial tensile strength for fibre concrete
° the = unaxial tensile strength for plain
L / D = aspect ratio
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusion are based on the experimental work in

this study:
(a) The ultimate strength of fibre concrete under biaxial
compression is greater than that under uniaxial
130
compression. The maximum strength increases of 38 percent

is achieved at sequential stress ratio of 0.5, with 1
percent volume of fibre. Under biaxial compression-
tension, the compression strengths decrease almost
linearly as the applied tensile stress is increased.
(b) Under biaxial tension, the strength of fibre concrete
increases as compared to its uniaxial tensile strength.
The maximum increase of 79 percent is a achieved at
stress a2 = 0.8
(c) The presence of steel fibre can transfer brittle concrete
into an essentially ductile one.
(d) A good agreement was obtained by comparing Liu (4)
equations with experimental stress strain data for all
biaxial stresses except biaxial tension.
(e) A mathematical equations defining a failure envelope was
derived.
(f) A biaxial ultimate strength criterion for steel fibre
concrete, in the form of a simple stress envelope, is
recommended for design purposes.
REFERENCES
1. Kupfer, Helmut; Hilsdof, Hubert K. and Rusch, Hubret,

"Behavior of Concrete Under Biaxial Stresses", ACI
Journal. Proceedings. V.66, No.8, Aug. 1969, pp. 656-
666.
2. Michale, A. Toylar; MK, Tal; and Melviw, R. Ramey;
"Biaxial Compression behaviour of fibre reinforced
Morter", ACI Journal, Proceedings. V. 10, No. 8, Dec.
1976, pp. 496-509.
3. W. f. Chen, "Plasticity in Rein Forced Concrete " Hill-
Book Company, 1982, pp. 12-204.
4. Liu, Tony C.Y; Nilson, Arthur H, and Slate, Flayed 0. ,
"Stress-Strain Response and Fracture of Concrete in
Unaxial and Biaxial Compression", ACI Journal,
Proceedings. V. 69, No. 5, May 1972, pp. 291-295.
5. Floydo, Slate, Tasujland, and Arthur H. Nilson, "Stress-
Strain Response and Fracture of Concrete Under Biaxial
Loading", CAI Journal, Proceedings, Vol.60, No. 7, July,
1978, pp. 306-312.
6. Carino, Nicholas J., and Slate, Flogd 0. , "Limiting
Tensile Strain Criterion for Failure of Concrete", ACI
Journal, Proceedings. V. 73, No. 3, Mar. 1976, pp. 160-
165.
7. Manget, "Tensile Strength of Steel Fiber Rein forced
Concrete," Cement and Concrete Association, London 1976.
8. J. M. Abbas, "Behaviour of Steel Fibre Reinforced
Concrete under Biaxial Stresses", M.Sc. thesis.
University of Technology, Dec. 1988.
131
(a ) b ia x ia l c o m p e r s s io n ( b ) b ia x ia l tension and b iaxial te n s io n -

com perssion
F 'g -(1 ) Shape and dim ensiones of s p e c im e n s -
T a b l e d ) PROERTIES AND TESTING PROGRAM OF ELEMENTS

V o lu m e
Type of Test Element No Ael??oCt pevr c e n [ A p p ly lo a d
(L/d)
A1 0 0
B>ax>al * ( o2 = 0 ,
A2 60 0 -5
Comperssior
A3 60 1 0 .3 O c > 0 .5 CTc
( ) A4 60 1-5
elements ,0 .7 O c ~ )
A5 100 0.5
A6 100 1 * *( o1/ cr2 = 1 )
A7 100 1-5
B1 0 0
B ia x ia l ( 0"i / OC, = 80 )
B2 60 0-5
Comperss»on
B3 60 1 -
-T e n s io n B4 60 1.5 ( 0^= 0 .5 O't )
B5 100 0 -5
( 84 )
elem ents7 B6 100 1 i a 2= 0.7 a rt)
B7 100 15
C1 0 0
B iaxial
C2 60 0-5
T e n s io n C3 60 1 i a2 = 0.3 crt )
C4 60 1.5
f e le
,5 6 . >
m e n ts i cr2 = o s a t~>
C5 100 05 1
C6 100 1
C7 1 00 1-5
* load ap p lie d OT-j along one a xis w h ile 0 ^ ôlc* constant along
the o th er a xis
* *lo a d s a p p lie d at the same rate in to tw o d ir e c t io n up to
f a ilu r e -
132
Main test Frame
Fig.(2) ArrangmeM of hydraulic jack in biaxial comperssion.
F ig .(3 ) Arrangment of h y d ra u lic ja ck in biaxial

com p e rssio n . ten sion .
F ig .U ) A rran gm en t of h y d ra u lic ja ck in biaxial Tension.

133
F ig .(5 ) B ia x ia l s tre n g th of plain c o n c re te a nd f ib r e c o n c re te

w ith aspect r a t i o 100-
F‘» g.(6) B ia x ia l s tre n g th of p la in conc re te and fib r e co n c re te

w ith asp ect r a tio 60-
134
0,/Oc
Oi/Of
-s
tens.'le
stra in
sir, «{SgJJ*.l*#(mm/mni)*id
(b) F ib re C o n crete ( ^ f = 1 - 0 V . , L / D = 1 0 0 ) ( a ) Plain Concrete
F»gX7 ) S t r e s s -s t r a in re la tio n sh ip s of concrete under

b ia x ia l com pressio n
Fig.(8 ) S tr e s s -s t r a in re la tio n sh ip under b ia x ia l

co m perssion - t e n s io n .
135
( b) F ib r e Concrete ( V f= 1 . 5 • /., L / D = 10 0 ) (a ) P la in Concrete
F ig .(9 ) S t r e s s -s t r a in re la tio n s h ip s of concrete

under b ia x ia l ten sio n .
Fig.(IO) B ia x ia l stren gth of co n c re te .

136
FIBER FULL OUT MECHANISMS: EFFECTS OF FIBER GEOMETRY, LOADING

RATE AND SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES
N. BANTHIA, J.-F. TROTTIER and M. PIGEON

Laval University
Ste-Foy, Quebec, G1K 7P4, CANADA
ABSTRACT
Bond-slip relationships for six types of fibers embedded in cementitious

matrices were studied by conducting pull out tests. Eight matrix types
were studied. Fibers ranged from simple straight to excessively de
formed. Pull out tests were conducted at two rates of pull out,
8.46 x 10-6 m/s and 2.12 x 10"6 m/s. Some tests were also done in an
environmental chamber at -50°C. In all of the tests, the load-extension
curves were obtained.
While the straight undeformed fibers grossly under-utilize the

potential of steel, excessively deformed fibers were often found to frac
ture, substantially reducing the energy absorption capacity. High load
ing rates and low temperatures generally led to an increase in the ob
served peak pull out loads, which in turn led to increased instances of
fiber fracture and matrix failure. Addition of silica fume, although
improved the quality of shear or adhesional bond, also led to premature
matrix splitting in the case of excessively deformed fibers, causing sub
stantial reductions in the energy absorption. At subzero temperatures,
this brittleness of silica fume paste was found to have increased.
INTRODUCTION
The improvements in the properties of concrete due to the inclusion of

randomly distributed steel fibers are well known. It is also well known
that the prime advantage of adding these fibers is realized only after
the brittle cementitious matrix cracks, and the fibers bridging such a
crack help transfer the stresses across [1]. Once the brittle matrix has
cracked, the entire performance of a SFRC member depends on how effec
tively the fibers can transfer the stresses across a crack. Since the
tensile strength of a cracked SFRC section is the integration of the
loads carried by individual fibers over a unit sectional area, the effec
tiveness of a cracked SFRC section to load transfer depends ultimately
137
upon the effectiveness of its individual fibers. The extent to which a

fiber can transfer load across a matrix crack is usually determined by
conducting single fiber pull-out tests. Such tests, therefore, are of
vital importance in obtaining the fundamental fiber-matrix bond relation
ships, for interfacial studies, and also for designing new and improved
fibers.
A steel fiber, straight along its length, resists an external pull

out load by developing an adhesional or shear bond with the surrounding
matrix. The externally applied load, therefore, is transferred to the
matrix through interfacial shear stresses alone. It is now known that
this adhesional bond is primarily a weak bond and the interfacial shear
strength is only of the order of 1 MPa. A straight fiber, as a result,
supports only a small value of pull out load before debonding. Conse
quently, the steel stresses in the case of a straight fiber stay far
below yield causing gross under-utilization of the potential of steel.
This realization has led to the practice of deforming the fibers along
their lengths. Deformed fibers, apart from developing the routine
adhesional or shear bond, also develop the strong mechanical interlock or
anchorage giving rise to both shear as well as bearing, or compressive,
stresses in the surrounding matrix. As a result, the deformed fibers can
resist much higher pull out loads increasing the capacity of the cracked
SFRC section to transfer the stresses across a matrix crack. However,
even here there is a limit. An excessively deformed fiber may support a
high level of pull out load, but may develop steel stresses beyond ul
timate, and thus fail by fracturing instead of a pull out. Fiber frac
tures may lead to substantial reductions in SFRC toughness or energy
absorption [2], and as such, are undesirable. Thus, the fibers may only
be optimumly deformed to obtain a high pull out resistance without
causing fracture. Evidently, the problem is one with intense complexi
ties since the pull out resistance of a given fiber is not only a func
tion of the constitutive behaviour of steel and the cementitious matrix
but also of curing conditions [3], of stress rate [4], temperature of the
surrounding [5], magnitude of the sustained strains (relaxation) [6], the
magnitude of transverse or confining stresses, and also the possible in
teraction with the adjacent fibers [7]. On the analytical side, while
some models based on the shear-lag theory have been proposed for the
straight fibers [8], no closed-form analytical solution exists for the
deformed fibers. Although, it will be sometime before a globally optimi
zed fiber may be developed, an attempt is made in the present study to
evaluate the most common commercially available geometries.
Given the stress rate sensitivity of both steel and concrete, and
the fact that one of the prime advantages of fiber reinforcement is an
improvement in the resistance of concrete to siesmic and impact loads
[2], the knowledge of the effects of loading rate on the pull out beha
viour of fibers is of vital importance. Finally, since the behaviour of
both steel and concrete is modified at temperatures below zero, tempera
ture becomes an important parameter for SFRC studies.
138
EXPERIMENTAL
Single fiber pull out tests were conducted using the specimens shown in
Figure 1 with the fibers symmetrically embedded to one half their
lengths. Fibers were carefully positioned in the mould using the non
water absorbing 0.5 mm thick plastic separator, the plastic matrix was
poured and the moulds were lightly vibrated. Demoulding occurred 24
hours after casting, during which time, the specimensstayed covered.
Moist curing commenced soon after demoulding. Eight matrix types and six
fiber geometries (Tables la and lb) were used.
Pull out tests were conducted on the 28* h day in a Table mounted
Instron at two pull out rates of 8.46 x 10-6 m/s and 2.12 x 10-3 m/s.
Pull out load vs. pull out distance curves were obtained. These curves
were used to obtain the peak pull out loads, and the pull out energies by
measuring the areas under the curves. Five or more specimens were tested
in each category. In all, some 600 pull out tests were done.
Some pull out tests were also conducted in an environmental chamber

at -50°C by using liquid nitrogen as the coolant (Fig. 2). Once again,
the pull out load vs. pull out distance curves were used. Only the ma
trices Ml and M4 (Table la) and the fibers D, E, and F (Table lb) were
used for these tests.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the pull out tests are given in Tables 2a and 2b, where
the average values obtained over 5 or 6 specimens have been reported.
Effects of Matrix Type and Fiber Geometry

While the exact nature of bond between the fiber and the cementitious
matrix is not understood yet, it is generally accepted that the strength
of the bond must depend on the characteristics of the matrix. A general
reduction in the pull out resistance with an increase in the w/c ratio
was noted (Tables 2a and 2b). Improvements in the quality of bond due to
the addition of silica fume may be noted from Figure 3, where the pull
out curves for fiber D have been reproduced. However, in the case of the
excessively deformed fibers, like E and F, this addition caused matrix
brittleness leading to matrix cracking prior to a complete pull out, and
thus lowering the pull out energies. The improvements in the peak pull
out loads due to silica fume additions also led to increased instances
of fiber fracture causing a further reduction in the pull out energies.
Finally, the improvements in the quality of bond due to silica fume in
clusion occurred to a greater extent for the flat fibers with greater
surface areas (fibers C and F ) . This indicates that the addition of
silica fume perhaps benefits the adhesional bond more than the bearing
bond. Figure 4 shows the pull out curves for the fibers E and F; note
the significant improvement in the peak pull out load for fiber F due to
silica fume addition as compared to the more moderate improvement in the
case of fiber E.
Mortar matrices offer a greater resistance to fiber pull out than do

pastes with the same w/c ratio. The statement holds for all types of the
139
fibers tested* as well as for the matrices containing silica fume. While
the exact reasons behind this are not known, it is probable that the sand
particles act as tiny crack arresters in the viscinity of a fiber, and
arrest a debonding crack on the surface of the fiber.
The effectiveness of fiber deformations in improving the pull out

resistance is clearly evident from Tables 2a and 2b. However, this is
true only for the cases where a complete fiber pull out occurs. In the
case of the excessively deformed fibers (fibers E and F ) , fiber fracture
or matrix failure occurred in some case, which although registered a high
peak load also consumed very little pull out energy (Fig. 4). Out of the
two causes of matrix splitting and fiber fracture, the former generally
consumed more energy than the latter. It must also be pointed out that
the possibility of a fiber fracture or matrix splitting is not entirely
decided by the extent to which fiber has been deformed, but also by the
matrix type, stress-rate and the temperature of the test. Addition of
silica fume generally led to these brittle modes of failure for fibers E
and F. Thus, the problem of optimizing the fiber geometry for a maxi
mized pull out resistance is possible only for a small range of fiber and
matrix characteristics. This problem is further complicated by the rate
of load application and the test temperature. No fiber fractures were
ever recorded for fiber types A through D.
Effect of Pull Out Rate

The pull out tests were conducted at two rates of 8.46 x 10“6 m/s and
2.12 x 10“3 m/s; the ratio of these two rates being about 250. These
results are also shown in Tables 2a and 2b.
It may be noticed from Tables 2a and 2b that the pull out resistance
of the smooth fibers (fibers A, B and C) is not sensitive to the rate at
which they are pulled out. Similar conclusions were drawn by Gokoz and
Naaman [4] and Vos and Reinhardt [9] for smooth fibers and smooth rein
forcing bars, respectively. For the deformed fibers (D, E and F), some
sensitivity to the pull out rate was observed. In general, an increase
in the peak pull out loads was observed with an increase in the pull out
rate. The same conclusion could be drawn for the pull out energy.
Pull out rate was also found to change the mode of failure. In the
case of more brittle matrices, like the one with silica fume in it, an
increase in the pull out rate changed the failure mode from a premature
matrix splitting to a complete fiber pull out. This is reflected as the
increases in the pull out energies for fibers E and F embedded in silica
fume paste matrices (M4, M5 and M6) with an increase in the pull outrate
(Table 2b). On the other hand, an increase in the loading rate aug
mented the peak pull out load causing fiber fractures in some cases
(fibers E and F in matrices M7 and M 8 ) . These fiber fractures consider
ably reduced the energy absorption at high pull out rates (Table 2b).
Similar observations were made in ref. [2].
Effect of Test Temperature

It is a well known fact that there is, in general, an increase in the
strengths of both concrete and steel at low temperatures. There is also
a relative brittleness associated with both steel and concrete at low
temperatures. In the present study, for the cement paste matrix, an
increase in the peak pull out loads at -50 °C was observed (Table 2a). In
140
this case no premature matrix splitting occured which allowed the fibers
to develop their full potential. Low temperatures also caused an
increase in the pull out energies for this matrix, except in the case of
fiber E which fractured in the process of supporting a high pull out
load. For matrix M4, on the other hand, premature matrix splitting did
not allow the fibers to develop their full potential leading to much
reduced peak pull out loads at -50°C (Fig. 5). The increased brittleness
of silica fume paste at -50°C compared to normal paste is also depicted
in the reduced pull out energies in their case at -50°C.
A drop in the ambient temperature below 0°C leads to the presence of

supercooled water in the matrix capillaries, which has a higher vapour
pressure than the ice that has already been formed on the surface of the
specimen. This is not an equilibrium situation, and some capillary water
must either be frozen or expelled to maintain the equilibrium [10]. The
situation worsens with a continued drop in the ambient temperature and
destructive hydraulic pressures develop within the paste. The internal
destruction of the paste may be worse in the case of silica fume paste
which is known to be less permeable than normal paste [11]. It is quite
possible, therefore, that the internal splitting of silica fume paste, to
some extent at least, might have occurred even before the loading was
commenced, leading to extreme brittleness at -50°C (Fig. 5). It is im
portant to mention here that none of the matrices used here were air-
entrained.
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The pull out resistance of fibers is strongly dependent on the

characteristics of the matrix. Inclusion of silica fume although
improves the adhesional bond, may also cause matrix brittleness
leading to premature matrix splitting before the full fiber poten
tial is reached.
(2) The straight fibers have a poor resistance to pull out resulting in
a gross under utilization of the steel potential. However, the
excessively deformed fibers may break, instead of pulling out,
causing significant reductions in energy absorptions.
(3) An increase in the loading rate results in an greater resistance to

pull out only in the case of deformed fibers indicating that it is
the bearing component of load transfer which is rate sensitive.
Loading rate also determines the mode of fiber failure.
(4) Subzero temperatures improve the pull out resistance, if the prema
ture matrix splitting does not occur. Pastes with silica fume have
low strain capacities at subzero temperatures, causing a brittle
premature splitting of the matrix that results in very low fiber
pull out energies.
141
REFERENCES
[1] Johnston, C.D., Proc. of the Symp. on Fibrous Concrete, The Cone.
Soc., London 1980, pp. 29-47.
[2] Banthia, N . , Mindess, S. and Bentur, A., Materials and Structures,

Vol. 20, 1987, pp. 293-302.
[3] Banthia, N. and Trottier, J.-F., "Effects of Curing Temperature and

Early Freezing on the Pull Out Behaviour of Steel Fibers", Cement
and Concrete Research (to appear).
[4] Gokoz, U.N. and Naaman, A.E., Int. Journal of Cement Composites,
Vol. 3, No. 3, 1981, pp. 187-202.
[5] Rostasy, F.S. and Sprenger, K.H., Int. Journal of Cement Composi
tes, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1984, pp. 47-51.
[6] Banthia, N. and Pigeon, M . , "Load Relaxation in Steel Fibers Em

bedded in Cementitious Matrices", Int. Journal of Cement Composites
(submitted).
[7] Giaccio, G . , Giovambattista, A. and Zerbino, R . , ACI Journal,

March-April 1986, pp. 232-235.
[8] Grey, R.H., Journal of Mat. Science, 19, 1984, pp. 861-870.
[9] Vos, I.E. and Reinhardt, H.W., Report No. 5-80-6, Delft Univ. of
Tech., Delft, The Netherlands, Sept. 1980, p. 84.
[10] Banthia, N . , Pigeon, M. and Lachance, L . , "Calorimetric Study of

Freezable Water in Cement Paste", Cement and Concrete Research (to
appear).
[11] Banthia, N. and Mindess, S., "Water Permeability of Cement Paste",

Cement and Concrete Research (to appear).
TABLE la
MATRIX Water/Cementitious Ratio
0.35 0.42 0.50
Cement Paste Ml M2 M3
Microsilica Cement
Paste (15% Silica fume) M4 M5 M6
Cement Mortar - - M7
Microsilica Cement Mortar

(15% Silica fume) - - M8
142
Fig. 1. Pull Out Specimen Dimensions
Table lb
Different Fiber Geometries Investigated
Code Geometry Section Details (mm)
A o
u----------- e ------------ -i
d
U- 60, d = 0.6
B o £=58 ,d = 1.0
h---------- e ------------ H h 4U-
d
C £= 53 ,b = 0.5 ,w = 2.2
t---------- e ----------- h w
-*-4 h — -H h K-
D ___ ____ r---- ,. _____ o £= 60, h = 5, d = 0.6
1------------ e ------------ A * IU
d
O £= 58 ,p = 8.3 ,d = 1.0
E JU-
U*1 ptr— e ------- A d
F £= 53, p = 6.5, b = 0.5 ,w = 2.2

pK s w
TABLE 2a
Peak Pull Out Loads at 22 °C (N)
Fiber Type2
Matrix1 A B C D E F
di3 di" di dU di di dl di di db di di
Ml 54 42 83 55 144 137 228 251 551 609 345 377

M2 65 28 91 51 82 50 181 199 603 623 362 383
M3 5 5 55 61 21 28 138 201 520 576 307 366
M4 66 54 93 86 452 425 457 404 616 694 690 752
M5 41 42 59 57 396 423 414 452 576 555 566 659
M6 23 19 58 42 69 78 277 312 546 565 531 741
M7 25 17 45 38 51 68 140 156 529 665 651 701
M8 93 50 123 83 400 549 319 381 659 692 683 773
1 Refer to Table la for details Peak Pull Out Loads at -50 °C3 (N)
2 Refer to Table lb for details
3 dl = Pull out rate = 8.46 x 10"6 m/s Fiber Type2
t
i
rate = 2.12 x 10“3 m/s
*»•
xf
II
r—I
Matrix1 D E F
2 2 °C -50 °C 22°C -50°C 22°C -50 °C
Ml 228 400 551 692 345 536

M4 457 275 616 556 690 520
TABLE 2b
Pull Out Energies at 22°C (Nm)
Fiber Type2
Matrix1 A B C D E F
.3
di dl di di di dl di dl di di di
Ml 0.35 0.29 0.48 0.39 1.32 1.90 2.21 3.10 7.40 6.82 6.60 6.88
M2 0.11 0.29 0.31 0.28 1.11 0.87 1.79 2.21 6.71 5.02 5.20 6.32
M3 0.03 0.04 0.19 0.21 0.33 0.37 1.34 1.93 5.90 4.10 5.30 6.19
M4 0.40 0.62 0.69 0.51 5.73 5.37 4.40 4.95 2.52 7.63 1.82 5.90
M5 0.34 0.21 0.61 0.78 3.96 3.02 3.53 3.40 1.12 5.61 1.30 4.29
M6 0.28 0.36 0.45 0.49 0.36 0.51 3.26 3.19 1.68 4.28 0.80 4.44
M7 0.07 0.05 0.11 0.23 0.36 0.49 0.72 0.93 7.06 4.63 3.27 2.74
M8 1.15 0.77 1.08 0.99 5.27 6.80 3.38 3.69 4.35 1.95 0.73 3.64
1 Refer to Table la for details Pull Out Energies at -50°C3 (N)

2 Refer to Table lb for details
3 dl = Pull out rate = 8.46 x 10-6 m/s Fiber Type2
4 da = Pull out rate = 2.12 x 10"3 m/s
Matrix1 D E F
22°C -50 °C 22°C -50 °C 22°C -50°C
Ml 2.21 6.02 7.40 6.05 6.60 7.80

M4 4.40 2.20 2.52 1.70 1.82 0.80
145
X : Dummy specimen
Y : Thermocouple
Z : Regulator and pump
A : Specimen
B : Environmental chamber
Figure 2. Set-up for Tests at Sub- Figure 3. Effect of Microsilica on

Zero Temperatures. Fiber D.
Pull out distance (mm) Pull out distance (mm)
Figure 4. Effects of Microsilica on Figure 5. Effect of Test Temperature

Fibers E and F. Note the on the Pull-Out Behaviour.
Change in Failure Mode due Note the brittleness of
to Microsilica addition. Microsilica Paste at -50*C.
146
SHEAR TRANSFER IN FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
ATHEEL E. ALLOS
Assistant Professor
Building and Construction Department/University of Technology
Presently
Civil Engineering Department/Saddam University for
Engineering and Science, Baghdad, IRAQ.
ABSTRACT
Research concentrated on the influence of conventional

reinforcement on the shear capacity of reinforced concrete
structures. In this work the shear transfer capacity of steel
fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) is investigated with the use
of both straight and hooked end steel fibres. The research
programme consisted of testing 113 push-off specimens under
the combined action of direct compression and shear. The
effect of different fibres and different volume fractions of
fibres on the failure envelope is reported.
Results indicate a significant increase in the shear

transfer capacity of concrete with the increase of volume
fraction of steel fibres. Equations giving the failure
envelope for shear and direct compression as a function of the
fibre parameter are presented and agree well with the
experimental results.
NOTATIONS
F Fibre parameter defined as the area of fibre multiplied by

the number of fibres per unit volume of composite.
fc Normal compressive stress on the shear plane.
fc 1 Cylinder compressive strength of fibre reinforced concrete,
f Modulus of rupture of fibre reinforced concrete prisms,
f Split cylinder strength of fibre reinforced concrete.
V f Volume fraction of steel fibres.
r Shear transfer capacity of fibre reinforced concrete.
t q Shear transfer capacity of fibre reinforced concrete at
zero normal stress.
147
INTRODUCTION
Shear failure in structures can occur across a definite shear

plane such as in precast construction or in corbels. The shear
strength transmitted by this plane is denoted as shear
transfer.
Extensive research work have been conducted to study the

behaviour of concrete under biaxial state of stress of direct
normal stresses or under shear and direct stresses and many
failure theories and equations were proposed(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8).
Hofbeck, Ibrahim and Mattock (7) presented test results

of 38 push-off concrete specimens to investigate the effect of
type and amount of reinforcement crossing the shear plane on
the shear capacity. To carry on this work 28 test results were
reported by Mattock and Hawkins (8) on pull-off and modified
push-off concrete specimens. The shear transfer strength was
found to be proportional to the reinforcement parameter pf ,
to a limiting shear strength value of about 0.3fc f to 0.35fc ^.
Applying a compressive stress normal to the shear plane, the
shear strength was found to increase in proportion to the sum
of the normal stress and the reinforcement parameter to reach
a limiting value of about 0.45 fc 1.
The mechanical properties and deformation characteristics

of fibre reinforced mortar and concrete have been investigated
by many researchers (9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18). The
addition of fibres was found to improve the mechanical
properties of mortar and concrete with varying degree of
effectiveness.
Researchers (19,20,21,22,23) have investigated the

effectiveness of steel fibres as shear reinforcement in
concrete beams. They concluded that steel fibres were very
effective in increasing the shear capacity of reinforced
mortar and concrete beams and were capable of replacing
conventional stirrups in these beams. Williamson and Knab (20)
pointed out that steel fibres were not effective in preventing
catastrophic shear failure in beams, whereas Swamy and Bahia
(23) concluded that ductile shear failure could be achieved by
proper fibre design. Adams (24) reported a small increase in
ultimate punching shear on discs when using steel fibres as
reinforcement. Fattuhi (25) reported tests on the strength of
corbels. He concluded that the shear strength of corbels was
considerably improved by the addition of steel fibres. An
increase of about three-fold was observed in the shear
strength when using 1.67% fibres by volume, and indicated that
fibres could be used to replace conventional shear
reinforcement in corbels. No published research work on the
effect of normal stress on the shear transfer strength of
fibre reinforced concrete was cited.
148
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The test programme consisted of 113 steel fibre reinforced

concrete specimens having cross sectional dimensions of
300x150mm and an over all height of 500 mm with a shear plane
of 150x150 mm. The specimens Were divided into four series
having different type and aspect ratio of steel fibres. Series
(A) and (D) were divided into four groups with different
volume fraction of steel fibres ranging from 0.5% to 1.5%,
whereas specimens of series (B) and (C) contained a volume
fraction of 1% of fibres.
The dimensions of the test specimens and the loading

configuration are shown in figure 1. Test details are shown in
table 1.
I ' -6-12$
I - I O 0 tie
I - I O 0 tie
_ 6-120
I P
■ 150 . 150 ,
' mm "mm ^
Figure 1. Details of test specimens.
Ordinary portland cement, 10 mm maximum size gravel and

fine granular sand conforming to zone 3 were used throughout
the test programme. A mix of 1:1.5:2 by dry weight with water
cement ratio of 0.5 was adopted which yielded a satisfactory
workable mix. Deformed reinforcing bars of 10 mm and 12 mm
diameters, having a yield strength of 410 and 460 N/mm2
respectively, were used to prevent failure from occurring
anywhere except at the shear plane.
The test specimens with their control specimens were cast

and then left to cure for 27 days. On the next day the
specimens were tested by applying a predetermine transverse
force by means of special plates and using a hydraulic
prestressing jack. Then the axial load, causing a shearing
stress on the shear plane, was applied to failure by means of
149
a universal testing machine with a capacity of 2500 kN. For

specimens tested under pure normal stress the transverse load
was applied to the test specimens by means of a compression
testing machine. The test results of the control and test
specimens are shown in table 1 and 2 respectively.
TABLE 1
Test details and test results of control specimens
Steel Fibres
Series Group Type Length Diam Vf%
V f sp
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
f r
(mm) (mm)
1 0.5 28.86 3 .13 6.11

2 0.75 27.25
A 3 St 25 0.4 1.0 26.90
4 1.5 28.66 4.50 7.09
B HE 30 0.5 1.0 25.57 4.38 5.95
C HE 60 0.8 1.0 26.92 4.17 6. 16
1 0.5 27.46 4.12 6. 16

2 0.75 25.75
D 3 HE 50 0.5 1.0 25.70
4 1.5 26.40 4.17 6. 67
St = Straight smooth fibres

HE = Hooked end fibres.
TABLE 2
Test Results
fc T
fc r
Specimen (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2 ) Specimen (N/mm2) (N/mm2 )
A 1-1 — 8.98 A 2-8 21.51 12.44

A 1-2 4.18 8.67 A 2-9 24.18 10.00
A 1-3 8.31 12.44 A 2-10 27.73 8.89
A 1-4 12.44 14.44 A 2-11 33.56 —
A 1-5 16.62 13.56 A 2-12 32.89 —
A 1-6 20.76 15.33 A 3-1 — 17.11
A 1-7 24.89 11.56 A 3-2 — 16.67
A 1-8 29.07 12.22 A 3-3 5.33 17. 33
A 1-9 33.20 9.33 A 3-4 8.09 18.22
A 1-10 37.33 — A 3-5 10.67 18.44
A 2-1 — 11.11 A 3-6 13.51 17.96
A 2-2 — 12.67 A 3-7 16.00 16.00
A 2-3 5.38 14.00 A 3-8 18.93 14.44
A 2-4 10.76 14.44 A 3-9 21.33 12.22
A 2-5 11.09 17.78 A 3-10 24.31 10.67
A 2-6 14.14 17.33 A 3-11 30.53 3.78
A 2-7 16.13 13.78 A 3-12 30.78 —
150
TABLE 2
Test Results
T T
f c
Specimen (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2) Specimen (N/mm2) (N/mm2 )
— D 1-10 —
CM
r-
00
A 3-13 32.11
A 4-1 — 14.44 D 2-1 — 8.00
A 4-2 3.73 16.00 D 2-2 — 6.89
A 4-3 7.42 17.56 D 2-3 5.20 10.67
A 4-4 11.11 19.33 D 2-4 7.64 9.91
A 4-5 14.84 17.78 D 2-5 10.40 9.78
A 4-6 18.53 19.33 D 2-6 12.71 9.64
A 4-7 22.22 13.78 D 2-7 15.60 9.11
A 4-8 25.96 12.67 D 2-8 17.78 8.44
A 4-9 29.64 8.67 D 2-9 20.80 6.76
A 4-10 33.33 — D 2-10 22.89 6.09
B -1 — 10.89 D 2-11 26.00 4.27
B -2 3.56 12.44 D 2-12 28.00 2.67
B -3 7.11 14.40 D 2-13 31.00 —
B -4 10.67 14.67 D 2-14 31.22 —
B -5 14.22 14.22 D 3-1 — 9.78
B -6 17.78 16.44 D 3-2 — 9.33
B -7 21.33 12.22 D 3-3 4.89 12.22
B -8 24.89 9.33 D 3-4 8.04 16.44
B -9 28.44 8.22 D 3-5 9.78 13.56
B -10 31.78 - D 3-6 13.42 15. 33
C -i — 7.33 D 3-7 14.67 15.56
C -2 3.33 9.78 D 3-8 18.80 15.56
C -3 6.44 12.22 D 3-9 19.56 13.56
C -4 9.56 12.67 D 3-10 24.18 11.56
C -5 12.67 10.22 D 3-11 24.44 12.67
C -6 15.78 9.11 D 3-12 29.56 8.89
C -7 18.89 10.00 D 3-13 30.67 —
C -8 22.00 8.67 D 3-14 30.89 —
C -9 25.11 5.56 D 4-1 — 12.00
C -10 28.89 — D 4-2 3.47 14.44
D 1-1 — 8.22 D 4-3 6.93 15.56
D 1-2 3.11 12.22 D 4-4 10.40 13.78
D 1-3 6.22 12.89 D 4-5 13.87 11.56
D 1-4 9.33 13.56 D 4-6 17.33 12.22
D 1-5 12.44 12.00 D 4-7 20.80 8.44
D 1-6 15.56 12.22 D 4-8 24.27 8.89
D 1-7 18.67 11.11 D 4-9 27.73 7.11
D 1-8 21.78 9.33 D 4-10 31.11 —
D 1-9 24.89 4.44
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
All test specimens failed in a shear failure along the shear

plane except for specimens subjected to pure normal stress
where they failed in a crushing type failure.
From the test results it was observed that the shear

transfer divided by the compressive strength, for specimens
151
subjected to zero normal stress, was best related to the fibre

parameter. The fibre parameter is defined here as the cross
sectional area of the fibre multiplied by the number of fibres
per unit volume of composite. This is equivalent to the volume
fraction of fibre divided by the length of fibre. A plot of
the experimental results is shown in figure 2 together with
the proposed empirical equation.
ro/fc f= 100F2+5.4F+0.2 (1)
It can be seen that this equation agrees well with the

experimental results up to a fibre parameter of 0.04/mm,
giving an average of experimental to predicted values of 0.993
with a coefficient of variation of 10.05%. The effectiveness
of the equation has to be limited to a shear strength value of
about 0.575 f 1. A similar observation was found by Mattock et
al (7) for tests on concrete reinforced with conventional
stirrups. Implementing this limit to the equation would give
an average of experimental to predicted values of 1.004 with a
coefficient of variation of 10.36%. The addition of steel
fibres can double the shear transfer capacity of concrete.
F IB R E PARAMETER
Figure 2. Effect of fibre parameter on the shear transfer
capacity of fibre reinforced concrete
The effect of normal compressive stress on the shear

transfer capacity of fibre reinforced concrete is shown in
figure 3. The horizontal axes are normalized to the
compressive cylinder strength. The shear transfer strength was
found to increase with increasing normal stress until the
normal stress was about 40% of the compressive strength. Any
further increase in the applied normal stress would reduce the
shear transfer capacity. Applying the internal friction theory
and introducing the value t q for the shear transfer at zero
t/fc" x/fc t/fc
152
153
normal stress would give the relation
t = t o y i + a ( f c/ f c ') —( a + 1 ) ( f c/ f c ')2 (2)
where (a) is a function of the internal angle of friction of

the composite material. The value (a) was also found to be
related to the fibre parameter and can be presented as
a= 1/(11.33F+0.05) (3)
The values obtained from equation (2) and implementing the

empirical values from equations (1) and (3) were plotted in
figure 3 and was found to represent the experimental
relationship quite well.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The shear transfer capacity of concrete can be increased

to about 60% of the concrete compressive strength by the
addition of steel fibres. This value is about twice the
shear capacity of specimens with very low fibre content.
2. An empirical equation is presented to predict the shear

transfer strength of fibre reinforced concrete when
subjected to zero normal stress. This equation was found to
be best related to the fibre parameter.
3. The shear transfer capacity was observed to increase to a

maximum value when subjecting the specimens to a normal
compressive stress of about 40% of the compressive
strength.
4. The effect of normal compressive stress on the shear

transfer of fibre reinforced concrete can be well
represented by applying the internal friction theory.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was carried out under the sponsorship of the

Building and Construction Department, University of Technol
ogy. The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to all
who assisted in the experimental work and especially
Mr.P.Yako.
REFERENCES
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combined stresses. Proceedings of the American Concrete
Institute. Vol.55, No.3, Sept.1958, pp.321-345.
2. Cowan, H.J., The strength of plain, reinforced and pre

stressed concrete under the action of combined stresses
with particular reference to the combined bending and
torsion of rectangular sections. Magazine of Concrete
Research. Vol.5,No.14, Dec.1953, pp.75-86.
154
3. Zia, P., Torsional strength of prestressed concrete

members. Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute.
Vol.57, No.10, April 1961, pp.1337-1359.
4. Kapfer, H.,Hilsdorf, H. and Rusch, H . ,Behavior of concrete

under biaxial stress. Proceedings of the American Concrete
Institute, Vol.66, Aug.1969, pp.656-666.
5. Liu, T.C.Y., Nilson, A.H. and Slate, F.O., Biaxial stress-

strain relations for concrete. Journal of the Structural
Division.ASCE. Vol.98, No.ST 5, Proc. paper 8905, May 1972,
pp.1025-1034.
6. Guralnick, S.A., Strength of reinforced concrete beams.

Transaction. ASCE. Vol. 125, paper No. 3036, 1960, pp.603-
643.
7. Hofbeck, J.A., Ibrahim, I.A., and Mattock, A.H., Shear

transfer in reinforced concrete. Journal of the American
Concrete Institute. Vol. 66, No.2, Feb.1969, pp.119-128.
8. Mattock, A.H. and Hawkins, N.M., Shear transfer in

reinforced concrete-recent research. Journal of the Pre
stressed Concrete Institute. Vol.17, No.2, March-April
1972, pp.55-75.
9. Shah, S.P. and Naaman, A.E., Mechanical properties of

glass and steel fiber reinforced mortar. Journal of the
American Concrete Institute. Vol.73, No.l, Jan. 1976,
pp.50-53.
10. Nielsen, L.E., and Chen, P.E., Youngfs modulus of

composites filled with randomly oriented fibers. Journal
of Materials. Vol. 3, No.2, June 1968, pp.352-358.
11. Johnston, C.D., Steel fiber reinforced mortar and

concrete; A review of mechanical properties. Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, SP-44, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1974, pp.127-142.
12. Johnston, C.D., and Coleman, R.A., Strength and

deformation of steel fiber reinforced mortar in
uniaxial tension. Fiber Reinforced Concrete. SP-44,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1974, pp.177-207.
13. Swamy, R.N., Mangat, P.S. and Rao, C.V.S.K., The

mechanics of fiber reinforcement of cement matrices. Fiber
Reinforced Concrete. SP-44, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1974, pp.1-28.
14. Williamson, G.R., The effect of steel fibers on the

compressive strength of concrete. Fiber Reinforced
Concrete. SP-44, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1974, pp.195-207.
15. Swamy, R.N. and Stavrides, H . , Some properties of high

155
workability steel fibre concrete. Fibre Reinforced Cement

and Concrete, Rilem Symposium 1975, ed. A. Neville,
Construction Press Ltd., Lancaster, England, Vol.l, paper
4.8, pp.197-208.
16. Komlos, K . , Strength and deformation properties of

concrete reinforced with randomly spaced steel and basalt
fibres. Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete, Rilem
Symposium 1975, ed. A. Neville, Construction press Ltd.,
Lancaster, England, Vol.l, paper 5.3,pp.237-245.
17. Lim, T.Y., Paramasivam, P., Mansur, M.A., and Lee, S.,
Tensile behaviour of steel fibre reinforced cement
composites. Third International Symposium on Developments
in Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete, Rilem Symposium
FRC 86, ed. R. N. Swamy, R. L. Wagstaffe and D.R. Oakley,
Rilem Technical Committee 49-TFR, Lancaster, England,
1986, Vol.l, paper 1.2.
18. Narayanan, R. and Kareem-Palanjian, A.S., Factors

influencing the strength of steel fibre reinforced
concrete. Third International Symposium on Developments in
Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete, Rilem Symposium FRC
86, ed. R.N. Swamy, R.L. Wagstaffe and D.R. Oakley, Rilem
Technical Committee 49-TFR, Lancaster, England, 1986,
Vol.l, paper 3.1.
19. Batson, G . , Jenkins, E. and Spatney, R . , Steel fibers as

shear reinforcement in beams, Journal of the American
Concrete Institute, Vol.69, No.10, Oct.1972, pp.640-644.
20. Williamson, G.R.,and Knab, L.I., Full scale fibre concrete

beam tests. Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete. Rilem
Symposium 1975, ed. A. Neville, Construction Press Ltd.,
Lancaster, England, Vol.l, paper 4.9, pp.209-214.
21. Uomoto, T., Weeraratne, R.K., Furukoshi, H . , and Fujino,

H . ,Shear strength of reinforced concrete beams with fibre
reinforcement. Third International Symposium on
Developments in Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete,
Rilem Symposium FRC 86, ed. R.N. Swamy, R.L. Wagstaffe
and D.R. Oakley, Rilem Technical Committee 49-TFR,
Lancaster, England, 1986, Vol.2, paper 8.7.
22. Roberts, T.M., and Ho, N.L., Shear failure of deep fibre
reinforced concrete beams. The International Journal of
Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, V o l .4, No.3,
August 1982, pp.145-152.
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fibers as shear reinforcement. Concrete International,
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pp.35-40.
24. Adams, M . , Behaviour of steel fibre concrete under

different loading conditions. Fibre Reinforced Cement
156
and Concrete, Rilem Symposium 1975, ed. A. Neville, Con

struction Press Ltd.,Lancaster,England,Vol.2, paper 4.11,
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25. Fattuhi, N.I., Corbels with shear reinforcement in the

form of stirrups or fibres. Third International Symposium
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Lancaster, England, 1986, Vol.2, paper 8.8.
157
FRACTURE PERFORMANCE OF FRC MATERIALS

UNDER VARIOUS CURING CONDITIONS
V.J. WEISS
Czech Technical University,
Prague, Czechoslovakia
B. BARR and I.A.I. ALI

University of Wales, College of Cardiff,
Cardiff, UK
ABSTRACT
The paper reports on the influence of curing conditions on the fracture

properties of fibre reinforced concrete materials. Both steel and
polypropylene fibres were used in the study. The concrete specimens were
subjected to three curing conditions: normal curing under water; curing at
5°C in a fridge cabinet; and curing in dry air at room temperature (22°C).
Tests were carried out to determine compressive strength, shear strength,
fracture toughness and toughness indices (for both Mode I and Mode II types
of loading).
The results show that the compression strength was reduced by 25%
when cured at 5°C and 20% when cured in dry air compared to those specimens
cured under normal conditions. The corresponding reduction in shear
strength was 17% and 15% respectively. The fracture toughness results also
showed reductions of 13% and 7% respectively. In contrast, there was no
significant difference in the post-cracking toughness results (measured by
means of toughness indices) obtained using the three curing conditions.
INTRODUCTION
The enhanced toughness and impact resistance of fibre reinforced concrete

(FRC) composites are two properties which have received considerable
attention in recent years. Although impact tests can be used to show these
enhanced properties of FRC, they tend to require the development of
expensive testing equipment and the results generally exhibit high
variability. Thus greater use has been made in the past of the various
methods of evaluating the toughness of FRC materials. The enhanced
toughness of FRC composites is reflected in many ways including improved
cracking resistance, improved post-first-cracking strength and the ability
to absorb relatively large amounts of energy during failure.
158
The main aim of the work reported here was to clarify the influence of
curing conditions on some of the fracture characteristics of concrete and
FRC materials. Two types of fracture have been studied - flexural failure
(Mode I) and shear failure (Mode II). The resistance to first-cracking and
the post-first-crack toughness have been measured in this study of the
effect of curing on fracture properties. The toughness measurements are
presented in the form of toughness indices.
ACI Committee 544 (1) defined the toughness index as the ratio of the
amount of energy required to deflect a fibre concrete beam used in the
modulus of rupture test by a prescribed amount to the energy required to
bring the fibre beam to the point of first crack. The initial ACI
definition of toughness index is illustrated in Fig. 1(a). The
disadvantages of the ACI toughness index have been discussed in detail
elsewhere and will not be repeated here (2, 3). The main disadvantage is
that the index is defined in terms of a deflection which relates to a
particular specimen geometry.
Johnston (2) has proposed a system of toughness indices based on
multiples of the first-crack deflection. A similar approach has been used
by Barr et al. (3). The system of indices proposed by Johnston can be
chosen to reflect levels of serviceability appropriate to any given
application and are potentially applicable to all rectangular specimens
regardless of size, geometry, span and mode of loading. Johnston proposed
two scales for the toughness indices as shown in Fig. 1(b), ranging from
either zero or unity to a given value 1 chosen to reflect an arbitrarily
defined high level of material performance, namely elastic-plastic material
behaviour'. This work by Johnstonhas been incorporated into Standards
(ASTM C 1018) (4) and has been reportedmore fully by ACI Committee 544 (5)
- see Fig. 1(c).
The toughness indices proposed by Barr et al. (3) are based on the
load-deflection graph obtained up to twice the deflection given at the
point of first cracking, as shown in Fig. 1(d). The toughness indices are
defined as follows:
Area A + Area B
Toughness Index = ------------- (1)
4 x Area A
Area B
or Toughness Index = --------- x 100 (2)
3 x Area A
The second definition is similar to the base-zero definition proposed by
Johnston and has the advantage that the energy absorption (area B in the
numerator) is referenced to the performance up to the point of first
cracking (area A in the denominator). Expressing the toughness index as a
percentage gives a range of values varying fromzero forplain concrete up
to a theoretical maximum of 100% for a very tough FRC material. An
elastic-plastic response would give a toughness index of 67%. The above
definitions have been used in this study to evaluate the toughness of the
FRC materials in the two fracture modes.
In addition to the toughness results, test results for compressive
strength, fracture toughness, modulus of rupture and shear strength are
reported. The three curing conditions used in this study were as follows:
(a) curing at 5°C in a fridge cabinet
(b) curing in dry air at room temperature (22°C)
(c) curing in water (also at room temperature)
The work is currently being extended to include curing at 50°C in an oven.
159
N o t e :N o t to s c a le .
IS)
E 1. Fibro us co n c re te with low 2. Rbrous co n c re te with high
g strength. B rittle .S h o rt or low strength. Ductile.Long.High
O p ercen tage of fib re s. p e rce n ta g e o f fibres.
2
0
— F irst crack s t r e n g t h -^ j
(a) ACI Committee c
0 A (Prop, limit) j
544 definition % r \\
of toughness (1) Z
T3
/ 1
/ 1 \ 1
1
1
/ 1 X.
1!
O
0
Pi® ©
First crack toughness*Area QA 8 -V 2 P 6 i l.9mm

T o ta l D e fle ctio n
L_ 1.9 mm
T o ta l D e fle c tio n
11
A C E G
D e fle ctio n M illim e tre s
•Toughness aO A CD
Load
'index (3 6 ) O A B
If
— 55--------sS5 IS 5 6 FIBRE REINFORCED BEAM
Q
T~
Deflection
(a) B a se * u n ity system

^
Load—
36 5-56 15-56
MIDPOINT DEFLECTION
(c) Recent ACI Committee 544

(b) B a s e -z e r o system definition of toughness (5)
[b) Toughness Indices, Johnston ( 2 )

bughness m Shaded area m a *8
-j
Tough. ;*j Area B

Index 4 x A rea up to 5 4A Index 3 (Area A)
rIOO%
Load
(d) Toughness Indices, Barr (3)

Fig. 1 Various definitions of Toughness Indices
160
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
All the test specimens reported here were manufactured in standard

100 x 100 x 500mm beam moulds. Some beams were loaded in the modulus of
rupture mode as shown in Fig. 2(a), whilst the remaining beams were notched
and then loaded as shown in Fig. 2(b). Full details of the range of
notches etc. are given elsewhere (6). After testing the beams, prisms were
prepared by cutting 200mm long specimens from the broken halves. These
prisms were modified by the introduction of two equal and opposite 50mm
deep notches and loaded as shown in Fig. 3. The shear tests illustrated in
Fig. 3 were carried out at 35 days (i.e. 7 days later than the bending
tests) but the method of curing was maintained throughout this additional
period of 7 days.
A nominal Grade 50 concrete basic mix having the proportions 1:1.8:2.8
of cement:fine aggregate:coarse aggregate with a water/cement ratio of 0.5
was used in the study. The cement was ordinary Portland cement, the fine
aggregate was a local sea-dredged sand and the coarse aggregate was a 10mm
maximum size crushed limestone. Both polypropylene and steel fibres were
added to the basic mix. The polypropylene fibres were of the fibrillated
type and 50mm long. The steel fibres were 0.4mm diameter straight fibres
40mm long i.e. with an aspect ratio of 100.
The mixing procedure was as follows. The initial mixing was carried
out without the fibres. The fibres were then added by hand in small
quantities by shaking them onto the surface of the mix in a random manner.
The mix was then turned over and the above process repeated until all the
fibres had been added into the mix. Compaction was carried out by means of
a vibrating table. The specimens were demoulded within 24 hours and then
cured according to the three conditions described earlier.
All tests were carried out under deflection control at nominal room
temperature. The tests were continued until a deflection of approximately
thirty times the deflection at first cracking was achieved - although the
results presented here are limited to deflections corresponding to twice
the deflection at first crack. However, it is important to continue
testing well beyond this limited deflection to ensure that sudden failure
of the specimens does not occur. A schematic view of a typical
load-deflection graph is shown in Fig. 1(d). Following initial bedding of
the specimens at the loading points (which may be overcome by pre-loading)
the load-deflection graphs are linear up to the point of first cracking.
The shape of the curve thereafter depends on the type and volume of fibres
in the FRC composite.
A range of fibre contents was used in the study. Steel fibres were
added in three concentrations - 1%, 2% and 3% by weight. In the case of
polypropylene four concentrations were used - 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4% by
weight. These concentrations cover the practical range of fibre
concentrations for the two types of fibres investigated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A summary of the compressive strength results and workability results for

the specimens subjected to normal curing is given in Table 1. Adding steel
fibres to concrete results in a small increase in compressive strength
whereas the addition of polypropylene fibres results in a small reduction
in the compressive strength. However, the workability results show a
dramatic change as the fibre concentration is increased. The workability
161
Load
p—a s Notch depth
i J
♦
(b) Notched beam loaded as shown In (a).
F ig 2 . F le x u r a l t e s t s .
F ig 3 . S h ear t e s t
( N / mm )
Strength
Compression
F ig 4 . V a r ia t i o n o f c o r a o r e s siv e s t r e n g t h w it h f i b r e c o n t e n t
162
results shown in Table 1 illustrate the limitation of the slump test for
FRC mixes and the more appropriate test results given by the Ve Be values.
Increasing the fibre concentrations above those shown in Table 1 would
result in a rapid decrease in the compressive strength - due to the
difficulty of compaction of mixes with higher fibre concentrations.
The compressive strength results for the two modified curing
conditions are given in Table 2. Both methods of curing show a very large
reduction in the compressive strength - the reduction being of the order of
20% in the two cases. The results tabulated in Tables 1 and 2 are
illustrated graphically in Fig. 4. Fig. 4 shows the reduction in
compressive strength when curing is carried out at low temperature and in
air. Fig. 4 also shows clearly the effect of fibre content on the
compressive strength - steel fibres increase the compressive strength
whereas polypropylene fibres reduce the compressive strength.
Table 3 gives a summary of the fracture toughness (Kjcresults) for the
three curing conditions studied. These results show amuch smaller
reduction than that observed for the compressive strength results. The
average reductions given in Table 3 for the two modified curing conditions
are similar to the reductions given in Table 2 in that the greatest
reduction is observed for the specimens cured at 5°C.The fracture
toughness results give an indication of the cracking resistance of the
matrix. These results show that polypropylene fibres do not enhance the
matrix but steel fibres show a significant enhancement in the resistance to
crack propagation. The results also suggest that the full benefit of high
steel fibre concentrations is only achieved by good curing.
Table 3 also gives the bending strength or modulus-of-rupture values
obtained from the tests on the un-notched beams illustrated in Fig. 2(b).
These results show the same pattern as that observed for the fracture
toughness results. Hence the bending strength results are not discussed
here but are fully reported elsewhere (6).
As indicated earlier, the post-cracking toughness of FRC composites is
one of their most important properties. Toughness has been evaluated using
the two toughness indices described above. The Mode I toughness indices
(i.e. from the flexure tests illustrated in Fig. 2) for the three curing
conditions are reported in Table 4. These results show that toughness is
independent of the method curing. The two factors which influence the
toughness index values are the type of fibre (steel or polypropylene) and
the fibre concentration.
The shear strength of FRC composites was also investigated in this
study - using the testing arrangement shown in Fig. 3. The shear strength
results for the three methods of curing are given in Table 5. It is
important to note that these specimens were cured for an additional 7 days
i.e. the tests were carried out at 35 days. Furthermore, the coefficient
of variation for these results was relatively large - approximately 10-20%
(6 ). The two methods of modified curing yield similar results with the
reduction in the shear strength being of the order of 15%. The results in
Table 5 are also similar to thosefor the compressive strength in that the
steel fibres increase the shear strength and the polypropylene fibres
reduce the shear strength.
The post-cracking toughness in the shear mode was also determined,
using the same definition of toughness indices as that used for the Mode I
tests. The Mode II toughness indices are summarised in Table 6 . These
results showed a very high coefficient of variation (6) and care is
required in their interpretation. In general, the results given in Table 6
are similar to those obtained for the toughness indices in Mode I testing.
The post-cracking toughness is relatively independent of the method of
163
TABLE 1
Summary of compressive strength and workability results under normal curing
conditions (in water at room temperature)
Type of Fibre Comp. Strength Slump Ve Be time

fibre Content (%) (N/mm2) (mm) (sec.)
Plain 0.0 54.5 100 2.0
Steel 1 .0 55.8 70 3.5
(0.4x40mm) 2.0 57.0 30 9.0
3.0 58.6 0.0 20+
Polypropylene 0.1 50.6 60 3.5
(50mm strand) 0.2 47.3 25 8.0
0.3 41.5 2 15.0
0.4 39.5 0.0 20+
TABLE 2
Summary of compressive strength results under two curing conditions
(Reduced temperature and air curing)
Freezer at 5°C Air at room temperature

Type of Fibre Strength Percentage Stren^>th Percentage
fibre content (%) (N/mm2 ) Reduction (N/mm"-) Reduction
Plain 0.0 36.9 32.3 40.9 25.0
Steel 1.0 40.6 27.2 43.0 22.9
2.0 44.0 22.8 44.1 22.6
3.0 44.0 25.0 44.8 23.5
Poly. 0.1 38.1 24.7 40.6 19.8
0.2 36.4 23.0 38.4 18.8
0.3 34.1 17.8 35.8 13.7
0.4 32.4 18.0 35.1 11.1
Average 23.8 19.7
TABLE 3
Summary of KIc results under three curing conditions
Norm. curing conds. Freezer at 5UC Air curing

Type of Fibre KIc Bending Klc % Klc %
fibre content strength Red. Red.
(%) (N/mm3/2) (N/mm2) (N/mm3/ 2 ) (N/mm3/2)
Plain 0.0 32.6 7.4 31.4 3.7 32.2 1.2
Steel 1 .0 34.8 8.1 32.8 5.7 34.4 1.1
2.0 43.1 10.0 38.3 11.1 38.6 10.4
3.0 57.5 11.9 44.0 23.5 42.0 27.0
Poly. 0.1 34.8 7.9 27.6 20.7 33.6 3.4
0.2 34.0 8.2 28.2 17.1 33.3 2. 1
0.3 35.0 8.2 28.0 20.0 33.3 4.9
0.4 35.4 8.3 31.8 1 0.2 33.7 4.8
Average 14.0 6.9
164
TABLE 4
Summary of toughness index results (Mode I testing)
Water at room Freezer at 5UC Air at room

temperature temperature
Type of Fibre A+B B x 100 A+B B x 100 A+B B x 100
fibre content (%) 4A 3A 4A 3A 4A 3A
Plain 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.00
Steel 1.0 0.46 27.9 0.44 24.9 0.46 27.2
0 .4x40mm 2.0 0.60 46.1 0.59 44.6 0.58 43.8
3.0 0.71 60.7 0.69 58.9 0.70 59.9
Poly. 0.1 0.36 15.1 0.33 11.1 0.35 13.3
0.2 0.41 21.5 0.46 28.0 0.43 24.2
0.3 0.50 33.5 0.53 37.3 0.51 34.2
0.4 0.53 37.5 0.57 42.3 0.54 39.1
TABLE 5
Summary of shear strength results under three curing conditions
Normal curing Freezer at 5UC Air at room temperature

Type of Fibre Shear V Shear % Shear %
fibre content Strength Strength Strength
(%) (N/mm2) (%) (N/mm2) Red. (N/mm2) Red.
Plain 0.0 5.9 4.5 5.5 6.8 5.2 11.9
Steel 1 .0 6.8 10.0 5.7 16.2 5.6 17.6
2.0 6.9 9.5 5.8 15.9 6.2 1 0.1
3.0 7.5 5.3 7.1 5.3 6.8 9.3
Poly. 0.1 5.7 8.2 4.7 17.5 4.6 19.3
0.2 5.6 17.3 4.3 23.2 4.6 17.9
0.3 5.4 13.0 4.2 22.2 4.5 16.7
0.4 4.7 27.7 3.5 25.5 3.8 19.1
Average 16.6 15.2
TABLE 6
Summary of toughness index results (Mode II testing)
Water at room Freezer at 5°C“ Air at room

temperature temperature
Type of Fibre A+B B x 100 A+B B x 100 A+B B x 100
fibre content(%) 4A 3A 4A 3A 4A 3A
Plain 0.0 0.25 0.0 0.25 0.0 0.25 0.0
Steel 1.0 0.42 22.4 0.45 26.5 0.45 27.0
0.4x40mm 2.0 0.48 30.2 0.53 38.0 0.54 38.5
3.0 0.53 37.2 0.56 41.6 0.59 45.5
Poly. 0 .1 0.34 11.2 0.35 13.6 0.36 14.7
0.2 0.45 26.9 0.48 30.6 0.47 30.1
0.3 0.52 35.6 0.55 40.4 0.51 35.6
0.4 0.49 32.7 0.58 43.8 0.53 37.5
165
Fig 5. Variation of fracture toughness Fig 6. Variation of toughness

with fibre content Index (Mode I)
with fibre content
50r
— Steel FRC
— Rtyprop FRC.
+ Normal curing
£
40- o 5°C curing
B X Air curing
w
S
2
.S 3 0 -
I
H 20-
i
IO -
2 3 (Steel)
°** -shr “3ir ° (Rolyprop)
Fibre Content (°/o wt.)
Fig 7. Variation of shear strength Fig 8. Variation of toughness

with fibre content index (Mode II) with
fibre content
166
curing and depends primarily on the type of fibre and fibre concentration.
CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions can be observed from Figs. 4-8 which illustrate the
main variables investigated. These graphs combine the results for the two
fibres and the three methods of curing. The main conclusions are as
follows:
1. The compressive strength decreased by approximately 25% when curing
took place at 5°C and by 20% when curing took place in air compared
with the corresponding results for specimens cured under water.
(Fig. 4).
2. The fracture toughness results (Fig. 5) decreased by approximately 12%
and 8% respectively when cured at 5°C and in air. Similarly, the shear
strength results (Fig. 7) decreased by approximately 17% and 15% for
the same two modified curing methods.
3. The most significant result obtained was that the toughness indices
were independent of the curing method used. Figs. 6 and 8 show that
the post-cracking toughness is maintained by steel and polypropylene
FRC composites even when the curing conditions are inferior to the
normal laboratory curing methods.
REFERENCES
1. American Concrete Institute Committee 544, Measurement of properties of

fiber reinforced concrete. Journal of the American Concrete Institute,
July 1978, Proceedings Vol. 75, No. 7, pp. 283-289.
2. Johnston, C.D., Definition and measurement of flexural toughness

parameters for fibre reinforced concrete. Cement, Concrete and
Aggregates, Winter 1982, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 53-60.
3. Barr, B. and Hasso, E.B.D., A study of toughness indices. Magazine of

Concrete Research, September 1985, Vol. 37, No. 132, pp. 162-174.
4. ASTM, Standard C 1018-85, Standard test method for flexural toughness

and first-crack strength of fiber reinforced concrete (using beam with
third-point loading).
5. American Concrete Institute Committee 544, Measurement of properties of

fiber reinforced concrete. Materials Journal of the American Concrete
Institute, Nov./Dec. 1988, Proceedings, pp. 583-593.
6. Ali, I.A.I., Fracture performance under various curing conditions of

fibre reinforced concrete materials. MSc Thesis, University College
Cardiff, 1985, pp. 200.
167
EFFECTS OF CURING PROCEDURES ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

CARBON FIBER REINFORCED CEMENT
PARVIZ SOROUSHIAN, ZIAD BAYASI AND MOHAMAD NAGI

Civil Engineering Department, Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1212, USA
ABSTRACT
Effects of carbon fiber reinforcement and curing conditions on

mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced cement were
investigated. The flexural strength and impact resistance of
cementitious materials were improved through reinforcement
with carbon fibers. The compressive strength, however, is not
much influenced by carbon fiber reinforcement. Hot water
curing, especially at higher fiber volume fractions produced
the best results.
INTRODUCTION
The use of continuous high-modulus carbon fibers for

reinforcing cement was considered during the 1960's and early
1970fs for the production of structural elements, such as
floor planks and corrugated panels [1,2]. The development of
low-cost, low-modulus carbon fibers in the recent years
provided the incentives for commercializing cement products
reinforced with short uniformly dispersed carbon fibers in
Japan [3-8]. Current applications for carbon fiber reinforced
cement include cladding panels, free access floor panels,
repair and protective coating of structural element in
aggressive environments, and light-weight decorating frames
168
[9]. These applications have been encouraged by the cost

effectiveness of low-modulus carbon fibers, and also by their
durability and high efficiency as reinforcement for cement.
Carbon Fibers
Low-cost and low-modulus carbon fibers can be manufactured
using the pitch produced from a residue of an oil refining
process, or from coal-tar pitch obtained as a by-product of
the iron and steel manufacture. Table 1 presents typical
properties of pitch-based carbon fibers. Carbon fibers are
distinguished from other fiber types by their desirable
durability characteristics in cement environment under a
variety of severe exposure conditions.
TABLE 1
Physical and mechanical properties of pitch-based
carbon fibers.
Dianatar Spacifie Tansila Strength Modulus of Elongation

Gravity Elasticity
4-7 x 10'4 in. 1.6-1.63 60-110 Ksi 4,000-8,000 Ksi 1.4-2.4%

(10-18 microns) (400-750 MPa) (27,000-55.000 MPa)
The carbon fibers used for cement reinforcement range in

length from 1/16 in (1.5 mm) to 1/2 in (12 mm).
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement

The reinforcement of cementitious materials with pitch-based
carbon fiber at volume fractions ranging from 1% to 5% can
lead to important gain in the flexural strength and toughness
characteristics (Figure l.a), tensile performance (Figure
l.b) , and impact resistance (Figure l.c) of the material [3-
1 1 ].
169
(k si)
Flexural stress
Strain ( x 10-6 )
(a) Flexural strength (b) Tensile strength
Fiber Content (vol%)
Impact resistance
Figure 1. Effects of carbon fiber reinforcement on the

performance of cementitious materials [3-11].
170
The high efficiency of carbon fibers in reinforcing

cementitious materials results partly from their small
dimensions which lead to relatively closed spacing of fibers
in the composite material. The closely spaced carbon fibers
encounter microcracks in the matrix rather frequently, thus
effectively arresting and deflecting these microcracks. The
small fiber dimensions, however, produce a relatively high
fiber count per unit volume and typically make it difficult to
disperse carbon fibers in cementitious matrices.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Effects of different curing conditions on the hardened

material properties of carbon fiber reinforced cement (CFRC)
were investigated experimentally.
The basic mix ingredients in carbon fiber reinforced
cement were: Type I portland cement, silica fume (see Table 2
for some physical and chemical properties) [12],
superplasticizer (with naphthalene formaldehyde sulfonate as
active ingredient) [13], and CARBOFLEX carbon fibers produced
by the Carbon Fibers Division of Ashland Petroleum Company
(Table 3) [14].
The presence of silica fume in CFRC facilitates the
dispersion of carbon fibers, while superplasticizer helps in
overcoming the workability problems resulting from the use of
carbon fibers and silica fume in cementitious materials.
TABLE 2
Physical and chemical properties of silica fume [12]
Choaieal Compound C
Si02 Fo 2°3
V Ai2°3 k 2°
Na2°
% 96.5 1.4 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.04 0.20

171
TABLE 2 (CONT.)
Specific Bulk Specific Average Particles smaller

Gravity Density Surface Particle Size than 45 microns
(0.018 in.)
2.3 14 lb/ft? 200.000 ca2/g 0.14 microns 99.5%

(225 Kg/n» ) (14 x 106 in. /lb) (6 x 10 in.)
TABLE 3
Physical and mechanical properties of CARBOFLEX
carbon fibers [14].
Diameter Specific Tensile Strength Modulus of Elongation

Gravity elasticity
4 x 10*4 in. 1.6 100 Ksi 8.000 Ksi 1.4%

(10 microns) (690 MPa) (55,000 MPa)
The mix considered in this study, which has been selected

after a number of trials, has a water/binder ratio of 0.30,
silica fume/binder ratio of 0.23, and superplasticizer/
binder ratio of 0.032 (binder = cement + silica fume). The
following fiber reinforcement conditions were considered in
this study.
a. Plain matrix;
b. 3% volume fraction of 1/16 in (1.5 mm) carbon fibers;
c. 5% volume fraction of 1/16 in (1.5 mm) carbon fibers;
d. 3% volume fraction of 1/8 in (3 mm) carbon fibers.
A conventional 12 liter three-phase mortar mixer was
used for the manufacture of carbon fiber reinforced cement.
The following mixing procedure was chosen in order to achieve
a uniform dispersion of fibers:
1. Add all the silica fume and about 2/3 of the water-
superplasticizer mixture;
2. Start mixing at low speed (53 RPM) and mix for about
30 seconds until a uniform mixture is achieved;
3. Gradually add fibers while the mixer is running, over
a period of about 3 minutes;
4. Gradually add the remainder of water-super plasticizer
172
mixture followed by the cement so that the flowability

and uniformity of mixture are maintained. This
process takes approximately 3 minutes; and
5. Continue mixing for 1 minute at low speed. Turn to
medium speed (99 RPM) and mix for another one minute.
The specimens were cast in molds, and were compacted

through external vibration. The following specimens were
manufactured:
a. Three 1.5 x 1.5 x 6 in (38 x 38 x 152 mm) prismatic

specimens for flexural tests;
b. Three 3 in diameter by 6 in height (76 mm diameter by
152 mm height) cylindrical specimens for compression
test; and
c. Three 6 in diameter by 2.5 in height (152 mm diameter
by 64 mm height) cylindrical specimens for impact test
(ACI Committee 544-2R) [15].
These specimens were kept under a plastic sheet for 24

hours, and then after demolding, they were air dried for 12
hours. The specimens were then cured for 24 hours in one of
the alternative environment described below, and were then air
cured until the test age of 14 days:
a. Air Curing: in laboratory environment with a

temperature of 70 to 80°F (22.4 to 25.6°C) and a
relative humidity of about 50%;
b. Water Curing: immersed in water at temperature of 70
to 80°F (22.4 to 25.6°C);
c. Hot water Curing: immersed in water at a temperature
of 170 to 180°F (76.4 to 81.6°C);
d. Steam Curing: in steam room at 140°F (60°C); and
e. Moist Curing: at 70 to 80°F (22.4 to 25.6°C) and 100%
relative humidity.
173
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Figure 2 shows the effects of different curing and fiber

reinforcement conditions on the flexural strength of CFRC.
The flexural strength is observed to increase as a results of
fiber reinforcement. Hot water curing seems to produce the
highest flexural strength, particularly in mixes with 5%
volume fraction of 1/16 in (1.5 mm) carbon fibers where
flexural strength exceeds 2 Ksi (1 MPa).
Curing Conditions
Figure 2. Effects of fiber reinforcement and curing conditions

on flexural strength (1 in = 25.4 mm, 1 Ksi = 6.9 MPa).
The compressive strength test results, as influenced by

different fiber reinforcement and curing conditions, are
174
presented in Figure 3. Shrinkage cracking in plain mixtures

negatively influences the compressive strength, and (except
for hot water- cured fibrous specimens) carbon fiber
reinforced cement showed relatively low compressive strengths.
Hot water curing is observed in Figure 3 to produce distinctly
high compressive strength, especially for the fibrous
mixtures.
Figure 3. Effects of fiber reinforcement and curing conditions

on compressive strength (1 i n = 25.4 mm, 1 Ksi = 6.9 MPa)
The first-crack and ultimate impact strengths of

cementitious materials with different carbon fiber
reinforcement and curing conditions are presented in Figure 4
(in logarithmic scale). Major improvements in impact strength
are observed to be achieved through carbon fiber
175
reinforcement, at the relatively high fiber volume fraction of

5% of 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) fibers, hot water curing followed by
steam curing produce distinctly high impact strength.
Curing Conditions
Figure 4. Effects of carbon fiber reinforcement and curing

conditions on impact resistance.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The effects of fiber reinforcement and curing conditions on

mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced cement were
studied experimentally. Cementitious matrix mix compositions
incorporating silica fume together with a certain sequence of
mixing were adopted for the manufacture of carbon fiber
176
reinforced cement in a conventional mortar mixer. The fiber

reinforcement conditions considered were: 0% fiber content; 3%
volume fraction of 1/16 in (1.5 mm) carbon fiber? 3% volume
fraction of 1/8 in (3 mm) fibers and 5% volume fraction of
1/16 in (1.5 mm) fibers.
Following a period of pre-curing, the flexural,
compressive and impact test specimens were subjected to a
short period of exposure to the following environments: air,
water, hot water, moist room and steam. The specimens were
then air-cured until the test age of 14 days. From the test
results it could be concluded that:
1. Carbon fiber reinforcement produces important

improvements in the flexural strength and impact
resistance of cementitious materials. The compressive
strength, however, is not much influenced by carbon
fiber reinforcement (except for the hot water curing
condition);
2. Hot water curing, especially at higher fiber volume

fractions, produces the best strength test results.
Other curing conditions generally produce results which
are comparable with each other, except for steam curing
which leads to desirable characteristics for cases with
relatively high fiber contents.
REFERENCES
1. Ali, M.A., Majumdar, A.J. and Rayment, D.L., Carbon Fiber

Reinforcement of Cement. Vol.2, No. 2, 1972, pp. 201-212.
2. Waller, J.A., Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites.

ACI Publication SP 44: Fiber Reinforced Concrete, 1974,
pp. 143-161.
3. Ohama, Y. , Amano, M. and Mitshuhiro, E., Properties of

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement with Silica Fume.
177
Concrete International, Vol. 7, No. 3, March 1985, pp.

58-62.
4. Ohama, Y. and Amano, M., Effects of Silica Fume and Water
Reducing Agent on Properties of Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Mortar. Proceedings, 27th Japan Congress on Materials
Research, Kyoto, 1984, pp. 187-191.
5. Akihama, S., Suenaga, T., and Banno, T., Mechanical

Properties of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Composite and
the Application to Large Domes. KICT Report No. 53,
Kajima Institute of Construction Technology, Tokyo, July
1984, 97 pp.
6. Akihama, S., Suenaga, T., Nakagawa, H. and Suzuki, K. ,

Influence of Fiber Strength and Polymer impregnation on
the Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Cement Composites. Proceedings, RILEM Symposium on
Developments in Fiber Reinforced Cement and Concrete
(Sheffield), Vol. 1, July 1986.
7. Akihama, S., Kobayashi, M. , Suenaga, T., Nakagawa, H. and

Suzuki, k. , Effect of CFRC Specimen Geometry on Flexural
Behavior. Proceedings RILEM Symposium on Developments in
Fiber Reinforced Cement and Concrete (Sheffield), Vol. 1,
july 1986
8. Nishioka, K. , Yamakawa, S. and Shirakawa, K. , Properties

and Applications of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composite. Proceedings, RILEM Symposium on Development in
Fiber Reinforced Cement and Concrete (Sheffield), Vol. 1,
July 1986.
9. Akihama, H. , Suenaga, T. and Nakagawa, H. , Carbon Fiber

Reinforced Concrete. Concrete Vol. 10, No. 1, January
1988, pp. 40-47.
10. Soroushian, P. and Bayasi, Z. Development and Mechanical

Characterization of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composites. Report No. MSU-ENGR-88-017, Department of
Civil Engineering, Michigan State University, October 1988
11. Soroushian, P. and Nagi, M. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement

Cladding Panels: Material Development, Construction and
Design. Report No. MSU-ENGR-88-006, Department of Civil
Engineering, Michigan State University, June 1988.
12. ELKEM Chemicals Production Information: Brochure on

Microsilica Additives, Elkem Chemicals Inc., Pittsburgh,
PA,1986.
13. Daracem 100, Production Information Brochure, Grace

Construction Products Division, Cambridge, MA, 6pp.
178
14. CARBOFLEX Product Information Sheets, Ashland Petroleum

Company, Ashland, 1986, 5pp.
15. ACI Committee 544, Measurement of the Properties of Fiber

Reinforced Concrete. Report No. 544.2 R, ACI Material
Journal Proceedings, Vol. 85, No. 6, Nov-Dee 1988, pp.
583-593.
179
CRACKING OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED MORTAR DUE TO RESTRAINED SHRINKAGE
K C G Ong P Paramasivam
National University of Singapore
Singapore
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to investigate the cracking behaviour of steel

fibre reinforced mortar under restrained shrinkage conditions. Specimens
with various volume fractions were cast on to a precompressed steel box
section. Epoxy resin adhesive was used to ensure composite action between
the specimens and steel box section. After curing, the prestress was
reduced in stages subjecting the specimens to tensile stresses at the
interface. This simulated the effects of restrained shrinkage on the
specimens. Strains at first crack, crack widths and crack spacings of the
specimens were studied. The results obtained are presented and discussed
in this paper.
INTRODUCTION
In construction it is normal practice to concrete various structural
components in a number of successive stages. This results in phase
differences in the hardening of the various parts of the structure as also
are the development of shrinkage and possible thermal effects due to
hydration. When the structural components are rigidly interconnected,
such phase differences give rise to tensile stresses and may cause
cracking.
The behaviour of fibre reinforced cements and concretes has been
studied extensively (1-6). Relationships have been proposed to predict
average crack spacing and maximum crack width for specimens under direct
tension (6). However the tensile stresses caused by restrained shrinkage
are not uniformly applied across the cross-section of members. The
tensile stresses that occur at the interface are caused by restraint due
to phase differences.
180
The study reported herein was therefore undertaken to investigate the
cracking behaviour of steel fibre reinforced mortar specimens under
simulated restrained shrinkage conditions.
TEST PROGRAMME
The details of the specimens tested are shown in Table 1. The size
of the specimens were 1500 mm long of cross-section 100 mm x 100 mm.
Ordinary Portland cement and natural sand were used in the ratio 1:1.5 by
weight together with a water cement ratio of 0.5. The properties of the
mortar used are summarised in Table 1. Rapidard was used to accelerate
strength gain to enable testing at seven days.
TABLE 1
Details of specimens
Total Volume Cube Tensile Flexural Static Modulus

Fraction of Compressive Splitting Strength of Elasticity,
Specimens Reinforce Strength, Strength f * E *
r C
ment, V f * f *
cu t
(%) (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2 )
F0/1 0.0
38.5 2.5 4.7 22.5
FO/2 0.0
Fl/1 1.0
40.3 3.5 9.8 23.0
Fl/2 1.0
F2/1 2.0
42.3 3.9 10.5 24.2
F2/2 2.0
F3/1 3.0
45.2 4.5 15.9 24.5
F3/2 3.0
* Average of at least three specimens
Steel fibres under the trade name ‘D r amix’ were used in this
investigation. They are made of hard-drawn steel wires having a mean
diameter of 0.5 mm and length of 30 mm with a hook at each end. The
fibres were glued together in small bundles but dispered upon mixing with
2
mortar. The fibres have a yield strength of 1130 N/mm and an average
2
ultimate bond stress of 6.9 N/mm (7).
Test Procedure
A steel box section was used for the simulated restrained shrinkage
tests. It is 3500 mm long with a cross section of 125 mm x 125 mm and
thickness of 4.5 mm. The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1. The top
surface of the steel box section was ground to remove mill scale before it
181
was degreased with acetone. The surface was then roughened by chiselling
before being subjected to precompression of about 700 microstrains by
means of a 600 kN hydraulic jack reacting against a prestresssing bed
(Fig. 1). Formwork for the specimens was then assembled after an epoxy
resin adhesive was applied on the carefully prepared surface. The mortar
was then placed and compacted with a mechanical vibrator.
SPACER BLOCKS
x FER RO CEM EN T SPE CIM E N S

X /E P O X Y BONDED
K --------------
FRONT ELEVATION
Figure 1. Set-up for simulated restrained shrinkage test
The specimens were air cured in the laboratory at ambient conditions
after removal of the formwork after 24 hours. The six cubes, three
cylinders and three prisms cast at the same time were also cured in a
similar manner to determine the mechanical properties of the mortar.
Before commencement of tests, the specimens were painted white to
facilitate detection of cracks. Electrical strain gauges were mounted on
both the steel box section and specimen to monitor compressive strains
along the length of the member and on the specimens to check the strain
transfer.
The precompression was then reduced in stages subjecting the specimen
to tensile stresses at the interface. This simulates the effects of
restrained shrinkage on the specimen. The strain at which the first crack
appeared was noted. Upon full release of precompression, the number,
width and spacings of the cracks were carefully marked and measurements
made.
182
The final crack patterns of the specimens reinforced with steel fibres
are shown in Fig. 2. The results are summarised in Table 2. Cracks in
the unreinforced specimens, FO, appeared at a very early stage of 50-60
microstrains. The corresponding averages values for FI, F2 and F3
specimens are 110, 141 and 165 microstrains respectively. The number of
cracks per metre run of the specimens were also increased with an increase
in the volume fraction.
Volume
Fraction (•/.)
0
m n h j n 7i
TTTTTI. ( i W )CT
Base of Specimen
Figure 2. Typical crack patterns of specimens
TABLE 2
Summary of test results
Average Crack Maximum Crack No. of Crack First Crack

Specimen Spacing Width Per Meter Strain
(mm) (mm) Length (x 10"6 )
F0/1 173 1.20 3.7 50
FO/2 180 1.50 3.0 60
Fl/1 124 0. 16 9.0 120
Fl/2 130 0. 18 8.0 100
F2/1 108 0.08 12.0 147
F2/2 112 0. 10 11.0 135
F3/1 95 0.04 14.5 160
F3/2 100 0.04 14.0 170
Figs. 3 and 4 show the effect of volume fraction on average crack

183
spacing and maximum crack width of specimens subjected to restrained
shrinkage. The average crack spacing decreases with increasing volume
fraction. The maximum crack width decreases significantly with the
addition of steel fibres but the decrease is not as significant when the
volume fraction of fibres increase beyond 1.0 to 2.0%.
Volume Fraction (•/.)

Figure 3. Effect of volume fraction of reinforcement on
average crack spacing
Volume Fraction (*/.)

Figure 4. Effect of volume fraction of reinforcement on
maximum crack width
184
COMPARISON WITH THEORETICAL PREDICTIONS
Critical Fibre Volume Fraction

Hannant (5), proposed the following equation to predict the critical
fibre volume fraction:
( V c = V (\ W 1 ( 1 )
where (V~) = critical fibre volume fraction

f c
<rcu = ultimate composite strength in direct tension
= average ultimate bond stress
i = fibre length
d = fibre diameter
2
Lim et al. (7) proposed that the value of be taken as 6.90 N/mm for
the steel fibres tested in this study. It was assumed that the fibre
reinforced composite cracks at about the same stress level as the mortar
matrix. This stress obtained using F0 specimens was substituted into
Equation (1) to calculate the critical volume fraction. This was found to
be 0.55%. All the steel fibre reinforced specimens tested had volume
fraction greater than this value. This would account for the significant
decrease in maximum crack width as shown in Fig. 4 when the volume
fraction was increased from 0 to 1% as well as the fine cracks at close
spacings observed on FI, F2 and F3 specimens (Fig. 2).
Average Crack Spacing

Equation (2) was proposed to predict the crack spacing of aligned
brittle matrix composite specimens subjected to direct tension.
X = (V /V_) (<r r/2x ) (2 )

m if
m mu
mu u
where X = transfer length

= volume fraction of matrix
Vm
= volume fraction of fibres
Vf
<r = matric cracking stress
mu
r = radius of fibre
T = average ultimate bond stress
U
The crack spacing would lie within the range x to 2x.
Using the effective volume fraction concept (7) and length efficiency
and orientation factors as 0.5 and 0.2 respectively, x was calculated for
the specimens tested. The values are summarised in Table 3. It can be
seen that the theoretical values are much lower than the experimental
185
results shown in Table 3. These discrepancies are probably due to the
different test procedures used.
Table 3
Comparison of test results with theoretical predictions
Average Crack Spacing (mm) Crack Width (mm)

Specimen Theoretical*
Experimental Experimental Theoretical*
X 2x
Fl/1 124 49 98 0. 16 0.07
Fl/2 130 41 82 0. 18 0.05
F2/1 108 30 60 0.08 0.03
F2/2 112 28 56 0. 10 0.02
F3/1 95 22 44 0.04 0.02
F3/1 100 23 46 0.04 0.02
* Calculated using Eq. 2

+ Calculated using Eq. 4.
A rough estimate of the average crack spacing of the specimens can be
obtained using
S = 1 . 14x + 74.7 (3)

av
The transfer length x is calculated using Equation (2). Fig. 5 shows a
comparison of the values obtained. When more experimental data becomes
available other parameters that have significant effects on crack spacing
should be taken into account.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Transfer Length, x(mm) [Eq.(2)]
Figure 5. Plot of average crack spacing vs transfer length
186
Maximum Crack Vidth
Hannant (24) proposed the following equation to predict the crack
widths of aligned brittle matrix composite specimens subjected to direct
tension:
w = e (1 + a)x (4)
mu
where
w = crack width
G = matrix cracking strain

mu
a = modular ratio = (E V /E V )
m m it
X = transfer length
The values of crack width calculated using equation (4) are listed in
Table 3. It is noted that these values differ substantially from those
determined in the present investigation (Table 2). This is probably due
to the different testing procedures adopted. Also in Hannant*s case, the
fibres were aligned in the direction of loading, whereas in the present
investigation, the fibres were randomly distributed.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Based on the present study the cracking behaviour of steel fibre
reinforced mortar is affected by the volume fraction of reinforcement. A
higher volume fraction of steel fibres is more effective in controlling
cracks due to simulated restrained shrinkage. For the steel fibres
tested, specimens reinforced with one percent volume fraction of steel
fibres reduce the maximum crack width by ten times and doubled the first
crack strain compared with unreinforced specimens. Crack spacings and
crack widths obtained were much higher than those determined using
available theoretical predictions. The discrepancies may be attributed to
the fact that they were proposed for specimens subjected to direct
tension. Further tests are being conducted using fibres of different
types and aspect ratios.
REFERENCES
1. Shah S.P.and Rangan, V . B . , ’Fibre Reinforced Concrete Properties’, ACI
Journal, Vol. 68, Feb 1971, pp. 126-135.
2 Shah, S.P., "New Reinforcing Materials in Concrets’, ACI Journal,
Vol. 71, May 1974, pp. 257-262.

187
3. Romualdi,J.P. and Batson, G.B. , "Mechanics of Crack Arrest in
C onc r e t e * , ASCE Proceedings, Vol. 89, pp. 147-168.
4. Swamy, R. N. , Mangat, P. S. and Rao, C.V.S.K. , ’The Mechanics of Fibre
Reinforcement of Cement M atrices’ , SP44, Fibre Reinforced Concrete,
ACI, 1974, pp. 1-28.
5. Hannant, D.J., ’Fibre Cements and Fibre Concretes’, John Wiley and
S o n s ’ Ltd, 1978, pp. 8-31.
6. Keer, J.G., ’Fibre Reinforced Concrete’, New Reinforced Concrete,
Vol. 2, Concrete Technology and Design, Blackie & Sons Ltd, London,
1984, pp. 55-64.
7. Lim, T . Y . , Paramasivam, P. and Lee, S . L . , ’Bending Behaviour of Steel
Fibre Concrete B e a m s ’, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 84, No. 6, Nov-Dee
1987, pp. 524-536.

188
THEORY FOR EARLY AGE SHRINKAGE OF

FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENT COMPOSITES
P.S. MANGAT, G. MANARAKIS, M.M. AZARI

Department of Engineering
University of Aberdeen
Kings College, Aberdeen AB9 2UE, UK
ABSTRACT
Expressions derived to estimate shrinkage of fibre reinforced

cement matrices are reported. Their derivation is based on a
mechanism of fibre restraint where resistance to shrinkage in
any direction is offered by a fibre of effective length, & e ,
to a thick cylindrical element of the matrix through inter
facial bond. Experimental results on cement composites rein
forced with glass, steel, basalt and polypropylene fibres have
been used to relate to the theory. It is concluded that the
theoretical principles are valid for cement matrices rein
forced with the various types of fibres.
INTRODUCTION
Volumetric changes in hardened and plastic concrete are signi

ficant in magnitude and have a serious influence on the per
formance and durability of concrete structures. The use of
fibre reinforcement results in some reduction in drying shrin
kage [1,2,3] and marked decrease in plastic shrinkage of
cement composites [3,4,5]. This reduction in volumetric
deformation together with the resistance to cracking imparted
by fibres [6 ] has resulted in some important applications of
fibre reinforced materials such as in industrial flooring.
Experimental results on these properties have been reported by
various researchers [1-5]. An understanding of the mechanics
of drying an plastic shrinkage of fibre reinforced cement
matrices has also been advanced [5,7,8] and the validity of
theoretical expressions to experimental data on steel fibre
reinforced cement matrices has been verified [2,7]. In order
to confirm the generality of these theoretical derivations,
experimental data on glass, basalt, steel and polypropylene
fibres in cement matrices has been obtained from various
sources [3,4,5] and the validity of theory to these results is
investigated in this paper.
THEORY
Background
A theoretical approach to the problem of drying shrinkage and

creep of steel fibre reinforced concrete has been made in
recent years [7,9]. It has further been shown that the
general concepts of the theory are equally valid for quantify
ing the restraint of steel fibres to volumetric deformation of
fresh concrete [5]. These theoretical derivations show satis
factory agreement with a wide range of experimental data on
steel fibre reinforced cement composites [5,7]. Since the
theories are based on general principles of mechanics they
should also apply to composites reinforced with fibres other
than steel. This paper attempts to confirm the generality of
the theory derived for plastic shrinkage [5] by verifying its
validity to data on cements and mortars reinforced with steel,
basalt, glass and polypropylene fibres [3,4].
Mechanism of fibre restraint
Randomly oriented, discrete fibres in a cement matrix offer

resistance to volumetric change in all directions. The total
resistance in any direction is the cummulative sum offered by
individual fibres of mean effective length, % , to an element
of matrix of length ( H +s) and diameter s, as shown in Figure
1. During shrinkage, ?he matrix in the element of Figure 1
tends to slide relative to the fibre which provides restraint
through the average fibre-matrix interfacial bond strength, t.
t , in turn, is considered to be a function of the coefficient
of friction, p, at the interface and the radial pressure, P,
exerted by the shrinking matrix on the fibre surface.
The element of matrix surrounding each fibre is assumed as
a thick cylinder. The stresses caused in the matrix by fibre
restraint are assumed to be sufficiently small to allow elas
tic analysis.
Expressions for early age shrinkage
Expressions for early age shrinkage of fibre reinforced con

crete have been derived earlier [5] on the basis of above
assumptions and concepts. The shrinkage of a fibre rein
forced matrix, in terms of the shrinkage of the plain
matrix, e___ , is gSven as:
190
S = spacing between
fibres
Figure 1. Fibre restraint on

element of composite.
where p = coefficient of friction at the fibre-matrix

interface
fibre volume in the composite
Vf =
a = fibre length
d = fibre diameter
s = spacing between fibres which is a function of V

f
and d and is calculated from the following
expression [5]:
s3 + (0.41&)s 2 <^> = 0 (2 )
In order to determine e- from equation (1), a knowledge

of the shrinkage of the control matrix, bq , is required
together with fibre dimensions and volume. Sn addition, a
value for p is required, which is not readily available from
the current state of knowledge. It is, therefore, difficult
to check directly the validity of equation (1) to experimental
data on early age shrinkage. However, the following expres
sion, based on Lame’s equation for thick cylinders, can be
used to indirectly determine p using the experimental data on
shrinkage of control and fibre reinforced matrices [5,7]:-
(e -e )s" (0.4lJUs)
OP rp (s2 + a 2>
P = + v + d - v f)
0.3362 e (s-d) /
(s 2-d,2.)
op' '
(3)
191
where v =Polsson's ratio of cement matrix
= Poisson's ratio of fibre
E =Elastic modulus of cement matrix
E^ =Elastic modulus of fibre.
Using a wide range of experimental data on e- and corres

ponding e in equation (3), values of jj can be determined.
If these values are constant and consistent for a particular
fibre and matrix, this provides some verification (although
not absolute) regarding the validity of the theory.
Introduct ion
As stated earlier, experimental results on shrinkage (drying

and plastic) of steel fibre reinforced cement composites have
been used previously to check the validity of the theoretical
expressions. The plastic shrinkage data was obtained on the
fresh composite during approximately 4.5 hours after mixing,
while the concrete was in a plastic state. In this paper
experimental results for steel, glass and basalt fibres in
cement and mortar matrices are used to check the validity of
the theoretical expressions to different types of fibres. The
results have been obtained from a paper by Komlos and Brull
[4], which gives early age shrinkage data between 4 and 24
hours after mixing. During this period, setting and hardening
would have occurred and, therefore, this data represents a
different phase than the plastic shrinkage [5] and longer term
drying shrinkage [2,7] phases which were considered in
previously reported analysis.
In addition data on plastic shrinkage of polypropylene
fibre reinforced cement composites [3] has also been
considered in this paper.
Glass Fibres
Komlos and Brull report shrinkage results on cement composites

reinforced with CEM-FIL glass fibres of length 35mm. The
fibre diameter is not given, but a value of 0.3mm for a strand
is taken in accordance with values reported for standard glass
fibres [10].
The ratio —Gfd— is plotted against v ^Jl in Figure 2,

op
for cement paste and mortar matrices reinforced with glass
fibres.
192
It is clear that shrinkage of cement composites decreases with

increasing I
1-2
M ix T im e (h ) Sym bol
1 •
P a s te 4
0-8 P a s te 24 +
M o rta r 4 *
£fp 0-6 □
M o rta r 24
£op
(K □
* + n
0-2
0
0 0-5 1 1-5 2 2-5
V/d
Ef
Figure 2. Relation betwen — - and V £/d for glass fibre
eop
reinforced matrices.
The values of e_ at regular intervals of time together
with corresponding values of e were substituted in equation
(3) in order to determine valuespof p at different time inter
vals during the shrinkage tests. The values of spacing, s,
were obtained from equation 2 and were also substituted in
equation (3) together with £ and d of fibres.
The following values for fibre and matrix properties were
also assumed:
kN
of glass, basalt and steel fibres as 65, 50 and 200 —
mm
respectively
of glass, basalt and steel fibres as 0.24, 0.25 and 0.3
respectively.
The following approximate values for Poisson's ratio, v,

and elastic modulus, E, of the matrix (paste and mortar) were
obtained from Neville [11] :—
Poisson's ratio at 3h and 24h age as 0.3 and 0.2

respectively with linear interpolation at intermediate ages.
2
Elastic modulus at 3h and 24h as 1 and 12 kN/mm
respectively, with linear interpolation at intermediate ages.
The resulting p values are plotted against time in Figure

3, for mortar matrices. The graphs in Figure 3 show that the
value of p remains fairly constant with time. Similar trends
were also observed for glass fibres in a cement paste matrix
and, therefore, Figure 3 may be considered as typical for
glass fibre reinforced cement composites.
The values of p at different vf &/d ratios of glass fibres
in paste and mortar matrices are plotted in Figure 4. The
193
T im e ( h r s )
Figure 3. Relation between p and Time for glass fibre

results show some scatter but a constant value of p=0.16 can

be assumed at all Vvdu. ratios covered by the experimental
*
data. A knowledge of the p value together with the fibre
parameters (&,d,s,Vf ) completes the information required for
the solution of equation (1) to determine shrinkage of fibre
reinforced composites, e in terms of e„op
fp'
0-35
Figure 4. Relation between p and &/d for glass fibre

A linear graphical plot of equation (1) is made in Figure

5, with an intercept of 1 and slope of (-0.306). The experi-
E4 . . (s-d)
mental values of Ifp are also plotted against p vf g- >
'op
using the mean value for p determined above. A reasonable
agreement between the theoretical line of equation (1) and the
194
experimental points using the mean p value suggests that the

equation can be satisfactorily used for design purposes.
Figure 5. Relation between —^

e and p V-
f i
d ^ d for glass
op
fibre reinforced matrices. Cement paste:
4h(*); 8h(□); 24H {%). Mortar: 4h(X); 8h($);
24h(A).
Basalt Fibres
Similar analysis as in the previous section are carried out on

the data for basalt fibre reinforced cement composites [4].
Cement and mortar matrices were reinforced with basalt fibres
of length 35mm and diameter 17-25pm (mean diameter 21pm).
The relationship between Lie and v f &/d is shown in Figure 6.

"op
1-2 -
M ix T im e (h ) S ym bol
1 -' P a s te 4 •
+
□
P a s te 24 ♦
0 -8 -
o * M o rta r 4 *
6fp 0 - 6 - + °
M o rta r 24 □
ôp o * □
0 -4 - +
O
0-2
0
10 15 20 25 30
Figure 6. Relation between "fP and Vf £/d for basalt fibre

Eop
reinforced matrices
195
The values of p calculated from equation 3 are plotted

against time in Figure 7 and show sensibly constant values
with time. The graph between p and v^ &/d, in Figure 8, shows
that a constant value of p=0.0068 can be reasonably assumed
for basalt fibres in paste and mortar matrices.
10 15
T im e (h r s )
Figure 7. Relation between p and Time for basalt fibre

Figure 8. Relation between p and it/d for basalt fibre

Finally the plot of equation 1 together with experimental
points of 1£P versus p vf & /d I in Figure 9 shows that the

op
expression is equally valid to basalt fibres in cement
matrices as it is for glass fibres (Figure 5).
196
U (s -d )
W/d
£ (s-d)
Figure 9. Relation between 1£P and p 3- for basalt
r a
'op
4 h (*); 8h(H); 24H (X ) . Mortar: 4h(X); 8h(0);
Steel Fibres 24h(A ) .
Data from Komlos and Brull [4] on steel fibres in cement and
mortar are considered in this section. Steel fibres of length
35mm and rectangular cross-section, 0.65x0.45mm, were used.
The graph and

between 1£P
Vd in Figure 10 shows a
"op
similar trend as data on glass and basalt fibres in Figures 2
and 6 .
1-2
Mix T im e (h ) Sym bol
1 1 P a s te 4 •
P a s te 24 +
0-8 -
M o rta r 4 *
ll L 0-6 - M o rta r 24 □
ôp
0-4 -
0 -2 -
o -
0-2 (K 0-6 0-8
v<l
/d
Figure 10. Relation between and H/d for steei fibre

e f
OD
197
Typical results of p against time, in Figure 11, show

fairly constant p values with time. The graph between H/d
and average values of p, for cement and mortar matrices, in
Figure 12, shows an increase in p with v^ £/d, which can be
represented by the following equation:
p = 0.16 v f V d + 0.16 (4)
0-4
0-3 -
110-2- v f% Sym bol
0-29 •
0-87 +
0-1 -
1-45 *
0-
0 5 10 15 20 25
T im e (h r s )
Figure 11. Relation between p and Time for steel fibre

o 35
0-3
025
0-2
0-15
0-1
0-05
V/d
Figure 12. Relation between p and 1/6 for steel fibre
The graphical representation of equation (1) in Figure 13

shows its validity to data on steel fibre reinforced cement
and mortar matrices.
198
Figure 13. Relation between and p g- » ^ for steel

eop
4 h (*); 8 h (□); 24H {%). Mortar: 4h(X); 8h(0);
24h(A ).
Polypropylene fibres
Plastic shrinkage data on cement matrices reinforced with

polypropylene fibres is given in a paper by Zollo [3]. How
ever, owing to the difficulty in determining the diameter of
such fibres, no value for d has been given. Consequently,
formal analysis of data cannot be presented. An analysis
using an assumed equivalent diameter, was nevertheless carried
out which showed similar relationships between the various
parameters as have been observed above for basalt and glass
fibres.
CONCLUSIONS
The principles of the theory for plastic and drying shrinkage

of steel fibre reinforced cement matrices, which has been
derived previously, are equally valid for composites rein
forced with other types of fibres such as glass, basalt and
polypropylene.
REFERENCES
1. Malmberg, B . , "Steel fibre reinforced concrete under free

and restrained shrinkage", Paper P, Fibre Betong (Nord-
forsks Project Kommittee for FRC Materials, Stockholm,
1977, (in Swedish).
199
2. Mangat, P.S.f Azari, M.M., "Shrinkage of steel fibre rein

forced cement composites", Rilem Materials and Structures,
1988, 21, 163-171.
3. Zollo, R.F., liter, J.A., Bouchacourt, G.B., "Plastic and
drying shrinkage in concrete containing collated fibril
lated polypropylene fibre", Rilem Symp. on Developments in
Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete", July 1986,
Sheffield, U.K., Paper 4.5.
4. Komlos, K., Brull, L., "Early age shrinkage of fibre rein
forced cements and mortars", Proc. Int. Symp. on Fibre
Reinforced Concrete, Madras, India, Dec. 1987, Oxford and
IBH Publishers, Vol. 2, 4.41-4.51.
5. Mangat, P.S., Azari, M.M., "Plastic shrinkage of steel
fibre reinforced cement composites", Rilem Materials and
Structures, In Press.
6. Swamy, R.N., Stavrides, H., "Influence of fibre reinforce
ment on restraining shrinkage and cracking", J. Amer.
Concr. Inst., 75, 1979, 443-460.
7. Mangat, P.S., Azari, M.M., "A theory for the free shrink
age of steel fibre reinforced cement matrices", Journal of
Materials Science, 19, 1984, 2183-2194.
8. Mangat, P.S., Azari, M.M., "Theories for shrinkage and

creep of steel fibre reinforced concrete", Proc. Int.
Symp. on Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Madras, India, Vol. 1,
Dec. 1987, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., 1.207-1.218.
9. Mangat, P.S., Azari, M.M., "A theory for the creep of
steel fibre reinforced cement matrices under compression",
Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 20, 1985, pp 1119-1133.
10. Oakley, D.R., Proctor, B.A., "Tensile stress-strain
behaviour of glass fibre reinforced cement composites",
Proc. Rilem Symposium on Fibre Reinforced Cement and
Concrete, 1975, Construction Press Ltd., U.K., 347-359.
11. Neville, A.M., "Properties of Concrete", Pitman Publishing
Ltd.. 3rd Edition.
200
USE OF
SMALL-DIAMETER POLYPROPYLENE FIBRES
IN
CEMENT-BASED MATERIALS
Ziad Bayasi and Gregory Peterson

Department of Civil Engineering and Construction
Bradley University, Peoria, Illinois 61625
U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
The microcrack arrest properties of small-diameter vs. large-diameter fibres in cement
composites is introduced. A review of literature on the flexural (tensile) behaviour of
polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete, mortar and cement is presented. A preliminary
experimental program on the use of small diameter polypropylene fibres for cement
reinforcement is described. The manufacturing technique with emphasis on fibre dispersion
procedure is outlined. The use of silica fume as a dispersing agent is discussed. The results of
the flexural behaviour of small-diameter polypropylene fibre cement are detailed.
INTRODUCTION
Microcracks and flaws exist in cement-based materials at all stages of loading, including the
no-loading stage. They occur due to shrinkage and thermal movement, moisture migration,
and incomplete mixing. Microcracks are abundant and very closely spaced(l,2). Under
increased loading, microcracks tend to expand and widen, leading to the formation of a crack
and eventually failure. The expansion and widening are especially critical under loading
conditions that directly tend to open the microcracks by applying high tensile stresses at the
crack tip. Such conditions include tensile and impact loading conditions.
Reference 3 detailed a study on the action of steel fibres in increasing the tensile strength of
concrete. Steel fibres, when used in volume fractions ranging from 1.5% to 2.0%, can
increase the tensile strength of concrete by up to about 50%, depending on the type of steel
fibres. This effect of steel fibres results from their action as crack and microcrack depressors,
rather than their pull-out action (3). When cracks start to propagate in between the internal
flaws and microcracks of the cementitious matrix, it is important to have fibres located between
these microcracks and flaws in order to stop or deflect the propagating cracks.
The action of steel fibres mobilizes only a small fraction of the pul-out strength of fibres
(3). Steel fibres, at typical spacing of about 5 mm (0.2 in), are too far apart to effectively
interact with microcracks (Figure 1) and thus only moderately effective in increasing the tensile
strength of cement-based materials (4,5)
201
Figure 1. Distribution of steel fibres in concrete and their effect on the tensile behaviour (1).
Carbon fibres (as an example of small-diameter fibres) are very effective in enhancing the
tensile strength of cement. The small carbon fibre diameter (10-18 microns = 4 - 7 x 10"4 in)
leads to high fibre counts at a certain volume fraction of fibres. Carbon fibres, with a typical
spacing of 0.1 mm (0.004 in), encounter the propagating microcracks very frequently and thus
efficiently stop and deflect their further widening or extension (5). This action of carbon fibres
leads to significant improvements in the tensile behaviour of cementitious materials (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Distribution of carbon fibres in cementitious materials and their effect on the tensile
behaviour (4).
It is worth mentioning that the relatively large diameter fibres (e.g. steel fibres) are
generally effective in improving the post-cracking resistance of concrete. Due to their relatively
large spacing, the action of large-diameter fibres is manifested after the occurrence of a crack.
This action is totally dependent on the fibre resistance to pull-out from the concrete matrix
which opposes further widening and propagation of cracks. By improving the pull-out
resistance of the relatively large diameter fibres (e.g. use of hooked-end steel fibres or twisted
polypropylene fibres), significant improvements in the post-cracking resistance of concrete can
be achieved (6-8).
202
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Polypropylene fibres are relatively inexpensive, easy to manufacture in different shapes and
sizes, and inert in the alkaline environment of the cementitious matrix. They are also light
weight, they have good resilience, good thermal stability, high strength, and favorable
elongation properties (6,7,9-16). On the other hand, polypropylene fibres have low elastic
modulus, low physical-chemical bond to the cementitious matrix and high poisson's ratio.
Among the other disadvantages of polypropylene fibres is their combustibility and low melting
point. However, a study in Reference 17 indicated that polypropylene fibres have acceptable
resistance to elevated temperatures (Figure 3), and their resistance can be improved through the
use of scavengers.
Figure 3. The effect of elevated temperatures on the tensile strength of polypropylene fibers
(17).
The abandonment of asbestos (due to its health hazards) provided the incentive for many
researchers in their search for fibre cement composites that can substitute asbestos cement.
Many fibre types were considered as replacement for asbestos. These included cellulose,
carbon, glass, kevlar, acrylic, and of course, polypropylene. In the following paragraphs of
this literature review, the results of different attempts by researchers to improve the
effectiveness of polypropylene fibres in enhancing the flexural behavior of cementitious
materials are discussed.
In the experiments described in Reference 9, collated fibrillated polypropylene fibres were
used in volume fractions up to 0.5%. The matrix was concrete containing coarse aggregate
with a maximum size of 9 mm (3/8 in). The flexural load-deflection relationships of
polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete with different fibre volume fractions are shown in
Figure 4. It can be observed from Figure 4 that increasing the volume fraction of fibres tends
to moderately improve the flexural strength. However, this trend is noted to be reversed for
203
fibre volume fractions greater than 0.3% possibly due to the effect of workability problems. It
is also worth mentioning that the flexural load of polypropylene fibre concrete increases at a
constant rate with increasing deflections up to a peak (cracking) load. Cracking of the concrete
matrix at the peak load leads to a sudden drop in the flexural resistance. Further deformations
are needed to mobilize the fibre action in resisting flexural stresses and increasing the flexural
resistance to a level generally termed the post-cracking strength (9).
Figure 4. Load (stress) deflection relationships of collated fibrillated polypropylene fibre

reinforced concrete (9).
In a experimental program of Reference 7, twisting of polypropylene fibres was used to
improve their pull-out strength from the matrix. Further, a mortar matrix with sand-to-cement
ratio (by weight) ranging from 0.4 to 1.0 was adopted. The specimens of Reference 7 had a
depth of 12.5 mm (1/2 in) to generate a two-dimensional distribution of fibres which had a
length of 25 mm (1 in). These measures of Reference 7 have resulted in significant
improvements in the post cracking resistance of polypropylene fibre reinforced cement (see
Figure 5).
Monofilament polypropylene fibres with diameters ranging from 15 to 250 microns
(0.0006 to 0.01 in) were used in the experimental program of Reference 19. A mortar mixer
was used in combination with suction dewatering process in order to improve the effectiveness
of polypropylene fibres as a reinforcement for cement. Large amounts of water were initially
added to facilitate the dispersion of fibres in the mix. Upon dewatering under external pressure
up to about 80 MPa (11.6 ksi) the additional water was drained out of the specimen while
maintaining a water-cement ratio of about 40%. The specimens of Reference 19 were discs
with 10 mm (0.39 in) thickness. The external pressure used for removing the additional water
from the specimens combined with the small thickness of specimens were targeted at
generating a two-dimensional distribution of fibres thereby increasing their effectiveness.
Reference 19 concluded that decreasing the fibre diameter and increasing the dewatering
pressure are very effective in improving the flexural behavior of polypropylene fiber reinforced
cement. However, the increased tendency of clumping and balling with decreasing fibre
diameter has created substantial difficulties upon using fibres with diameters below 49 microns
(0.002 in). Figure 6 presents some of the test results generated by Reference 19. It can be
noticed from Firgure 6 that there is a sudden drop in the flexural strength after cracking of the
204
cementitious matrix. This behaviour is similar to that reported in Reference 9 for

polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete.
Figure 5. Flexural load (stress) deflection diagram of twisted polypropylene fibre reinforced
mortar (7).
Figure 6. Typical flexural stress versus deflection curves for monofilament polypropylene
fibre reinforced cement (18).
205
Preliminary experiments were conducted on the flexural behaviour of small diameter

polypropylene fibre reinforced cement. Fibres with diameters of 3 microns (0.0001 in) were
used. This is a considerable decrease in fibre diameter compared to the fibres used in
Reference 19. Such fibres are of two significant advantages: (1) Very high fibre count and
consequently very effective microcrack arresting capability (as previously discussed), and (2)
Increased interfacial bond area (surface area of fibres). This can be very essential considering
the relatively low bond strength between polypropylene fibres and cementitious matrices. A
mortar mixer (Figure 7) was utilized for manufacturing of the material. Mortar mixer induces a
relatively high mixing effort which can facilitate the dispersion of small-diameter polypropylene
fibres. Also, adjustment of the mix proportions (namely using a disperser) was adopted. 30%
of the weight of pordand cement was replaced by silica fume in the mix. Silica fume is a
highly active pozzolanic material with Si02 constituting more than 90% of its weight. Its
average particle size is about 0.15 microns (0.000006 in) resulting in a surface area of about
200,000 cm3/g (14 x 106 in^/lb). The small particle size and the high affinity to water make
silica fume an ideal disperser for small diameter fibres in cementitious materials. Silica fume
cement mixtures are generally sticky and cohesive which can greatly facilitate the dispersion of
fibres in the matrix. Also, silica fume with its small particle size can effectively coat the fibres
and thereby significantly enhance their reinforcing mechanism.
Figure 7. Mortar mixer (4).

The mixture proportions used in the preliminary study reported herein consisted of: water-
binder (70% pordand cement + 30% silica fume) ratio = 0.30, superplasticizer-binder ratio =
0.032, and fibre volume fraction = 4.5%. Two fibre lengths were experimented: 3 mm (1/8 in)
and 10 mm (7/16 in). The following mixing procedure was followed:
1. Place silica fume and about 2/3 of the mix liquids (water and superplasticizer) in the
mortar mixer and start mixing at a low speed until a homogeneous cohesive mixture is
obtained,
2. Add fibres gradually to the running mixer. Care should be exercised so that fibres do
not clump or ball during addition,
3. Add pordand cement and the remainder of the mixing liquids simultaneously to the
operating mixer, and
206
4. Increase the mixing speed and mix for about 2 minutes so that a workable uniform
mixture is obtained.
Vibration was performed externally through a vibration table for about 2 minutes. Test
specimens had dimensions of 25 x 100 x 350 mm (1 x 4 x 14 in) and were tested under flexure
in four point loading with a span of 300 mm (12 in). Three identical specimens were
manufactured for each fibre length and were kept in their moulds for 24 hours under plastic
cover. The specimens were then demoulded and cured under 100% relative humidity and
20° C (72° F) temperature for 7 days. Thereafter, the specimens were kept in a regular
laboratory environment until the test age of 14 days. Loading was applied by a universal
hydraulic testing machine and central deflections were measured by a dial gauge with 0.01 mm
(0.0004 in) accuracy.
Figure 8 presents the flexural load (stress) deflection diagrams of small diameter polypropylene
fibre reinforced cement with different fibre lengths. The results of this preliminary
investigation are very encouraging as it can be seen from the figure. The 3 mm long fibres
performed better than the 10 mm long ones possibly due to some workability problems. It can
also be noted from Figure 8 that no sudden drop in flexural strength was encountered upon
cracking of the matrix. Small-diameter polypropylene fibre cement has high post-cracking
resistance and very favorable ductility characteristics.
It worth mentioning that with further optimization of the matrix proportions, fibre length
and volume fraction, and manufacturing technique, the flexural behaviour of the material can be
significantly improved.
Deflection (mm)
Figure 8. Load (stress) deflection curves for small-diameter polypropylene fibre reinforced
cement.
207
CONCLUSIONS
The use of small-diameter polypropylene fibres in cement composites can significantly improve
the flexural strength, toughness and ductility. The close spacing of such fibres enables them to
efficiently work as crack arrestors. Also, the small-diameter and consequently the high surface
area of these fibres can lead to the mobilization of the bond strength between the matrix and
fibres.
Silica fume cement mixtures are characterized by their cohesiveness and stickiness.
Therefore, silica fume addition to the mixture can play the role of a disperser for the small-
diameter polypropylene fibres.
High mixing effort is generally required for manufacturing of small-diameter polypropylene
fibre cement. Mortar, Omin or other types of mixers may be recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr. Amir Al-Khafaji for his valuable advice and leadership in this
research effort.
The authors would also like to thank Mr. Robert Baker of Phillips Fibers, Mr. Robert
Prisby and Mr. Mark Luther of ELKEM Materials, and Mr. James Amundsen from W.R.
Grace for providing materials for this research program.
REFERENCES
1. Mehta. P.K.. Concrete Structure. Properties and Materials. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs (U.S.A.), pp. 450-26.
2. Whiting, D., Permeability of selected concretes. In Advancements in Concrete Materials.
Bradley University, Peoria (U.S.A.), 1989, pp. 24.15-19.1.
3. Soroushian, P. and Bayasi, Z., Prediction of the tensile strength of fibre reinforced
concrete: a critique of the composite material concept. In Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Properties and Applications. Publication SP-105, American Concrete Institute, Detroit
(U.S.A.), 1987, pp. 597-71.
4. Bayasi, Z., Devleopment and mechanical characterization of carbon fibre reinforced cement
copiposites. Vol. 2, Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State University, E. Lansing (U.S.A.),
1989, pp. 199-5.
5. Soroushian, P., Bayasi, Z., Nagi, M. and Boyer, D.C., Carbon fibre reinforced cement.
In Recent Advances in Concrete Technology. Michigan State University, E. Lansing
(U.S.A.), 1989, pp. 16.15-10.1.
6. Bayasi, Z., Peterson, G. and Ahn, T.S., Mechanical properties and durability of plastic
fibre reinforced cement and concrete. In Advancements in Concrete Materials. Bradley
University, Peoria (U.S.A.), 1989, pp. 24-15-3.1.
7. Naaman, A.E., shah, S.P. and Thorne, J.L., Some developments in polypropylene fibres
for concrete. In Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Publication SP-81, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit (U.S.A.), 1984, pp. 452-375.
208
8. Ramakrishnan, V., Brandshaug, T., Coyle, W. and Schrader, E., A comparative

evaluation of concrete reinforced with straight steel fibres and fibres with deformed ends
glued together into bundles. American Concrete Institute Journal. 77, 1980, pp. 645-135.
9. Alwahab, R. and Soroushian, P., Characterization of "Fiberforce" collated fibrillated
polypropylene fibres and their application to concrete. Technical Report MSU-ENGR-87-
022, Michigan State University, E. Lansing (U.S.A.), December 1987.
10. Krenchel, H. and Shah, S., Restrained shrinkage tests with PP - fibre reinforced concrete.
In Fibre Reinforced Concrete Properties and Applications. Publication SP-105, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit (U.S.A.), 1987, pp. 597-141.
11. Zollo, R.F., Collated fibrillated polypropylene fibres in FRC. In Fibre Reinforced
Concrete. Publication SP-81, American Concrete Institute, Detroit (U.S.A.), 1984, pp.
452-397.
12. Keer, J. and Thome, A., Performance of polypropylene reinforced cement sheeting
elements. In Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Publication SP-81, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit (U.S.A.), 1984, pp. 452-231.
13. Ramakrishnan, V., Gollapudi, S. and Zellers, R., Performance characteristics and fatigue
strength of polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete. In Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Properties and Applications. Publication SP-105, American Concrete Institute, Detroit
(U.S.A.), 1987, pp. 597-159.
14. Hannant, D., Zonsveld, J. and Hughes, D., Polypropylene film in cement-based materials.
Composites: 1978, 9, pp. 83-1953.
15. Hannat, D., Fibre Cements and Fibre Concretes. John Wiley & Sons, London, 1978, pp.
219-75.
16. Vondran, G., Plastic fibre reinforced concrete. In Recent Advances in Concrete
Technology. Michigan State University, E. Lansing (U.S.A.), 1989, pp. 24.15-8.1.
17. Gardiner, G., Keeting, J. and Hannant, D., Accelerated aging of cement sheets containing
polypropylene networks. Journal of Material Science. 20,1985, pp. 4162-3574.
18. Dave, N.J. and Ellis, D.E., Polypropylene fibre reinforced cement. The International
Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete. 1, 1979, pp. 354-19.
209
PREDICTION OF CRACK WIDTH IN FIBROUS

REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS
S.A. AL-TAAN and J.R. AL-Feel

College of Engineering, Mosul University, Mosul, IRAQ.
ABSTRACT
A method is described for predicting crack width and spacing

in concrete members reinforced with a combination of steel
bars and randomly distributed steel fibres. The method takes
into account variables such as fibre dimensions, volume frac
tion of fibres, type of fibre and the interfacial bond stress of
fibres. The proposed method predicts crack widths from the
cracking stage up to the ultimate strength of the beam. Calcu
lated crack widths obtained for concrete beams and axially
loaded tension members reinforced with longitudinal bars and
different amount, type and dimensions of steel fibres showed
good agreement with published experimental results.
INTRODUCTION
A number of investigations since the late fifties were con

cerned with the cracking of reinforced concrete members. This
interest has stimulated by a trend toward the use of limit
state method of design, where cracking needs to be checked,
and the trend toward the use of higher strength steels. Vari
ous theoretical, empirical, and semi-empirical methods have
been proposed for calculating crack widths and spacings in re
inforced concrete members. A review of the different formulae
up to 1976 was presented by Desayi (1). Codes of Practice (2-
4) recommended different formulae for crack width prediction
and limits the maximum crack widths for different exposures.
The superior resistance of fibre concrete to cracking and

crack propagation could be utilized to improve the resistance
of structural members to cracking, deflection and other ser
viceability conditions. Test results showed that steel fibres
allow a substantial increase in reinforcing bar stress to be
developed before a particular width of crack occurs (5). There
fore, higher strength steels may be used with steel fibres
210
without the risk of exceeding the limit state of crack width.

However, the application of fibre concrete in structural mem
bers has not been very extensive, and applications will be
developed once sufficient data on short-term and long-term
performance are available and engineers have access to appro
priate design procedures (6). Concerning cracking of fibre
concrete members, Ibrahim and Luxmoore (7,8) proposed a theo
retical method for estimating crack width and spacing which is
a modification of Leonhardt's method (9). This paper presents
a method for estimating crack width and spacing in concrete
members reinforced with longitudinal bars and randomly distri
buted steel fibres.
PROPOSED METHOD
Crack Spacing
In a reinforced concrete beam loaded by transverse loads, or a
reinforced concrete member loaded in axial tension, Fig. (1),
cracks will form where the tensile strength of concrete is ex
ceeded at weak sections. The free-body diagram of the tension
region between section 1-1 and 2-2 is considered, Fig. (2). In
the uncracked stage, each steel fibre carries a stress equal
to: (E^/E ) f^, where E^ and E are the elastic moduli of the
fibres anS concrete respective?y, and f-j- is the tensile
strength of concrete. The number of fibres (N) crossing a unit
area can be calculated as follows (10):
N = 2 vf / ( T df2 ) (1)
where Vf is the fibres volume fraction and df is the fibre
diameter.
Figure 1. Cracked flexural and axially loaded tensile members.
The forces carried by fibres per unit area, therefore

equals to:
ff = 0.5 vf (Ef/Ec ) ft (2)
The concrete and the fibre stresses at section 2-2 is

transferred to section 1-1 by bond stresses between steel and
concrete which assumed to vary linearly from zero at section
2-2 to maximum at section 1-1, the tension in the steel T ? at
211
section 2-2 is smaller than T at section 1-1 by the amount of

the shear forces along the bar (11).
T - T' = (uf/2) (Sa/2) Z O (3)
where uf = bond strength of bars embedded in fibre concrete,

Sa = average minimum crack spacing and Z O = the sum of bar
perimeters. The difference between the concrete and steel fi
bre stresses at section 2-2 and the stresses carried by steel
fibres at section 1-1, due to the direct tension of the bar,
which is transmitted by bond is:
- f, A A (4)
e Ae + ff
fr
where Ae = the effective area under tension, and ffc = the fo r
ces per unit area carried by steel fibres bridging a cracks.
Ae can be taken as in reference (12). Equating the right hand
side of equations (3) and (4) and solving for Sa :
Sa " 4Ae <ft * ff - Ifc)/(uf -ZO) <5)
Figure 2. Stresses at sections 1-1 and 2-2 and bond stress distribution.
Since the fibres length (If) is usually less than the critical
length (lc ) necessary to develop the ultimate tensile strength
of the fibre, and the displacement of the two faces of the
cracks, fibre pull-out invariably occurs. It has been shown
that the mean fibre pull-out length is (lf/4) (10). The aver
age pull-out force per fibre is given by:
f = r . 7T • df . lf/4 (6)
where T is the average bond stress. At a crackthe unit stress
carried by the fibres f^ is given by (10):
ffc = N.f = N.t . ^ . d f .lf/4 = 0 . 5 vf .r .lf/df (7)
Average Crack Width

With the average crack spacing known, the average crack width
at the reinforcement level can be determined as follows:
W = S . e (8)
a a s v J
where es = the steel strain allowing for the contribution of
steel fibres and the tension stiffening of concrete.
212
A flexural member is analysed first as an elastic uncracked

homogeneous section, and the uncracked transformed second mo
ment of area is calculated as follows:
Iut=(n-l)A^(x-d-)2+bx3/3+nAs (d-x)2+0.5vf (Ef/Ec )b(h-x)3/3

(9)
where n = Es/Ec , Ag = area of compression steel, x = neutral

axis depth, d ’= depth to compression steel, b = width of the
section, Ag = area of tension steel, d = effective depth and
h is the total depth. The cracking moment is then calculated
as follows:
1VI (10)
The steel and concrete stresses and strains are calculated

using the equation for bending of elastic homogeneous sections.
Beyond the cracking stage the stress-strain curve of concrete

in the compression zone (13) is assumed parabolic, Fig. (3) up
to a strain of 0.002 as follows:
f = f'
f2 e /e (£C/£o>‘ ( 11)
C L
C c' o
where f^ = cylinder strength of concrete, ec = concrete strain
at stress fc and eQ = strain at peak stress assumed equal to
0.002.
fc
fs".As' = —
€ s . E s As".
A s. Es .6s .
stra in _ d ist. ffc = 0.5 Vf T if / df
Figure 3. Assumed strain and stress distribution at a crack in

a reinforced concrete beam with steel fibres.
A value of concrete strain greater than that at cracking is

assumed. The contribution of the concrete in compression,
compression steel, tension steel and the steel fibres crossing
the crack are calculated for this new value of the concrete
strain and in terms of an unknown value of (x). By equating
the tension and compression forces, the value of (x) can be
determined from which the steel strain and stress and the ben
ding moment or the load carried by the member can be calcula
ted. This process is repeated by increasing the concrete com
pressive strain each time until the ultimate strength of the
beam is reached (yielding of the reinforcement in most cases).
213
The cracking load for axially loaded member in tension P can

be calculated as follows:
(ft + 0.5 v- (Ef/E )ft )(b.h + (n-1) Aq) ( 12 )
Beyond cracking, the external load is resisted by the steel

stress and the fibres bridging the crack, Fig. (4):
P = (b.h - A ) f (13)
v s
The steel stress is calculated by solving the above equation.
*fc
;
Ac.f
s •Ts *
Figure 4. Assumed stress distribution Figure 5. Descending part of the

for axially loaded member. fibre stress-displacement relation.
The stiffening effect of concrete in the tension zone of a

beam or axially loaded member can be calculated by using CEB
formula (4)
S ■ V Es C1 - P ' W V 2 ] <14>
P is a coefficient representing the bond characteristics of
the bar ( P = 0 . 7 for high bond bars and zero for smoothbars),
and f = the steel stress at the cracking stage.
Bond Strength of Steel Bars Embedded in Fibre Concrete

Swamy and Al-Noori (14) have carried out pull-out tests on five
bar sizes embedded in plain and fibre concrete. Plain round
and shaped steel fibres were used with 2 and 1 percent volume
respectively. The test results showed that bars embedded in
fibre concrete have anchorage bond strength 35 - 40 percent
greater than that for bars embedded in plain concrete. There
fore, the bond strength of steel bars in fibre concrete may be
written as (7):
uf = * uo
where uQ = bond strength of bars embedded in plain concrete
and assumed equal to that used in deriving the development
length for tension bars (13)
Uo = 20 /fj>db )
2
uQ and f^ are in N/mm and d^ = bar diameter in mm.
^ = factor calculated by linear interpolation (7,8) as

follows:
214
(i) for straight round fibres

^ = (1 + 20 v^) ^ 1.4 (16)
(ii) for shaped fibres
Y = (1 + 40 vf) 1.4 (17)
Interfacial Bond Strength of Steel Fibres

As with steel bars embedded in concrete, the general nature of
bond strength for steel fibres is a combination of adhesion,
friction and mechanical interlocking. However, no single test
can make a true assessment of this bond strength. The pull-out
test is more a measure of the anchorage bond and does not re
produce the state of stress in the matrix of the actual compo
site (15), it also gives highly variable results. In an actual
composite, the fibres are not necessarily aligned in the direc
tion of the stress trajectories; fibres may be oblique to the
cracked cross-section of the matrix, and the bond is influen
ced by the proximity of adjacent fibres. Moreover, in structu
ral members, the steel fibres are often in a state of flexure,
and pull-out of the fibres occurs in flexural tension. Swamy
and Mangat (15) computed the interfacial bond strength indi
rectly from a wide range of flexural strength results in steel
fibre concrete which are likely to be met in practice. At the
cracking and ultimate stages a value of tT = 3.57 and 4.15 N/
mm2 respectively were calculated and these values were adopted
in this investigation for plain fibres in beams.
The increase in the bond strength from cracking to the ulti

mate stage (yielding of the tension steel) assumed to vary
linearly as follows:
T = 3.57 + 0.58 v
(fs - fsr')/(f
1 v y - fsry
) (18)
where fy = the yield strength of the tension bars. The stresses

carried by fibres beyond cracking can be calculated as (10):
ffc 0- 5 V j . . 1^/dj (19)
The average stress in each fibre due to the increase in crack

width can be calculated a s :
( 20)
Pull-out of fibres assumed to commence when the tension steel

yields or the steel fibre stress calculated by equation (20)
exceeds a value of (4.15 lf/df). Complete debonding of the
fibres assumed to take place if the calculated maximum pro
bable crack width attains a value equal to (lf/4) (10).Between
commencement of pull-out and final pull-out of the fibres the
stress in the fibres assumed to change in a manner similar to
that proposed by Visalvanich and Naaman (6), but with (lf/2)
changed to (lf/4) as shown in Fig. (5) and the following equa
tion :
f s f / ( t . l f /df ) =( 0 . 1 ( 4 5 / l f ) + l ) ( ( 4 y / l f ) - l ) 2 (21 )
215
A bond efficiency factor of 1.0 is applied to smooth,straight,

round fibres. Other fibres such as Duoform, crimped, hooked or
paddled fibres are assigned a higher value as assumed by Hena-
ger (16).
Maximum and Average Crack Width

Cracking is a random phenomenon and wide variations in crack
spacing and crack width occur under similar conditions. For
fibre concrete beams. Ibrahim and Luxmoore (8) proved that the
Weibull distribution gave a very adequate representation of
the scatter in the observations of crack width at a particular
load. A value of 1.9 for the ratio of maximum to average crack
width is reported based on a five percent chance of not being
exceeded. This value is used in the present investigation.
Equation (8) gives the average crack width at the reinforce-

ment level. The average crack width at the tension face of a
flexural member can be estimated using the following formula
(17) :
w = wa (h-x)/(d-x) (22)
For tension members, the following relationship can be used
(7,12,17) :
w = wa • aCr/c (23)
where acr = distance from point of measurement to the nearest
bar surface, and c = concrete clear cover.
RESULTS
Kormeling et al. (18) tested three groups of reinforced con
crete beams, each group contained different amount of longitu
dinal bars, fibre volume, type and dimensions. Maximum crack
widths were reported for nine fibre concrete beams. Six beams
were chosen for comparison. The beams were 100 mm wide, 152 mm
deep and tested under four points loading on a span of 2.0 m.
Three beams contained 1.27 percent by volume straight, round
fibres (0.4 x 24 mm) and the other three contained 1.54 percent
by volume paddled fibres (0.8 x 50 mm). A bond efficiency fac
tor of 1.2 is used for the paddled fibres. The calculated and
measured maximum crack width are shown in Fig. (6). The agree
ment between the two values seemed reasonable.
Ibrahim and Luxmoore (8) tested six groups of fibre concrete

beams. The beams were 155 mm wide, 260 mm deep and tested
under four points loading on a span of 2.0 m. The beams were
reinforced with 2 (f> 12 mm or 2 (f> 16 mm and different amount
and dimensions of Duoform steel fibres. A bond efficiency fac
tor of 1.3 is used. Groups B and D were chosen for comparison,
these were reinforced with 2 (?)16 mm, 1.152 percent by volume
of steel fibres 0.65 x 60 mm and 0.5 x 40 mm respectively.
Crack spacings at the midpoint of the tension face (line B)
and at 100 mm above the tension face, i.e., on the side faces
(line E) are shown in Table (1) together with the calculated
values using the proposed method.
216
TABLE 1
Expected and Calculated Crack Spacings for Beams of Ref. (8).
Expected crack spacing (mm)

Group
Line B Line E Calculated
B 62.1 80.8 68.0
D 60.6 78.5 81.3
Ibrahim and Luxmoore (8) stated that the neutral axis position
should be determined by equating tensile and compressive for
ces, as used in this investigation, and not from the centroid
of the equivalent transformed section, since the latter assu
med a fixed position. Fig. (7) shows the measured and calcula
ted positions of the neutral axis using the proposed method.
The agreement between the two is good. Fig. (8) shows the mea
sured maximum crack width at the tension face (38 mm from the
corners), the calculated maximum crack width using the pro
posed method and the method proposed by Ibrahim and Luxmoore
(8). The agreement between the calculated and measured values
is good.
Figure 6. Load-maximum crack width (beams ref. 18).
N.A Depth(mm) group B N.A. Depth(mm) group C

Figure 7. Comparison of calculated and measured neutral axis depths(ref.8).
217
Sammarai and Elvery (5) tested uniaxial tensile fibre concrete

prisms. The prisms were 75 x 75 x 500 mm and reinforced with
three types of 12 mm diameter and different types and dimensi
ons of steel fibres. The prisms reinforced with one percent by
volume of Duoform fibres (0.38 x 38 mm and 0.5 x 38 mm) were
used for comparison. A bond strength of 2.8 N/mm2 is used in
the calculation. This value is used in reference (7) for the
Duoform fibre 0.38 x 38 mm. Although the bond strength of the
0.5 x 38 mm Duoform fibres may be different but the same value
was used in the calculation for the two fibres. The measured
and the calculated values are shown in Fig. (9). The figure
shows that the calculated values for the 0.38 x 38 mm fibres
agrees better than those for the 0.5 x 38 mm fibres with the
measured values. This may be attributed to the choice of the
bond strength value. However, the trend for the two sets of
values is the same, i.e., less crack width with smaller fibre
diameter.
Max. crack width (mm) Max.crack width(mm)

Figure 8. L/Dad-maximum crack width Figure 9. Steel stress-maximum crack
(beam ref. 8). width (tension prism ref. 5).
CONCLUSIONS
The proposed method predicts maximum crack widths of beams and
tension members reinforced with longitudinal bars and steel
fibres with reasonable accuracy. Crack spacing of beams were
also agreed satisfactorily with measured values. A suitable
choice of the interfacial. bond strength of steel fibres is re
quired, since it influences the predicted values.
REFERENCES
3. Desayi, P., Cracking of reinforced and prestressed concrete
members, Part 1, Indian Cone. J ., 50, May 1976, 146-50.
2. British Standards Institute, BS 8110, Structural use of

concrete, Part 2, 1985, Code of Practice for Special Cir-
cumstances.
3. ACI Committee 318, Building code requirements for reinforced
concrete (318-83), ACI, Detroit, 1983, 111 pp.
4. Comite Euro-International Du Beton, International system of
unified standard codes of practice for structures, Bulletin
218
’Information No. 117-E, Dec. 1976, 303 pp.
5. Sammarai, M.A. and Elvery, R.H., The influence of fibres

upon crack development in reinforced concrete subject to
uniaxial tension, Mag. of Cone. Res., 26, Dec.1974, 203-11.
6. ACI Committee 544, Design considerations for steel fibre

reinforced concrete, ACI Str. J ., 85, Sep.-Oct.1988,563-80.
7. Ibrahim, O.T. and Luxmoore, A.R., Control of crack width by

inclusion of fibres in conventionally reinforced concrete,
Int. J . of Cem. Comp.t 1, July 1979, 77-89.
8. Ibrahim, O.T. and Luxmoore, A.R., Control of cracks in

reinforced concrete using steel fibres, Proc. of the third
inter, sym. on develop, in fibre reinf. cem. and conc.,
RILEM Technical Committee 49-TFR, Sheffield, U.K., 13-17
July 1986, Vol. 2.
9. Leonhardt, F., Crack control in concrete structures, IABSE

Surveys, S-4/77, Aug. 1977, pp. 26.
10. Hannant, D.J., Fibre cements and fibre concretes, John

Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1978, pp. 22-24.
11. Chi, M. and Kirstein, A.F., Flexural cracks in reinforced
concrete beams, ACI J ., 29, April 1958, 865-78
12. Desayi, P., Determination of maximum crack width in rein

forced concrete members, ACI J ., 73, Aug. 1976, 473-77.
13. Wang, C.K. and Salmon, C.G., Reinforced concrete design,

Fourth ed., Harper and Row Publishers, New York, 1985,
pp. 211, 540.
14. Swamy, R.N. and Al-Noori, K.A., Bond strength of steel

fibre reinforced concrete, Conc. J ., 8, Aug. 1974, 36-37.
15. Swamy, R.N. and Mangat, P.S., The interfacial bond stress
in fibre cement composites, Cem. and Conc. Res., 6, Sept.
1976, 641-50.
16. Henager, C.H., Ultimate strength of reinforced steel fib
rous concrete beams, Proc. of the conf., fibre reinf. mat.:
Design and appl., London, 23-24 March 1977, Thomas Telford
Ltd., pp. 165-73.
17. Base, G.D., Read, J.B., Beeby, A.W. and Taylor, H.P.J.,
An investigation of the crack control characteristics of
various types of bar in reinforced concrete beams, C and
CA research report No. 18, Part 1, Dec. 1966, 44 pp.
18. Kormeling, H.A., Reinhardt, H.W. and Shah, S.P., Static

and fatigue properties of concrete beams reinforced with
continuous bars and with fibres, ACI J ., 78, Jan.-Feb.
1980, 36-43.
219
TH E R O L E OF I N T E R I O R S T R E S S E S IN THE S T R U C T U R A L D E S T R U C T I O N
OF F I B R E R E I N F O R C E D C O N C R E T E
KAZIMIERZ FLAGA
P r o f e s s o r of Civil E n g i n e e r i n g
A L DEABORY OABOR
Dr of S t r u c t u r e E n g i n e e r i n g
D e p a r t m e n t of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , T e c h n i c a l University
of C r a c o w ul. VVarszawska 24, 31-1 5 5 K r a k 6w P O L A N D
ABSTRACT
The s u b j e c t m a i n l y c o n c e r n s the i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s of micro

and s u b m i c r o w h i c h are c o m p e n s a t i n g each o t h e r in zones of
m i c r o c r a c k s of (icT ? 10 ~ ) m size. .
The l e v e l s of i n i t i a l and c r i t i c a l s t r e s s e s ( 6Tr and S' res
p e c t i v e l y ) in a l o a d e d s p e c i m e n or an ele m e n t can be a m e a s u
re of m i c r o c r a c k s q u a n t i t y , and their s t a b l e or u n s t a b l e d e
v e l o p m e n t in fibre r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e . T h e s e stress
leve l s i n f l u e n c e the fat i g u e s t r e n g t h or s u s t a i n e d r e s i s t a n c e
of F R C w h i c h is s u b s t a n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e for e l e me n t s u n der
d y n a m i c loads or c o n s t a n t s u s t a i n e d press u r e .
INTRODUCTION
The fibre r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e is a c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l c o n
s i s t i n g of two b o d i e s w i t h d i a m e t r i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t prop e r t i e s :
of a b r i t t l e c o n c r e t e m a t r i x and an i n c l u s i o n of st e e l fibres
w h i c h is a d u c t i l e m a t e r i al .
Th e e s s e n c e of c o m b i n i n g suc h two m a t e r i a l s has to lead
to an e x p l i c i t i m p r o v e m e n t of one the w e a k e s t p r o p e r t i e s of
c o n c r e t e - it means its d u c t i l i t y . The d u c t i l i t y i n c r e a s e of
c o n c r e t e has a m a j o r i n f l u e n c e on the c r a c k i n g p r o c e s s u n d e r
loads and e x t e r i o r r e a c t i o n s . In c o n s e q u e n c e it leads to the
i n c r e a s e of e l e m e n t s d u r a b i l i t y of the fibre c o n c r e t e in re
l a t i o n w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n cr e t e , and to a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n
c r e a s e of r e s i s t a n c e to impa c t and d yn a m i c loads.
A c o n c r e t e m a t r i x u s u a l l y has a lot of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
and s t r u c t u r a l d ef e c t s , c au s e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l factors and
i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s w h i c h are its w e a k e l e m e n t s . They d e t e r m i n e
the low d e f o r m a b i l i t y and low r e s i s t a n c e of the m a t r i x in
tension.
220
T a k i n g in c o n s i d e r a t i o n , that the c o m p r e s s e d c o n c r e t e is
d e s t r u c t i n g als o as a result of e x c e e d i n g of d e f o r m a b i l i t y and
r e s i s t a n c e in t e n s i o n , we w i l l get the full r e l a t i o n s h i p b e
t w e e n its p h y s i c o - m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and the level of struc
tural defects.
S t e e l fibres, d i s p e r s e d in such a d e f e c t e d s t ru c t u r e ,
p l a y a role of b r i d g e s , c u t t i n g those d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s and d e
fects r e s u l t i n g in a c l e a r s t r e n g t h e n i n g of that s t r u c t u r e and
m a k i n g it m o r e d u c t i l e . This role is g e n e r a l l y known and it
m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f among the o t h e r s by d i f f e r e n t S'- £ r e l a t i o n
s hips. Fig. 1 s h o w s the s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s for c on c r e t e
and fibre r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .
Fi g u r e i. R e l a t i o n s h i p ( T - & f o r c o n c r e t e and fibre reinforced

concrete under compression
The F2/ F ± r e l a t i o n can be a m e a su r e of a d e s t r u c t i o n

e n e r g y i n c r e a s e of the c o n c r e t e m a t r i x as a result of its
s t r u c t u r e i m p r o v e m e n t due to the a d d i t i o n of s t e e l fibres.
E v i d e n t l y this role w il l be h i g h e r at s t r u c t u r e w i t h b i g g e r
level of s t r u c t u r a l d ef e c t s and in v e r s e .
INTERIOR STRESSES A T A CONCRETE MATRIX STRUCTURE
The i n f l u e n c e of i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s and s t r u c t u r a l defects

on the r e s i s t a n c e of a h a r d e n e d c e m e n t pa s t e w h i c h is the b a
sic c o m p o n e n t of c o n c r e t e m a t r i x can be i n t e r e s t i n g l y o b s e r v
ed on the r e a ct i o n of atoms at a d i a t o m i c m o l e c u l e [l]# Of
c o u r s e , b ec a u s e of the c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l v a r i e t y
of the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the e l e m e n t s of the s t r u c t u r a l net
w o r k of the h a r d e n e d c e m e n t p a ste this s i m i l a r i t y can be c o n
s i d e r e d o n l y w i t h t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t the p r i n c i p l e s of the
221
s t a t i s t i c a l p h y s i c s . At the unit v ol u m e of a h a r d e n e d cement

p a s t e we hav e i n t e r a c t i o n forces of a ^ v a r y i n g - r e s i s t a n c e in
a range from » 0 to = Fw m a x = p> / 4 -y ^ i g . 2) .
F i gure 2. E n e r g y v(r) and i n t e r a c t i o n forces F(r) of

two atoms of the h a r m o n i c o s c i l l a t o r
At any m o m e n t of the time t some atoms w i l l pass the sta

te of e q u i l i b r i u m ( b a l a n c e p oint), point B f the oth e r s wi l l be
at the i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n s from the e x t re m e d e v i a t i o n from
the s t a t e of e q u i l i b r i u m , for a g i v e n e n e r g e t i c level. The a-
toms c o n f i g u r a t i o n f orming the s t r u c t u r a l n e t w o r k w i l l be at
a t h e r m o d y n a m i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e o n l y at the moment, w h e n
the m e d i u m d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n them w i l l be e q ual to r = rQ .
B e c a u s e of the w h o l e s c a l e of p o s s i b l e d i s p l a c e m e n t s such sta
te is p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e at the h a r d e n e d cem e n t paste,
w h i c h is s h o w n by e x i s t a n c e of i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s of the s y s
tem, r e p r e s e n t e d on Fig, 2 by the e n e r g y of the i n t e r i o r
s t r e s s e s , V. .
C o n s i d e r a b l y , it n e e d s to use less e n e r g y to d e
s t r o y suc h m a t e r i a l in c o m p a r a t i o n w i t h an id e a l m a t e r i a l
w h i c h is not c h a r g e d w i t h i n t e r i o r s tr e s s e s , (v<j = V 0 - V i S )
w h e r e V 0 is the m a x i m u m t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l e-
n e r g y in d i a t o m i c m o l e c u l e in the h a r d e n e d c e m e n t paste. B e
c a u s e the s t r e s s e s y i e l d i n g from the e x t e r n a l forces are s u m
m ing w i t h the i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s , the d e s t r u c t i o n u s u al l y o c
curs at a far r e d u c e d level of e x t e r n a l forces.
222
F r o m Fig. 2 and the e q u a t i o n of Fw m a x , the p a r a m e t e r s (b

and c h a r a c t e r i z e the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c
f e a t u r e s at the i n t e r a c t i o n forces of the c o n s i d e r e d atoms
(system of a to m s ) .
F o r an i d e a l e la s t i c b o d y ^ = 0, and the factor (S is
r e l a t e d w i t h the d y n a m i c m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y by the re l a t i o n
E = £ > / ro t 1] • , x dV(r)
The r e l a t i o n s h i p F(r) = — t^ * s h o w n in Fig. 2 f can be re
l ated to the m e d i u m b o n a 2force in a v o l u m e of a c o n s i d e r e d b o
dy. The n F 0 = F (r) m a x wil l d e f i n e the force needs to
d e s t r o y a s i n g l e bona, and the force n e e d e d to d e s t r o y all
bo nds in the c o n s i d e r a b l e v o l u m e i s :
fct ■ ^ V Foi C 1)
It me a n s a v a lu e p r o p o r t i o n a l to the r e s i s t a n c e of a body in
t e n s i o n , n ( t ) - n u m b e r of bonds in a h a r de n e d cement paste a f
ter time t ; k - p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y factor.
To d i s ru p t a s i n g l e bond in a h a r d e n e d c e m e n t p aste s u
ffices a l r e a d y the forces
Fd ■ Fo - pl6 0 )
w h e r e F ^ s is a force c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h the e n e r g y of i n t e r i o r
stresses.
In a real c o n c r e te m a t r i x the sh o w n image is more c o m p l i
cated. The i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s and s t r u c t u r a l d e f e c t s can c o n
cern so to a h a r d e n e d c e m e n t paste, a g g re g a t e p a r ti c a l s as to
i n t e r f a c e s b e t w e e n the a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c a l s and the h a r d e n e d
c e m e n t paste.
B e c a u s e u s u a l l y the p h y s i c o - m e c h a n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of f iller ( a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c a l s ) are much more h i g h e r than that
of c e m e n t p a s t e , we turn our a t t e n t i o n to the p r o b l e m of i n
t e r i o r s t r e s s e s at the h a r d e n e d cem e n t p aste and the i n t e r f a
ces zon e s . The most i n t e r e s t i n g are the i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s re
a l i z i n g at s m a l l ranges, so c al l e d m i c r o and s u b mi c r o w hi c h
are the real r eason of s t r u c t u r a l d e f e c t s and m i c r o cr a c k s .
The i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s of m i c r o - t y p e c o m p e n s a t e in zones
g r a d e 10 “ ^ m (l JU,m) (Fig# 3). In the c o n c r e t e m a t r i x they ca
s u a l l y fo r m a t e at the c o n ta c t zon e b et w e e n the a g g r e g a t e and
the h a r d e n e d c e m e n t p aste, as a result of;
- s h r i n k a g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t r a c t i o n of ceme n t p a s t e ; the a-
g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e s are the i n t e r i o r c o n s t r a i n t s of the
s h r i n k a g e of the p aste, and as a result of it y i e l d s to ten
sion, to its c r a c k i n g and to s l i di n g on the s u r f a c e of a-
g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e s (Fig. 4).
- t h e r m a l r e a c t i o n s on c o n c r e t e ; c o n s i d e r a b l y d i v e r s i f i e d v a
lues of t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n factors of sol i d , liq u i d and g a
s e o u s p h a s e , w h i c h are p r o p o r t i o n a l as 1 :1 0 :100 , can lead
to f o r m a t i o n of p r e s s u r e s and s t r e s s e s in the s t r u c t u r e .
T h e s e p r e s s u r e s , in case of fresh c o n c r e t e , s t i m u l a t e the
f o r m a t i o n of i n t e r i o r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , w h i l e in a h a r d e n e d
223
o6
Figure 3.
I n t e r i o r s t r es s e s s h a p e type
" m i c r o ” in the c r oss s e c t i o n
of a c o n c r e t e s p e ci m e n ( ” + **
tension, compression)
F i gure 4.
M e c h a n i s m of s h r i n k a g e
a c t i o n - i n t er i o r
s t r e s s e s type micro
c o n c r e t e , t h e y s t i m u l a t e the f o r m a t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l stress
es in the c em e n t past e , at a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e s and at the
i n t e r f a c i a l z o nes.
- d i f f e r e n t m o d u l i of e l a s t i c i t y of a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e s and
ce m e n t p a s t e (Eagg -cp ) • in the case of a p p l y i n g e x t e
rior c o m p r e s s i v e loads te n s i o n w i l l be c re a t e d in p e r p e n d i
c ul a r d i r e c t i o n to the d i r e c t i o n of c o m p r e s s i o n (Fig. 5), and
s t i m u l a t i n g of m i c r o c r a c k s in the co n t a c t layers. At the
sam e time at n o rm a l s e c t i o n s , an a d d i t i o n a l field of i n
t e r i o r s t r e s s e s a pp e a r s (Fig. 6 ), w h i c h can easily c a use a
f o r m a t i o n of l ocal d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s at h a r d e n e d cem e n t paste.
- c h e m i c a l r e a c t i v i t y d e f i c i e n c y of the most used a g g r e g a t e s
in r e l a t i o n to the c e m e n t paste, and b e c a u s e of this the
i n t e r f a c i a l z o n e s (or the c o n t a c t zone s ) are the w e a k e s t
r e s i s t a n c e e l e m e n t s of the c o n c r e t e . An e x c e p t i o n are c o n
cretes with carbonate aggregates. Similarly behaves dusti
n e s s of a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c a l s , w h i c h c an ca u s e a f a r t h e r
w e a k e n i n g of the i n t e r f a c e s w h i c h are rea s o n s of local d i s
continuities.
B e s i d e the l i s t e d factors c a u s i n g the i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s
there e x i s t i n g also oth e r s , w h i c h have t e c h n o l o g i c a l n ature.
F or e x a m p l e the p o res formed in the c o n c r e t e mix d u r i n g the
m i x i n g p r o c e s s and p l a c i n g w h i c h are d a n g e r o u s . The e x c e s s in
224
1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 Q k - 11 j 1 1 1 1 is.
M l
o w H ° c r o o
r\ q U o M d V n
^ n - ^ A C Y r ^
9 d 3 S b ° o Q
T U J T U U r supplementary
tension
Figure 5* M e c h a n i s m of c r e a t i o n of ten s i l e s t r e s s e s at the

c o n t a c t zo n e of a g g r e g a t e and c e m e n t - p a s t e for
E y Ecp
agg x r
Figure 6. A d d i t i o n a l field of i n t e r i o r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s
in the cross s ec t i o n of c o n c r e t e s p e ci m e n un d e r
compression
u s i n g w a t e r and the air b u b b l e s w h i c h l o c a t e d u s u a l l y u n d e r

the a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y the b r o k e n kind^ in
form of b a l l - s h a p e d or l e n t i c u l a r s m a l l bulbs w i t h d i me n s i o n s
from 2 f 5 mm. E v i d e n t l y these d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s are the reason
of s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n due to e x t e r i o r loads at the adhe r e n t
zones.
225
The i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s - t y p e "su b m i c r o " c o m p e n s a t e in the

m o l e c u l a r zo n e s of gr a d e 10 ~ m (lA).Belong to these s t r e s s e s
are the s t r e s s e s in the h a r d e n e d c e m e n t paste s t r u c t u r e c a u
sed by d i s p e r g a t i o n and c r y s t a l i z a t i o n p r e s s u r e s , w hi c h are
c o n n e c t e d w i t h the h y d r a t i o n p r o c e s s of cement.
The d i s p e r g a t i o n p r e s s u r e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h the b i n d e r h y
d r o l y s i s are d i r e c t e d e x t e r i o r , d u r i n g the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
p r e s s u r e s , w h i l e w i t h the b i n d e r h y d r a t i o n are d i r e c t e d i n t e
rior of the c r e a t i n g h y d r a t e s .
As an e f f e c t of t h e i r a c t ing, at the co n t a c t of hydrates,
c r e a t e i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s , m i c r o p o r e s and m i c r o d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ,
w h i c h are the s o u r c e of the first m i c r o c r a c k s of h a r d e n e d c e
ment paste.
The c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s o c c u r i n g at
the c e m e n t p a s t e c a u s e the d e c r e a s e of the a b s ol u t e v o l u m e s
of c e m e n t - w a t e r m ix t u r e w h i c h a p p e a r s as so c a l l e d "co n t r a c -
tion a l p o r o s i t y " . T h e s e p o r e s have no big d i m e n s i o n s , 5 *f
200 a, and a l t h o u g h they do not i n f l u e n c e the r e s i s t a n c e and
t i g h t n e s s of a c o n c r e t e m a t r i x , but they are w e a k e le m e n t s of
its s t r u c t u r e .
From the abo v e r e v i e w it r e s ults, that som e i n t er i o r
s t r e s s e s and m ic r o s t r u e t u r a l d e f e c t s are an i m m a n e n t p r o p e r t y
of c o n c r e t e m at r i x , and they exist in it from the b e g i n n i n g
of its f o r m i n g , the o t h e r s a p p e a r just a f t e r a pp l y i n g loads
to this m a t r i x , or a f t e r an e x t e r i o r affects. T h e s e a ffects
(loads) can c a u s e the f or m a t i o n of n e w m i c r o c r a c k s in the con
c r e t e m a t r i x or e n l a r g i n g of m i c r o c r a c k s w h i c h are a l r e a d y
existing.
The p r o c e s s of f o r ming and d e v e l o p e m e n t of m i c r o c r a c k i n g
in the c o n c r e t e m a t r i x u n d e r an i n c r e a s i n g load we call it
" stress d e s t r u c t i o n " .
S T R E S S - D E S T R U C T I O N O F FI B R E C O N C R E T E
S t r e s s d e s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s of a c o n c r e t e m a t r i x was d e
s c r i b e d by m a n y r e s e a rc h e r s , from w h i c h we have to call the
n a m e s of H s u and Slate [2 ] Shah and C h a n d r a £3], Berg [4] ,
N e w m a n s [[5}, Fl a g a and Fur t a k [ 6] .
A l l of them find, that the (o - & curve for c o n c r e t e shows
som e z o n e s of d i c o n t i n u i t i e s in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of stresses,
w h i c h are d e f i n e d as an i n i t i a l s t r e s s S', and c r i t i c a l stress
(o (Fi9« 7 ) • D e f i n i t i o n s of these s t r e s s e s can be found in
t h S rp rev i o u s m e n t i o n e d l i t e r a t u r e , w h e r e by it is i m p o r t a n t ,
that s t r e s s Gf. can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the c o n s t a n t fatique
s t r e n g t h of the c o m p r e s s e d c o n c r e t e , and the s t r e s s 6 *cr with
its s u s t a i n e d r e s i s t a n c e .
The l evels of s t r e s s e s 6 ^. and for a c o n v e n t i o n a l
c o n c r e t e a c c o r d i n g to d i f f e r e n t aut h o r s are s h o w n at table 1
[8] .
226
Figures 7. Z o ne s of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s on the (o - £, curve of

concrete under compression corresponding with
the i n i ti a l s t r e s s <o". and c r i t i c a l s t r e s s #
x cr
TABLE 1
Values of i n i t i a l and c r i t i c a l s t r es s e s according to many
authors
Author
®*/fc ^cr/fc
Alexander 1963 0,40 *7 0,55 0,75 t 0,85
Shah, Chandra 19 6 3 0,60 t 0,70 0,80 t 0,90
HsUjSlate, Sturman, Wint er 1963 0,3 5 t 0,50 0,70 t 0,90
Berg, Pisanko, Chromiec 1966 0,40 t 0,50 0,70 t 0,80

K up f e r , Hilsdorf, RCJsch 196 9 0,50 0,80
Be r e s 1971 0,60 0,90
Buyukoztruk, Nilson, Slate 1971 0,40 0,8 5
Rybianski 1976 0 , 3 7 r 0, 4 5 0,77 0,89
Per r y , Gillot 1977 0,40 t 0,50 0,82 t 0,86
Flaga, Furtak 1981 0,42 t 0,51 0,76 t 0,91
H ol a , Moczko 1984 0 , 4 0 r 0,51 0, 7 5 4- 0,85
From this table it re s u l t s that the s t r e s s # ^ can o s c i

l l a t e for a c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n c r e t e in the limit (0 , 3 5 *f 0 , 7 0 )
fc , and the s t r e s s e s <ocr in the limits ( 0 , 7 0 0 , 9 l ) fc .
227
The most p r o b a b l e range of their o c c u r e n c e is s m a ll e r and

it o s c i l l a t e s in the limits £T. = (0 , 4 4 t 0.52 ) fn and =
= ( 0 , 7 5 -r 0,86 ) fc . 1 ^ ' ° CP
For the c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c t i o n wor k in the ser v i c e phase,
the level of 6 ^ s t r es s e s is s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t . S t a r t i n g
from this level it comes to the s t able d e v e l op e m e n t of m i c r o
cr a c k s in the c o n cr e t e m a t r i x w h i c h under r e p e a t e d l y v ar i a b l e
l oa d i n g can lead to the fatique of c o ncrete.
The level of s t r e s s e s 6^ is in the d omain of a l l o w a b l e
s t r e s s e s v a l u e s or d e s i g n r e s i s t a n c e s for c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c
tions and it can be r e a l i z e d in the real c o n d i t i o n s of work.
A c l e a r d e c r e a s e of the v a l u e 6f. in c on c r e t e can be c a u s e d
t e c h n o l o g i c a l f actors as for e xa m p l e by the heat treatment of
c o n c r e t e in o r d e r to a c c e l e r a t e its c u r i n g or a cting of low
t e m p e r a t u r e s on fresh con c r e t e .
In the w o r k [V] was given, that the c o n c r e t e s o l i d i f y i n g
d u r i n g 21 days in t e m p e r a t u r e t » -3 ? +2 C and then 9 0 days
in n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s has get 6"^ = 0 , 2 3 fc and « 0 , 7 2 fc
but c o n c r e t e i n f u s e d in c y cle 2 + 2 + 7 + l h - T iz = 353 K and
then c u r i n g in n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s has got after 90 days 6"^ »
= 0 , 3 4 fc and <o cr = 0, 7 6 fc .
In such cases a v e r y i m p o r t a n t t r e a t m e n t of i m p r o v e m e n t
and d u c t i l i t y of the d e f e c t e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e can be the
a p p l y i n g i n s t e a d of it a fibre con c r e t e .
It s u g g e s t s an urge n t need to c o n v e y more deep tests u-
po n the p r o b l e m of i n i t i a l and c r i t i c a l s tress levels & ±
and in fibre conc r e t e ,
Tne d u c t i l i t y i n c r e a s e of c o n c r e t e in fibre c o n c r e t e
p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t role in e l e m e n t s w o r k i n g u n d e r tension or
in a t e n s i o n e d zon e of b e n d i n g e l e m e n t s . H o w e v e r the v a lu e -
i n c r e a s e & ± in fibre c o n c r e t e w o u l d give a p o s s i b i l i t y of
a l l o w a b l e l evels of its e f f o r t in the s e r v i c e p h a s e of c o m
p r e s s e d e l e me n t s or in c o m p r e s s e d z o nes of b e n d i n g e l e m e n t s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y by loads r e p e a t e d l y v a r i a b l e .
As p o l i s h e x p e r i e n c e s have sh o w n £83, that the m e t h o d of
acoustic e m i s s i o n can be s u c c e s f u l l y a p p li e d to d e f i n e the le
vels of s t r e s s e s 6 ^ and ® ^ cr • The c le a r r e f r a c t i o n p o i n t s
on the d i a g r a m s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p 6 V f c in the f u n ction of
i n t e n s i t y of a c o u s t i c e m i s s i o n i n c r e a s e 3 E A « 2 E A n+l * 2 A n
(Fig. 8) p e r m i t s u f f i c i e n t l y to e s t i m a t e p r e c i s e l y tne v a l u e s
S i and <cTcr for c o n c r e t e u n d e r c o m p r e s s i v e loads. The above
p r o b l e m s are s u b je c t of a c t u a l test of the authors.
SUMMARY
In the w o r k w e r e p r e s e n t e d the t h e o r e t i c a l bases of the
role of i n t e r i o r s t r e s s e s and s t r u c t u r a l def e c t s in a c o n c r e
te m a t r i x in the s t r e s s e s d e s t r u c t i o n pro c e s s of fibre c o n
crete.
It is s u g g e s t e d , that the a d d i t i o n of d i s p e r s e d steel
fibres can h a v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t on i n i t i a l s t r e s s e s 6 ^
le v e l i n c r e a s e in the fibre c o n c r e t e e l e m e n t s , r e s u l t i n g in
i n c r e a s i n g the level of s er v i c e e f f o r t s in the fibre c o n c r e t e
c o m p r e s s e d eleme n t . This p r o b l e m r e quires q u a n t i t a t i v e p r e c i s -
ness, w h i c h is the s ub j e c t of act u a l re s e a r c h e s of the authors.
228
Figure 8.
Acoustic emission in
t en s i t y for c o n c r e t e
u n d e r axial loads in
r ela t i o n to s tress
development
REFERENCES
1. Flaga, K . , E n e r g e t y c z n e p o d s t a w y w z r o s t u w y t r z y m a l o ^ c i be-
tonu t ^ z e j ^ c e g o w w a r u n k a c h obr b b k i t ermicznej. Z e s z y t Na-
u k o w y Nr 3 P o l i t e c h n i k i K r a k o w s k i e j , K r a k b w 1971,
2. Hsu, T . C . , S l a t e , F.O., T e n s i l e bond s t r e n g t h b e t w e e n a g g r e
gate and c e m e n t pa st e or mortar, □ .A m .Concr, I n s t , 60,4,1962*
3. Shah, S , P . , Ch a n d r a , S , , C r i ti c a l s t r ess, V o l u m e c h a n g e
and m i c r o c r a c k i n g of con c r e t e . O . A m . C o n c r . I n s t . 65, 9, 1968,
4 . B i e r g , O . O u . , N i e k a t o r y j e vvoprosy t i e orii d i e f o r m a c i j i pro-
c z n o s t i bietona. IZVV, VVUZow, 10,1967.
5. N ew m a n , K , , N e w m a n , I.B,, Fai l u r e th e o r i e s and d e s i g n c r i
t e r i a for p l a i n c o nc r e t e . S t r u c t u r e s o l i d m e c h a n i c s and
e n g i n e e r i n g d esign, Proc. S o u t h a m p t o n 1969, C i v . E n g . M a t .
C o n f ., L o n d o n 1971.
6 . Flaga, K . , Furtak, K . , W p l y w r o d zaju k r u s z y w a na p o z i o m y
n a p r ^ z e h k r y t y c z n y c h w b e t o n i e i c i skanym. Arch. Inz. L e d ,
tom X XVII, z. 4 / 1 9 8 1 .
7. Flaga, K . , Furtak, K . , C z y n n i k i t e c h n o l o g i c z n e a m o r f o l o -
gia rys w b e l k a c h z e l b e t o w y c h . Z e s z y t N a u k o w y Korn. Bud.
O d d z i a l u Krak. PAN, K r a k b w 1987.
8 . R a t a j c z a k , G . , S z a c o w a n i e n a p r ^ z e h d o p u s z c z a l n y c h dla be-
to n b w w k o n s t r u k c j a c h m o s t b w z u w z g l ^ d n i e n i e m w a r u n k b w u-
z y t k o w a n i a - p o d e j ^ c i e p r o b a b i l i s t y c z n e . Praca d o k t o r s k a .
P o z n a h 1985.
9. H o l a , 0., Moc z k o , A., A n a l i z a p r o c e s u z n i s z c z e n i a w y b r a -
n y c h s t r u k t u r b e t o n o w y c h prz y w y k o r z y s t a n i u m e t o d y u l t r a -
d z w i e k o w e j i e m i s j i a k u s t y c z n e j . Praca d o k t o r s k a . W r o c l a w
1984.
229
REINFORCEMENT OF NORMAL AND HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETES WITH FIBRILLATED

POLYPROPYLENE FIBRES
by
A. Bentur*, S. Mindess** and J. Skalny***
ABSTRACT
The present study deals with an investigation of the effects of low

volumes of fibrillated polypropylene fibre reinforcement on the properties of
concrete, in particular, on impact resistance. The main conclusions are:
1) The various types of commercial polypropylene fibres evaluated in the

present study exhibited good bond with the matrix. However, in spite of
the favourable bond, a low content of polypropylene fibre reinforcement
(0.1 to 0.5%) had only a small positive influence on the impact
resistance of both normal and high strength concretes.
2) In static loading, a low content of polypropylene reinforcement led to a
marked improvement in fracture energy, suggesting that from a practical
point of view its potential use is for control of cracks induced by
static loading, and not in enhancing resistance to dynamic loading.
3) Some potential advantages of a low volume content of polypropylene
fibres may be found in enhancing the impact resistance of conventionally
reinforced concrete.
1. INTRODUCTION
The addition of small amounts of fibrillated polypropylene fibres for

reinforcement of concrete has been advocated in recent years, with particular
emphasis given to its potential use as secondary reinforcement for crack
control. Most of the data regarding the influence of such reinforcement have
related to the effects on fresh concrete, in particular plastic shrinkage and
the associated cracking (e.g. Refs. 1,2). The object of the present work was
to extend these studies to the effects of low volumes of fibrillated polypro
pylene fibres on hardened concrete, in particular to evaluate their influence
on impact resistance. The major parameters studied were:
i) The type and content of fibrillated fibres, and their mode of inter
action with the matrix
ii) The nature of the matrix, including normal strength concrete and high
strength silica fume concrete
iii) Polypropylene fibres in combination with conventionally reinforced
concrete.
*Department of Civil Engineering, Building Research Station, Technion,

Haifa, Israel. (This work was carried out while Dr. Bentur was a Visiting
Professor at the University of British Columbia.)
**Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
***W.R. Grace & Co., Research Division, Columbia, Maryland, U.S.A.
230
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Materials
The materials used were CSA type 10 portland cement (corresponding to

ASTM Type I), a commercially available fly ash, a silica fume slurry*, a
superplasticizer** and natural aggregates.
Two types of commercial polypropylene fibres were studied, produced by

Forta*** (FTF) and Fibermesh**** (FBM). They were used in different lengths,
ranging from 1/2" to 2".
The cementitious mixes used were (i) pure paste with a w/c ratio of
0.35; (ii) mortar with a sand/cement (s/c) ratio of 2.75 and w/c ratio of
0.48; and (iii) three different concrete mixes: one with portland cement only
(w/c = 0.48), the second with portland cement, 25% fly ash, and an air
entraining admixture (w/c = 0.68; 5% air content) and the third a high
strength silica fume concrete (15% silica fume by weight of cement, w/c =
0.36; w/(c+sf) = 0.31).
2.2 Specimen Preparation
The raw materials were batched in a pan mixer. For the higher fibre
contents (>0.5% by volume), the amount of admixture was adjusted to maintain
a 75-100 mm slump concrete. The plain concretes were cast in perspex molds,
100 x 100 x 356 mm. The conventionally reinforced concretes were cast in
plywood forms (1200 mm long, 100 mm wide and 125 mm deep) in which two con
ventional No. 10 deformed reinforcing bars were positioned to provide a 25 mm
cover at the bottom and sides. These bars have a nominal cross sectional
area of 100 m m 2 each, thus giving a reinforcing ratio of 1.6%. The beams
were stored under polyethylene sheets for about 1 day, and then transferred
to a moist room until the time of testing.
2.3 Mechanical Testing Procedure
The beams were tested under flexural impact loading using an instru
mented impact machine, in the moist condition. A detailed account of the
testing procedure and the method of analysis may be found in Refs. 3-5. Mid
point loading was applied by dropping a 345 kg mass hammer from heights of
0.5 m (conventionally reinforced beams) and 0.2 m (plain concrete beams).
Each beam had an accelerometer mounted at its center.
From the accelerometer data and the load readings obtained from the
instrumented hammer, the load-deflection curves were determined and the peak
bending loads and fracture energies were computed. The fracture energy in
the present work is the area under the load deflection curve, calculated out
to the point where the load dropped back to 1/3 of its maximum. The results
are the average of six specimens, with coefficients of variation in the range
*Force 10,000, produced by W.R. Grace & Co.

**WRDA-19, produced by W.R. Grace & Co.
***Forta Corporation.
****FibermeSh Company.
231
of about 5 to 15%. From some of the fractured beams, portions of the

concrete were removed from the tensile side and observed in the SEM.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Effect of Polypropylene Fibre Content and Type
The effects of polypropylene fibres were studied in pastes, mortars and

concretes and in concretes of different strength levels. The addition of
0.1% by volume of fibres had only a small influence on the impact resistance,
whether in pastes, mortars or concretes (Table 1). The improvement in the
impact resistance due to this volume of fibres did not exceed ^30%, for
either peak load or fracture energy. It was smallest in concrete, where the
increase in fracture energy was about 10%.
Table 1 ^
Effect of 0.1% by Volume of Polypropylene Fibres on the Properties in Impact
System Peak Load (kN) Fracture Energy (Nm)
Paste Control 6.7 8.5

(w/c = 0.35) 0.1% PP (FTF) 6.0 (-9%) 9.7 (+14%)
Mortar Control 9.1 14.2

(w/c =0.4 2 ) 0.1% PP (FTF) 11.7 (+29%) 17.9 (+26%)
0.1% PP (FBM - 1/2") 10.4 (+14%) 15.1 (+6%)
0.1% PP (FBM - 2”) 10.7 (+18%) 16.5 (+16%)
Concrete Control 8.2 9.5

(w/c =0. 4 8 ) 0.1% PP (FBM) 7.8 (-5%) 10.4 (+9%)
(*)The numbers in parenthesis indicate the relative improvement (%) over the
plain matrix (control).
The effect of polypropylene fibre content in the range of 0.1% to 0.7%

by volume was studied in concretes (Table 2). The impact resistance
increased with fibre volume, reaching a maximum at 0.5%, and then declined.
This decline can be attributed to the increased difficulty in compaction, as
the concrete became less workable at the higher fibre contents. The trend
for an increase in impact energy up to 0.5% by volume was the same as that
reported by Mindess and Vondran'' ' , but the level of improvement achieved in
the present study at 0.5% fibre volume (46%) was smaller than that reported
earlier (80%), using FBM fibres.
Table 2
The Effect of FTF Polypropylene Fibre Content (2.5" Long) on the
Properties in Impact of Concretes (w/c = 0.48)*
Fibre Content, % Volume Peak Load (kN) Fracture Energy (Nm)
0 8.2 9.5
0.1 7.8 (-5%) 10.4 (+9%)
0.3 8.1 (-1%) 11.3 (+19%)
0.5 8.4 (+2%) 13.9 (+46%)
0.7 8.3 (+1%) 12.0 (+26%)
*The numbers in parenthesis indicate the relative improvement (%)

over the plain matrix.
232
3.2 Effect of Polypropylene Fibres in Conventionally Reinforced Concrete
The effects of the addition of various contents of polypropylene fibres

on the impact resistance of conventionally reinforced concrete are presented
in Table 3. It can be seen that the polypropylene had a marked effect in
enhancing the behaviour of the normal strength concrete, but only a smaller
positive influence on the high strength concrete. The impact resistance of
the high strength concrete without polypropylene was considerably greater
than that of the companion normal strength concrete; it seems as if the
addition of the polypropylene to the normal strength concrete "closed the
gap" between the two, bringing the fracture energy levels in the normal
strength concrete up to the range of the high strength concrete (i.e. from
286 Nm without polypropylene, to 840 Nm with 0.5% polypropylene). However,
to achieve a significant level of improvement in the normal strength concrete
(i.e. an increase in the energy by more than a factor of 2), there was a need
for 0.5% of fibre reinforcement. Low levels of reinforcement (0.1% in normal
concrete and 0.3% in high strength concrete) had only a small positive
effect, increasing the fracture energy by about 10-20%.
Table 3
The Effect of Polypropylene Fibre Reinforcement on the Impact Resistance of
Conventionally Reinforced Normal and High Strength Concretes
Type of Concrete Fibre Content Maximum Load Energy

% Vol. (kN) (Nm)
0 40.8 286
Normal Strength, 0.1 39.4 350
30.4 MPa 0.3 44.3 444
0.5 45.2 840
1.0 34.0 644
High Strength 0 47.2 866

Silica Fume, 0.3 51.3 941
73.7 MPa 1.0 55.5 1020
3.3 Structure and Mode of Fracture of Polypropylene Fibres in Concrete
Two types of commercial fibrillated fibres were used in the present

work. Both had the characteristic network structure, which could readily be
observed prior to mixing. Each consisted of oriented fibrils (filaments)
"cross linked" together (Fig. 1). However, the details of this structure
were quite different for the two fibres studied; the main fibrils in the FTF
fibre were much thicker than those of the FBM fibres, and also thicker than
their "cross linking" fibrils (Fig. la). In the FBM fibre, the main and
"cross linking" fibrils were of about the same size, and much thinner than
the main fibrils in the FTF (Fig. lb). These differences also showed up
after mixing, when the fibres were washed out of the fresh concrete and
observed in an optical microscope. The FBM fibres tended to separate into
individual filaments, with some branching being observed (Fig. 2b). The FTF
fibres also exhibited separation into smaller units, but here the network
structure was much better preserved (Fig. 2a).
Using an SEM, some of the characteristics of the behaviour of fibres in

the matrix under impact loading could be resolved, in particular: (i) the
233
Fig. 1 The network structure of the fibrillated polypropylene fibres

prior to mixing, (a) FTF fibre (b) FBM fibre.
234
Fig. 2(a) The structure of the FTF fibre after mixing with silica fume
concrete (fibres washed away from the fresh mix) showing that
some characteristics of the network structure were retained even
though the original fibre was broken into smaller units.
(b) The structure of the FBM fibre after mixing with silica fume
concrete (fibres washed away from the fresh mix) showing
separation into filaments (fibrils), some of which are branched.
N3
CO
Cn
Fig. 3 SEM observations of FTF fibres in high strength silica fume

concrete, (a) Low magnification, showing the fibrillated struc
ture. (b) High magnification showing the intimate contact with
the matrix and the dense transition zone.
G>
MATRIX
Fig. 4 SEM observations of FBM fibres in high strength silica fume

concrete, (a) Low magnification showing individual filaments
(fibrils) surrounded by matrix, (b) High magnification showing
the intimate contact with the matrix and the dense transition
zone.
237
fibre fracture in the high strength concrete (Fig. 3a; 4a) , and (ii) the
different structures of the two types of the polypropylene fibres, with
greater preservation of the fibrillated network structure in the FTF (Fig.
3a), and the separation into individual filaments of the FBM fibres (Fig.
4a). The separation into individual filaments, or the network preservation
of the fibre structure, is shown here only for the high strength concrete,
but similar obervations were made for normal strength concrete.
It is interesting to note that, in all the systems studied here, with

the different fibres and concretes, intimate contact at the fibre matrix
interface was observed, and the matrix adjacent to the fibres was quite dense
(Figs. 3b;4b). In the high strength silica fume concretes there was a
greater tendency for the fibres to be coated with matrix particles than with
the normal concrete.
4. DISCUSSION
A number of systems were investigated, to try to resolve some of the

influences of fibrillated polypropylene fibres in mortars and concretes, and
to evaluate the potential advantages of a low content of fibre reinforcement
on the impact resistance of the hardened material. The two types of fibril
lated polypropylene fibres evaluated here were quite different, both in their
initial structure and in their mode of separation in the concrete. However,
both fibre types formed intimate contact with the matrix. This is probably
the result of proprietary surface treatments of the fibres, to enhance their
wetting, as well as the influence of the fibres on the fresh concrete, to
reduce bleeding. This favourable microstructure, combined with the anchoring
effects of the branched and net-like geometry (in particular the FTF fibre),
would be expected to lead to improved bonding.
In the plain cement or concrete systems, the low reinforcement content

of 0.1% by volume of fibres (which is generally recommended by the producers
of the fibres), led to only a marginal improvement in the impact resistance,
regardless of the nature of the matrix (paste, mortar or concretes of differ
ent strength levels) or the fibres. The increase in fracture energy did not
exceed 26%. Only when the fibre content was increased to 0.5% did the impact
resistance increase significantly, and even here the increase was only moder
ate, not in excess of 50%. It should be noted that at this level of fibre
reinforcement, the data reported for improvement in the fracture energy were
quite variable: about 10% and 46% in the present work, and 80% in Ref. 4 for
normal strength concrete; and 32% and 23% in Ref. 5 for normal and high
strength concretes, respectively. From a practical point of view, these
improvements are not very significant (except perhaps the 80% value in Ref.
6), in particular when considering not only that the 0.5% fibre volume rein
forcement is 5 times as high as that advocated by the producers, but also the
difficulties associated with the reduced workability at this fibre content.
There is a need to determine the reasons for this limited improvement in

impact resistance offered by the polypropylene fibres, over the volume range
which is currently considered as practical (less than 0.5% by volume, and
mostly 0.1 to 0.2%). Poor bonding may be ruled out, since the microstruc-
tural study showed adequate affinity between the fibres and the matrix. In
addition, the fact that the increase in the concrete strength led to a change
in the mode of failure from fibre pull-out to fibre fracture, indicates that
238
the bond is in the range in which the fibres can be utilized effectively;
otherwise they would not have fractured.
It has been s h o w n ^ that with polypropylene fibres, the critical fibre

volume is ^3%. On this basis, it has been argued by Hannant^ ' that low
volume contents (<0.5%) cannot provide any real reinforcing effect. This may
account^ at least in part, for the results reported here. It has been
shown^ ' that the improvement offered by the fibres in impact loading is
relatively small (^30%), whereas in static loading they enhance the energy
absorption capacity by almost a factor of 2, in normal as well as high
strength concretes. Such trends, regardless of their explanation, may
indicate that a low volume of polypropylene fibre reinforcement may be of
greater significance in static loading than in impact. Thus, it may
potentially be more useful for applications in which control of cracking
induced by static loading is required, such as during drying shrinkage and
temperature changes. However, the low volume of polypropylene fibre
reinforcement may be only marginally useful for dynamic loading, as indeed
shown here for impact, and in other work for fatigue** '.
This discussion, which concludes that polypropylene hasonly a small

influence on the impact resistance of concrete, is based on the analysis of
the influence of polypropylene in plain concrete. However, in conventionally
reinforced concrete, the addition of polypropylene fibres may have a consid
erable advantage, in particular when considering impact resistance. This was
seen here for normal strength concrete (Table 3), where 0.5% of fibre rein
forcement led to an increase in the fracture energy by a factor of 3. A
smaller increase was observed in high strength concrete. Similar increases,
by a factor of ^3 have been reported previously^ ' for normal and high
strength concrete, using a different type of polypropylene fibre. The
greater influence of the polypropylene on the high strength concrete in the
latter work is thought to be associated with age: in Ref. 10, the high
strength concrete was aged for about 1 year prior to testing, and apparently
this was associated with an embrittlement effect (i.e. lower fracture energy
than the normal strength concrete); this embrittlement was compensated for by
the fibres.
The advantages in terms of impact resistance offered by the polypro

pylene fibres in the conventionally reinforced concrete, may be associated
with their influence on the nature of the pull out resistance of the deformed
steel bars. Perhaps, because of the confining effect of the fibres, pull out
loads can be maintained over larger pull-out deformations. Such effects
should be studied and resolved to a greater extent, in order to assess the
potential of using a low content of polypropylene reinforcement to enhance
the impact resistance of reinforced concrete.
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. The various types of commercial polypropylene fibres evaluated in the

present study exhibited good bond with the matrix, as revealed by fibre
fracture when loading high strength fibre reinforced concretes.
2. In spite of the favourable bond, a low content of polypropylene fibre

reinforcement (0.1 to 0.5%) had only a small positive influence on the
impact resistance of both normal and high strength concretes.
239
3. In static loading, a low content of polypropylene reinforcement led to a

marked improvement in fracture energy, suggesting that from a practical
point of view its potential use is for control of cracks induced by
static loading, and not in enhancing resistance to dynamic loading.
4. Some potential advantages of a low volume content of polypropylene

fibres may be found in enhancing the impact resistance of conventionally
reinforced concrete. This sort of application must be pursued further,
and studied in combination with the effect of the fibres on the nature
of bond between the reinforcing bar and the concrete,
5. Polypropylene fibres seemed to be more effective in enhancing the

properties of normal strength concrete than of high strength concrete.
6. REFERENCES
(1) P.A. Dahl, "Influence of Fibre Reinforcement on Plastic Shrinkage

Cracking", pp. 435-441 in "Brittle Matrix Composites - I", Edited by
A.M. Brandt and I.H. Marshall, Proc. European Mechanics Colloquium 204,
Elsevier Applied Science, 1986.
(2) R.F. Zollo, "Collated Fibrillated Polypropylene Fibres in FRC", pp.

397-409 in "Fibre Reinforced Concrete", Edited by G.C. Hoff, ACI SP-81,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1984.
(3) A. Bentur, S. Mindess and N. Banthia, "The Behaviour of Concrete Under

Impact Loading: Experimental Procedures and Method of Analysis",
Materials and Structures (RILEM) 19, 1986, 371-378.
(4) N.P. Banthia, S. Mindess and A. Bentur, "Impact Behaviour of Concrete

Beams", Materials and Structures (RILEM) 20, 1987, 293-302.
(5) N.P. Banthia, "Impact Resistance of Concrete", Ph.D. Thesis, University

of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 1987.
(6) S. Mindess and G. Vondran, "Properties of Concrete Reinforced with

Fibrillated Polypropylene Fibres Under Impact", Cem. Concr. Res. 8,
109-115, (1988).
(7) D.J. Hannant, "Fibre Cements and Fibre Concretes", John Wiley & Sons,
1978.
(8) D.J. Hannant, Letter to the Editor, Concrete, April 1988, p. 12.
(9) V. R a m a k r i s h n a n , G. Gollapudi and R. Zellers, "Performance

Characteristics and Fatigue Strength of Polypropylene Fibre Reinforced
Concrete", pp. 159-177 in "Fibre Reinforced Concrete Properties and
Applications", Edited by S.P. Shah and G.B. Batson, ACI SP-105, American
Concrete Instiutte, Detroit, 1987.
(10) S. Mindess, N. Banthia and A. Bentur, "The Response of Reinforced

Concrete Beams with a Fibre Concrete Matrix to Impact Loading", Int. J.
Cem. Comp. & Ltwt. Concr. 8, 1986, 165-170.
240
BEHAVIOUR OF FIBROUS-COMPOSITES UNDER IMPACT AND BLAST LOADING
S.K. KAUSHIK V. MENON

Civil Engineering Department
University of Roorkee
ROORKEE - 247 667, INDIA
ABSTRACT
Fibrous-composites, made up of plain cement mortar matrix, layers of

wire mesh and short discrete fibres, have been experimentally subjected
to impact and blast loading. The loading was applied to the specimens
using specially designed and fabricated test equipment. Comparative
damage assessment has been quantified by the leakage rate of water at
a constant head, allowed through the damaged a.êa. The study revealed
the superior impact and blast resistance of fibrous-ferrocement vis-a-vis
ferrocement.
INTRODUCTION
Previous investigations on the impact and blast behaviour of closely

spaced wire reinforced composites have been restricted to either ferroce
ment or fibre-reinforced concrete [1,3,7-11]* The study of fibrous-
ferrocement seems to have been confined to static and gradual loading
to assess the tensile and flexural behaviour [2,5,6,12]. These investiga
tions do bring out the enhancement in ductility due to inclusion of
fibres in the ferrocement matrix, controlled multiple cracking and the
energy absorbing capacity. Though these attributes suggests an improved
impact and blast resistance as well,; no study on the behaviour of the com
posite under these loads seems to have been reported. Considering the vast
potential of such composites under blast loading in both civil and
military applications, their behaviour in this area needs to be under-
stood.
EXPERIMENTATION
The experimental programme comprised testing of fixed slabs and hollow

cylinders closed at one end, under drop-impact and blast loading. The
constituent materials used for the specimens are given in Table 1 and
the details of specimens in Tables 2 and 3* Construction of specimens
was carried out using hand compaction with the help of square and cylin
drical formwork for slabs and cylinders, respectively. Fibre dispersion
was achieved manually. Further details of construction procedure and
testing can be found elsewhere [4]. The slabs were imparted with drop
241
TABLE 1
Constituent materials and properties
Ma terdal Type Properties (Mean values)
Cement Portland Pozzolana Cement Confirming to IS:1489-1976

Fine Locally available natural Conforming to Grading Zone-II
Aggregate sand of IS:383-1970
Fineness Modulus = 2.79
Wire Mesh G.I. Square Woven Wire Diameter of wire =0.71 mm
Mesh with 6mm openings Yield stress = 317.84 N/mm
Ultimate stress = 461.56 N/mm
Percentage
Elongation = 13. 8 %
Modulus of
Elasticity = 2 x 10 N/mm
Fibres Steel Hooked Fibres Diameter(d) = 0.457 mm
Length(l) = 36 to 37 mm
Aspect ratio = 80
(1/d)
Admixture Locally manufactured Category B superplasticizer
Superplasticizer ’CMC- conforming to ASTMC-494-71,
superplastf Type D.
Cement Cement-sand-water ratio Cube compressive strengths
Mortar of 1:2:0.4 (including 14 days = 29-8 N/miru
admixture at 2% by 28 days = 31.4 N/mm*
weight of cement) 45 days = 33-2 N/mm
impact loading using a projectile and support system shown in Figure 1.

The damaged slab specimens were subjected to a constant head of water
of 1m, to measure the leakage allowed through the damaged area.
Blast load tests were conducted using weighed quantities of plastic

explosive PEK1. The quantity of explosive was optimized to 6.25 gm and
thereafter kept constant. This quantity was used on 27 specimens which
were later subjected to the leakage test.
Behaviour Under Impact Loading

The recorded results of the drop-impact test are presented in Table
4. The slabs were subjected to repeated drops of the spherical projectile
from different heights, so that the cumulative impact energy imparted
to each sample within the specimen type, varied.
1. First Crack Impact Energy : The plots of the average value of cumula
tive first crack impact energy, FIE, versus the volume fraction
of reinforcement VR, are presented in Fig. 2 with straight line
fittings. The regression equations are given. Though the slopes
of the two lines are similar, showing an almost equal rate of increase
242
TABLE 2
Details of 1m x 1m fixed slabs
Series Speci Thick Mesh Volume Fraction of rein No. of

men ness Layers forcement (?) speci
Nomen (mm) Wire Hooked Total mens
clature mesh Fibre (V +V_=VD)
(Vm ) (V.) m f R
i
Trial 20 1 0. 748 - 0. 748 1
T1
40 3 1. 122 - 1. 122 1
T3
A A1-1/2/3 20 1 0. 748 _
0. 748 3
A2-1/2/3 30 2 0.997 - 0.997 3
A3-1/2/3 40 3 1. 122 - 1. 122 3
B B1-1/2/3 20 1 0.748 0.5 1. 248 3

B2-1/2/3 30 2 0.997 0.5 1. 497 3
B3-1/2/3 40 3 1. 122 0.5 1. 622 3
TABLE 3
Details of hollow cylinders
Series Speci External Thick Mesh Volume Fraction of No. of

men Dimensions ness layers reinforcement (?) speci
Nomen (mm) Wire Hoolo- Total mens
clature Dia- Hei- Mesh ed (V +V^=VJ
_., m f R
meter ght Fibre
(V ) (V_)
m i
Trial T1-1 to 18 175 350 20 1 0.729 _
0.729 18
T2-1/2/3/4 195 360 30 2 0.999 - 0.999 4
T3-1/2/3/4 215 370 40 3 1. 126 - 1. 126 4
A A1-1/2/3/4 175 350 20 1 0.729 _

0.729 4
A2-1/2/3/4 195 360 30 2 0.999 - 0.999 4
A3-1/2/3/4 215 370 40 3 1. 126 - 1. 126 4
B B1-1/2/3/4 175 350 20 1 0.729 0.5 1. 229 4

B2-1/2/3/4 195 360 30 2 0.999 0.5 1.499 4
B3-1/2/3/4 215 370 40, 3 1. 126 0.5 1.626 4
in FIE per unit increase in V^, the superior resistance to first

crack displayed by the fibrous-ferrocement specimens is clear.
A comparison between each specimen type in Series A with their
corresponding parallels in Series B, shows an improvement offered
by the inclusion of the fibres of 275?, 88.6? and 61.54? for speci
mens reinforced with 1, 2 and 3 mesh layers, respectively.
2. Cracking Pattern : The cracking pattern on the tension side of

the slabs followed a similar trend in both series. Development
of first crack was followed by the formation of radial crack, origi
nating from the centre, or impact point, which increased in length
TABLE 4
Impact energies imparted to slabs and leakage rates
Speci Age of Occurrence of First Crack Adequate Damage Leakage rate

men testing Height Number Cumulative Impact Height Number Cumulative Impact (Lit. /hr. )
(days) of Drop of Drops Energy Imparted of Drop of Drops Energy Imparted
(mm) (kg-cm) (mm) (kg-cm)
T1 40 1000 1 716.6 1000 5 3583.0 330.0

T3 43 1500 1 1074.9 1500 7 7524.3 280.0
A1-1 40 4 2866.4 100. 0

A1-2 43 400 1 286. 64 1000 5 3583.0 240.0
A1-3 45 3 2149.8 60. 5
A2-1 40 2 716. 6 6 5159.52 230. 0

A2-2 43 500 2 716. 6 1200 4 3439.68 100. 5
A2-3 45 3 1074.9 3 2579.76 72.5
A3-1 40 500,600 2,2 1576.52 1500 5 5374.5 132.0

A3-2 43 600 3 1289.88 1500,600 2,1 2579.76 25.0
A3-3 45 600 2 859.92 1500 4 4299.6 60.0
B1-1 40 11 7882.6 270.5
B1-2 43 400,500,600 1,1,1 1074.9 1000 7 5016.2 20. 5
B1-3 45 10 7166. 0 160. 0
B2-1 40 500 4 1433. 12 9 7739.28 84. 25

B2-2 43 500,600 4,1 1863. 16 1200 8 6879.36 5.5
B2-3 45 500 4 1433. 12 10 8599.2 252. 0
B3-1 40 4 1719.84 12 12898.8 260.0

B3-2 43 600 6 2579.76 1500 7 7524. 3 30. 1
B3-3 45 4 1719.84 11 11823-9 150.0
PROJECTILE DETAILS
I-SECTION SQUARE FRAME (TOP)
RUBBER PACKINS
SLAB IN POSITION
6 INCH G-CLAMPS
I-SEC TIO N SQUARE FRAME ( BOTTOM )
C ENTRE INDICATOR
note :-
o NOT TO SCALE
PLAN o ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN CM
FIGURE 1-SU PPO RT DETAILS
towards the edges and corners as the impact energy was increased.
In the A series, at some stage, there appeared to be no change
in the radials and energy dissipation manifested itself in the
formation of circular concentric cracks immediately around the
impact point. Multiple cracking within this circular zone, bulging,
fracture of the mortar cover and spalling followed. With increasing
number of drops, bulging and stretching of the mesh was observed,
till finally,the wires snapped leading to perforation. In the
B series the radials were discontinuous, irregular, overlapping
and appeared even after the circular zone was formed. Though multiple
cracking took place within this zone, no spalling occurred. The
role of the fibres in holding shattered fragments together was
clearly visible.
The compression face in all slabs, did not display any visual
damage except for the characteristic crater, caused by the spherical
projectile, at the impact point.
245
xjo2
22 LEGEND
U 20 o ONE MESH L
LAYER L
JOtt x TWO MESH LAYERS /
>> ’»
/U —
u A THREE MESH LAYERS FIBROUS-FERRO CEMENT
ffi 16
z /*
/
"►
— 14 /
o /
£ 12 /
3
~ 10
sc
o
2
o
a FERROCEMENT
FIE s 250 5 -1 66 Vr - 1605- 844

FIE * 2 423*124 Vr — 1974*628
—- 1 1 ■ » * « «
0*6 0*72 0*4 0*97 1-09 1*21 1*33 1*46 1*58 1*70
(VR) VOLUME FRACTION OF REINFORCEMENTS/.)
FIGURE 2-PLO T OF FIRST CRACK IMPACT

ENERGY VERSUS VOLUME FRACTION
OF REINFORCEMENT FOR SLABS
6 00
LEGEND
o ONE MESH LAYER
x TWO MESH LAYERS ftA1-2
5 00 . A THREE MESH LAYERS
FERROCEMENT (A )
— FIBROUS-FERROCEMENT (B)
E T TRIAL
id. 4 00
it B 3-3
300
A 2-3 ^
B1-2 V * ^ __________^8 1 -3
sc
o A 2-2
- * B 2-3
<c
c A 3-2 S ________
2 00
B2-2 Vf * 0 .5 V .
■W Tu-3
100 300 340
0 20 60 100 140 180 220 260
LE A K A 6E RATE ( L it /h r )
FIGURE 3-PLOT OF CRACK LENGTH VERSUS LEAKAGE

RATE FOR SLABS
246
3- Crack Lengths : The total length of cracks were measured leaving

out the central zone, to maintain uniformity. Due to multiple cracking
and overlapping of cracks in the fibrous-ferrocement specimens,
resulting in relatively larger crack lengths, a comparative assessment
of the impact resistance was difficult. However, the relation between
crack lengths and leakage rates, shown in Figure 3> offered a rea
sonable understanding of the damage mechanism, in either series.
The ferrocement specimens displayed smaller crack lengths with
higher leakage rates, attributed to the widening of cracks as impact
energy was absorbed. Fibrous-ferrocement on the other hand resulted
in increased crack-lengths, allowing larger leakage rates.
4. Assessment by Leakage Rates : The plots of total impact energy

imparted to slabs, including first crack impact energy, IE, versus
leakage rates, L, are presented in Figure 4. In either series,
for a particular damage condition allowing a certain leakage rate,
the impact energy absorbed increases as the mesh volume and corres
ponding section thicknesses are increased. Comparing the two series,
a striking improvement in impact resistance is seen in the fibrous-
ferrocement specimens, for a similar range of leakage rates. The
impact energy required to be imparted for a specified damage condition,
based on the leakage rate, can be found from the straight line
regression equations presented, thereby estimating the impact resis
tance. Interpolation for values of VR, other than those used in
this study, may be done between the limiting values of either series.
x10*
V ,- - 0 .5 V . VR V .
£ o • oo l— ._____ I— I I_. I____ ._1_____ . 1 .1 .1 . I . ir

- 0 4 0 8 0 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
( I) LEAKAGE RATE ( L i t / h r )
LEGEND
o ONE MESH LAYER — FIBROU S-FERROCEMENT (B)
x TWO MESH LAYERS T TRIAL SPECIMEN
A THREE MESH LAYERS v_ TOTAL VOLUME FRACTION OF
FERROCEMENT (A ) K R E IN FORC EMENT ( Vm +• V f)
FIGURE 4“ PLOT OF IMPACT ENERGY VERSUS LEAKAGE

RATE FOR SLABS
247
Behaviour Under Blast Loading

1. Effect of Quantity of Explosive : During the process of optimization
of explosive quantity, it was observed that any quantity greater
than 1 2.5gm caused complete shattering and dispersion of fragements
over a large area. In general ferrocement specimens could withstand
upto 9.375 gm of the explosive charge, while fibrous-ferrocement
specimens could do so upto 12.5 gm. With 3.125 gm, the A1 type
specimens developed cracks, while the B1 type specimens remained
unaffected. Though the A1 and B1 specimens were extensivelyt damaged
with a quantity of 6.25 gms, the B1 specimens developed a split
at a particular section and remained undamaged elsewhere. The beha
viour of the B1 specimens can be attributed to the occurrence of
weak sections and the non-uniform fibre distribution during construc
tion. With 9.375 gm of explosive charge, A1 and A2 specimens were
shattered and dispersed over a radius of 150 m. A3 specimens developed
extensive cracking. The B1 specimens, though shattered, were not
dispersed. The role of the fibres in preventing shatter was clear.
Though none of the A series specimens could withstand 12.5 gm,
the B3 type specimens displayed only splitting and could otherwise
maintain their shape and integrity.
2. Cracking Behaviour : The specimens subjected to a blast force

of 6.25 gm of the explosive were visually compared. However, this
was difficult because of a highly irregular and inconsistent cracking
pattern, even amongst the same specimen type. A study of crack
lengths also resulted in an indefinite conclusion due to the same
reason, and it was, therefore, concluded that the blast behaviour
could not be qualified visually. Nevertheless, the study did reveal
that the damage seemed to decrease as the mesh volume was increased.
Moreover, in most cases the roof remained unaffected showing a
higher intensity of hoop tensile stresses being caused due to the
shape of the specimen.
3. Assessment by Leakage Rates : The leakage test, which quantified

the damage incurred by the specimens, provided a more definite
comparison in the blast resistance of the two series. Table 5
gives the leakage rates of the specimens subjected to 6.25 gm of
explosive charge. The plots of leakage rate, L, versus volume fraction
of reinforcement, VR, are presented in Figure 5.. Straight line
fittings have been passed through the mean leakage rates of each
specimen type, and the regression equations are presented. Though
the A1 and B1 type specimens allowed the same leakage rates, the
enhanced blast resistance of fibrous-ferrocement is seen in the
reduced rates of the B2 and B3 type specimens which were 65.25?
and 8 1 .31 ? lower than their corresponding ferrocement parallels,
respectively.
Correlation Between Impact Energy and Blast Force

The two types of specimens were fabricated and tested under similar
conditions. Though they varied only in shape, an attempt was made to
correlate the two forces. For example, from Figure 5, the value of
required in hollow cylinder to cause a degree of damage, allowing a
leakage rate of say 160 lit/hr., is 0.997?. Figure 4 shows that this
value of VR and leakage rate corresponds to a drop impact energy of
4750 Kg-gm. This indicates that in this investigation, the effect of 6.25
gm of explosive on a cylindrical specimen is similar to that caused
248
TABLE 5
Leakage rates for hollow cylinders
SI. Series Speci Age at Leakage SI. Series Speci Age at Leakage
No. men testing ra te No. men testing rate
(Days) Oit/hr. ) (Days) Oit./hr.)
1 Trial T1-5 43 330.0 14 A A3-1 45 85.0

2 T1-8 43 330.0 15 A3-2 45 49.0
3 T1-9 43 330.0 16 A3-3 45 116.0
4 T2-1 43 128. 0 17 A3-4 45 53.25
5 T2-2 43 184. 0
6 T2-4 43 176.5 18 B B1-1 43 330.0
7 T3-3 45 65.5 19 B1-2 43 330.0
8 T3-4 45 90.0 20 B1-3 43 330.0
21 B2-1 44 36.0
9 A A1-2 43 330.0 22 B2-2 44 72.5
10 A1-3 43 330.0 23 B2-3 44 54. 0
11 A2-1 44 135.5 24 B2-4 44 43.5
12 A2-3 44 105.0 25 B3-1 45 4.8
13 A2-4 44 160. 0 26 B3-3 45 8.0
27 B3-4 45 30.0
by 4750 kg. cm of drop impact loading on a slab. This correlation has

inherent limitations. However, as drop impact loading is relatively
less complicated and easier to understand, it does provide an insight
into the blast effect of this quantity of explosive.
CONCLUSIONS
The enhanced performance of fibrous-ferrocement over ferrocement has

been established, within the premises of this study, under impact and
blast loading. The major contributing factor of the mesh-fibre combination
lies in the ability to efficiently arrest crack propagation, resulting
in a superior cracking behaviour, and consequently the absorption of
large amounts of energy before failure. Apart from this, the salient
conclusions follow :
1. The impact resistance, including the first crack resistance, and

blast resistance are increased as mesh volume and corresponding
section thickness are increased. A further improvement resulted
with the inclusion of 0.5% randomly oriented, steel hooked fibre
in the matrix.
2. The role of the fibres in imparting shatter proofness to the material,
thereby preventing additional damage to men and material in the
vicinity by haphazardly flying splinters, was clearly observed.
3. The dissipation of energy absorbed by fibrous-ferrocement was in
the form of multiple, fine cracks as compared to restricted crack
lengths of larger width in ferrocement.
4. The blast tests highlighted the possibility of randomness in cracking
behaviour of cement mortar, occurrence of weak sections in specimens,
non-uniformity of fibre distribution and the randomness of the
blast force itself.
249
1-7 0 EXPLOSIVE QUANTITY s 6*25 gm
1-58 V f« 0 -5 V .
V46
I B 20© B2-2 Vr s -O ' 00155L+1 23*80
1 -33
" - - r
1-21
< ►- 1-09
tr z
u. uj
z
UJ UJ 0 *9 7 Vr = - 0 * 0 0115 L + 1*6029
Z o
=
->
i£o T 1-5
O u. 0*84
> z ®Tll!
0 -7 2 A 1-2
A 1-3
0*60 _L 1 1- J- J i I I i I____
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
(L ) LEAKAGE RATE ( L i t / h r )
LEG EN D
ONE MESH LAYER ------- FIBROUS-FERROCEMENT {B )
TWO MESH LAYERS T TRIAL SPECIMEN
THREE MESH LAYERS (H ) MEAN VALUE OF LEAKAGE RATE
FERROCEMENT (A ) Vr - Vm t Vf
FIGURE 5-P LO T OF VOLUME FRACTION OF REINFORCEMENT

VERSUS LEAKAGE RATE FOR HOLLOW CYLINDERS
5. The leakage test provided a more definite quantification of impact

and blast resistance, especially so when visual qualification was
dif ficul t.
The present effort is restricted to the study of a relatively smaller

number of companion specimens in each type and series. Further rigorous
experimental research is, therefore, needed to fully understand the
actual potential of fibrous-ferrocement.
REFERENCES
1. Achyutha, H. , Mathews, M.S. and Srinivasa Rao, P., Assessment of

impact resistance of ferrocement slabs, Proc. Third International
Symposium on Ferrocement, edited by S.K. Kaushik and V.K. Gupta,
Roorkee, India, 8-10 December, 1988, pp. 359-361.
2. Ganesan, N. and Kumar, S.S., Effect of steel fibres on strength

and behaviour of ferrocement flexural members, ibid, pp. 106-114.
3- Grabowski, J. and Radomski, W. , Behaviour of steel fibre reinforced

concrete and ferrocement slabs under impact loads, ibid, pp. 282-289.
250
4. Menon, V. , Behaviour of fibrous ferrocement under impact and blast

loading, M. E. Thesis, University of Roorkee, India, February, 1989.
5. Ohama, Y. and Shirai, A., Flexural behaviour of polymer-ferrocement

with steel fibres, Proc. Asia-Pacific Symposium on Ferrocement
Applications for Rural Development, Roorkee, India, 23-25, April,
1984, pp. 11-17.
6. Paramasivam, P., Nathan, G.K. and Lee, S.L., Influence of discrete

fibres on behaviour of ferrocement, Journal of Ferrocement, Vol. 10,
No. 2, April, 1980, pp. 105-110.
7. Raisinghani, M. , Sai, A.S.R. and Thomas, P. C. , Blast load tests

on ferrocement, Proc. Second International Symposium on Ferrocement,
Bangkok, Thailand, 14-16 January, 1985, pp. 35-44.
8. Shah, S.P. and Key, W.H. Jr., Impact resistance of ferrocement,

Journal of structural division, Proc. ASCE, Vol. 98, No. ST1, January,
1972, pp. 111-123.
9- Siraskar, K. A. and Kumar, S., Fibre reinforcement for shatter proof

ness of concrete, Symposium on Modern Trends in Civil Engineering,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India, 1972.
10. Srivasa Rao, P., Achyutha, H. , Mathews, M.S. and Srinivasan, P.P.,
Impact studies on ferrocement slabs, Proc. First International
Symposium on Ferrocement, edited by G. Oberti and S. P. Shah, Italy,
July, 1981, pp. 1/7-1/19.
11. Swamy, R.N. and Jojagha, A.H. , Impact resistance of steel fibre
reinforced light-weight concrete, Proc. Second International Collo
quium on Concrete in Developing Countries, Bombay, January, 1988,
pp. 109-120.
12. Vasan, R.M. , Godbole, P.N. and Kaushik , S.K. , Performance evaluation
of ferro-fibro overlays, Proc. Third International Symposium on
Ferrocement, edited by S.K. Kaushik and V.K. Gupta, Roorkee, India,
8-10 December, 1988, pp. 594-600.
251
DYNAMIC TENSILE FRACTURE OF CARBON FIBER REINFORCED CEMENTS
NEMKUMAR BANTHIA
D epartm ent of Civil E n g in eerin g
Laval U n iv e rsity
S te-F o y , Quebec, G1K 7P4, CANADA
and
YOSHIHIKO OHAMA
College of E n g in eerin g
Nihon U n iv e rsity , Koriyama
Fukushim a-K en, JAPAN
ABSTRACT
C arbon fib e r re in fo rc e d cem ent specim ens w ere im pact loaded in ten sio n .
A c o n v en tio n al C h arp y w ith a modified su p p o rt system was u sed . A p e n
dulum a p p ro a c h v elo city of 2.30 m /s was u se d th ro u g h o u t. An accelerom e
te r was u se d to acco u n t fo r specim en in e rtia . E ffects of w ater cem ent
ra tio an d cem ent to silica fume ratio , w ere in v e stig a te d . While th re e
volume fra c tio n s of ca rb o n fib e rs , 1, 3 and 5 p e rc e n t w ere used fo r p a ste s
w ith silica fume, a vol. fra c tio n of 1% was u se d for p a ste s w ithout silica
fume. The following co n clusions w ere draw n: (a) Silica fume is an excel
le n t d is p e r s a n t of c a rb o n fib e rs in th e matrix; (b) S u b sta n tia l im provem ents
in b o th th e te n sile s tr e n g th and f ra c tu r e e n e rg y u n d e r im pact a re b ro u g h t
a b o u t by c a rb o n fib e r inclusion; th e im provem ents a re p ro p o rtio n al to th e
volume fra c tio n of ca rb o n fib e rs included.
INTRODUCTION
In sp ite of th e ir a ttr a c tiv e p ro p e rtie s like chem ical in e rtn e s s and sta b ility ,
th e h ig h p ro h ib itiv e c o st of c arb o n fib e rs has d isc o u rag ed th e ir use. F or
tu n a te ly , th e re c e n t developm ent of th e in expensive carb o n fib e rs made
from coal and petroleum p itc h e s has rev iv e d th e in te re s t in th is form of
rein fo rcem en t.
The c o n sid e ra b le im provem ents in th e sta tic m echanical p ro p e rtie s of

cem ents d u e to c a rb o n fib e r inclusion have been well docum ented [1-4],
However, v e ry little is known a b o u t th e ir re sista n c e to im pact. The limited
n um ber of a tte m p ts to w ard s a s s e s s in g th e im pact re sista n c e of carb o n fib e r
252
reinforced cements (CFRC) have also left inconclusive data. While O h a m a

A m a n o and E n d o [1] reported an increase in the impact resistance of ce
ments due to fiber inclusion, Ali, Majundar and Rayment [21 have found no
such improvements. It is worth mentioning here that in the absence of a
standardized testing technique for impact testing of fibrous cementitious
composites, the various investigators have used various techniques of high
stress rate generation leading to imcomparable results. Inconsistency in
dynamic test data is often a cause of the different specimen sizes, different
energy loss mechanisms associated with different test systems, different
w a y s of generating high rates of loading and also the different methods of
analysing the results.
One problem usually encountered in impact testing is the existence of

specimen inertia [5]. Unless a proper dynamic analysis of the system is
carried out, impact test data m a y lead to grossly misleading conclusions. In
dynamic testing, a proper recognition of the various external and internal
forces as a function of time is necessary. Equally essential is an u n d e r
standing of the various modes of energy dissipation, transfer and loss [6].
EXPERIMENTAL
Specimens
C F R C specimens in the form of briquettes (Fig. 1) were cast by mixing
ingredients in a mortar mixer. The properties of the carbon fibers are
given in Table 1. The various mix proportions of C F R C are given in Table
2. As previously reported b y O h a m a and A m a n o [4], silica fume was found
to be a very effective dispersant of carbon fibers in the presence of a
superplasticizer. In the case of cement paste specimen, no more than 1%
by volume of carbon fibers could be added without causing balling and
segregation. The problem of balling in the case of cement paste specimens
got worse as the water/cement ratio increased.
The specimens were left covered for 24 hr after casting at the end of
which, they were transferred to a moist room at 22° ± 2°C and 100% R.H.
The impact tests were done on the 28th day.
Impact Testing Setup

A conventional C h a r p y impact tester w as modified for conducting the impact
tests (Fig. 2). The specimen support system (Fig. 3) consisted of two parts
A and B with the specimen bridging across. Part A is fixed while part B is
the trolley mounted on frictionless rollers that glide freely on two guide
rails secured to the base. There are two photocell assemblies mounted on
the base the specimen support system (Fig. 4) that measure the interception
time of the trolley (part B). Knowing the distance between the two photo
cells, the velocity of the trolley m a y be computed from the recorded inter
ception time.
The tester has a 25.454 k g h a m m e r with a 400 N m impact capacity.

The striking end of the h a m m e r (the "tup") is instrumented with bonded
strain gauges that record the contact load between the h a m m e r and the
trolley. There is an accelerometer fitted on the trolley that records the
trolley accelerations (Fig. 3). The accelerometer has a ± 500 g capacity
with a 5000 g overload protection. The accelerometer generated a 10 m V
253
TABLE 1
Carbon fibre properties
Type Average Average Sp. Gravity Young’s Tensile

length diameter modulus strength
Low modulus
carbon fibre 6 mm 18.0 (im 1.63 386 MPa 8.3 MPa
TABLE 2
Mix proportions
Water/cement Silica fume/cement Carbon fiber (vol. %)
» ?
o
0.30 0.2 ^
5
254
Hammer
Fig. 2: Modified
Charpy Impact
Accelerometer
Tester.
Triggering photocell
Fig. 3: The Spe

Specimen cimen Support
System.
Accelerometer
Fig. 4: The Photo-

Cell Assemby for
Velocity Deter
mination.
255
signal for e v e r y 9.81 m / s e c 2 of acceleration. While a D y n a m i c R e s p o n s e

M o d u l e (DRM) p o w e r e d the tup strain g a u g e s a n d conditioned the e nsuing
signal, the accelerometers w e r e p o w e r e d b y a n i n d e p e n d e n t p o w e r source.
A X 1 0 magnification of the accelerometer signal w a s f o u n d to be necessary
as well as sufficient.
T h e data w a s acquired b y a 2 channel oscilloscope with a plotter

w h i c h w a s triggered b y the p e n d u l u m itself just before hitting the trolley.
This triggering w a s accomplished b y another photocell flag ass e m b l y
m o u n t e d at the base of the main pillar.
Testing a n d Analysis of the Results

In a n actual test, the spec i m e n w a s placed in the clamps, bridging the two
parts A a n d B. T h e p e n d u l u m w a s raised to a pre-determined height using
a low blow fixture, a n d then w a s set free. T h e p e n d u l u m struck the trol
ley’s elevated d e c k a n d thus placed the specimen u n d e r a uniaxial tensile
impact load causing fracture. U p o n fracturing, the trolley, with the b r o k e n
spec i m e n half, continued to travel t o w ards the e n d of the s u p port assembly,
while the p e n d u l u m , cleared of all obstructions in its path continued its
swing upwards. T h e velocity of the fast m o v i n g trolley o n frictionless
rollers w a s d e termined b y the t wo photocell assemblies in its path (Fig. 4).
T h e ou t p u t in a real test consisted of the tup load vs. time signal, the
trolley acceleration vs. time signal a n d the velocity of the trolley soon
after the s p e c i m e n fracture. T h e s e data w e r e analyzed to obtain the p e a k
tensile load o n the specimen, a n d the d y n a m i c fracture e n e r g y a b s o r b e d b y
the specimen.
Let Pt (t) = Recorded tup load as a function of time t

at (t) = Recorded acceleratin of the trolley
Ps (t) = Specimen load
mP = Mass of the pendulum
hP = Height of pendulum drop
g = Earth’s gravitation acceleration
mt = Mass of the trolley with broken specimen half
Vt = Velocity of the trolley just after specimen fracture
tf = Time at the end of event
Ef(tf) = Specimen fracture energy.
A part of the tup load is u s e d in accelerating the trolley u p o n c o n

tact. This part of the tup load d u e to trolley inertia, Pi(t), is directly p r o
portional to the r ecorded trolley acceleration.
P i( t ) = mt a t(t) (1 )
With the inertial load k n o w n , the specimen load m a y be obtained b y a p p l y

ing the equation of d y n a m i c equilibrium
P s(t) = Pt(t) - Pi(t) (2)
Figure 5 s h o w s the loads recorded in a n actual test a n d also the s c h e m e

u s e d for obtaining the true s p e cimen load. T h e p e a k value of the specimen
load w a s divided b y the fractured s pecimen area to obtain the d y n a m i c
tensile strength.
256
To obtain the specimen fracture energy, the law of conservation of

energy was applied. The energy lost by the pendulum, as obtained by ap
plying the impulse momentum relationships [7] was assumed to be spent in
fracturing the specimen and in providing the kinetic energy to the trolley
after the fracture. Therefore,
fracture pendulum energy loss K.E. of

energy trolley
It must be pointed out that eqn. (3) is valid only if the friction in the
bearings carrying the trolley is negligible. This validity was independly
verified by carrying out the tests with no specimen in the system in which
case, the kinetic energy of the trolley must equal (or nearly equal) the
energy lost by the pendulum [8].
As may be seen from Figure 5, the tup load vs. time plot always con
sisted of two distinct peaks. A comparison with the inertial load plot
revealed that the first peak in the tup load vs. time plot comprised entirely
of specimen inertia. It is also interesting to note that minor inertial peaks
occurred all through the impact event, signifying the importance of measur
ing the specimen accelerations.
Static Tests
Companion static tensile tests were conducted on identical briquettes at a
static rate of 0.08 MPa/sec.
RESULTS
Carbon Fiber Reinforcement of Cement Paste

The effect of carbon fiber inclusion on the tensile strength of cement paste
as a function of water/cement ratio is shown in Fig. 6. A general reduc
tion of tensile strength with an increase in the water/cement ratio may be
noted. An increase in the strength with an increase in the stress rate
from static to impact may also be noted. Figure 7 compares the impact
fracture energies for plain paste with those for carbon fiber reinforced
paste. Along with the observations from Fig. 6, it may be concluded that
the inclusion of 1 % carbon fiber to cement paste increases both the tensile
strength and fracture energy in impact.
Figure 8 shows the observed tup load (Pt(t)) versus time plots under
impact. The increased energy absorbed by the specimen with carbon fiber
may be noted by the larger area encompassed by the reinforced
specimens [see eqn. (3)1. In general, the impact on carbon fiber reinforced
specimens lasted approximately twice as long as their unreinforced counter
parts. Further, the first inertial peak for reinforced specimens was usually
lower than that for the unreinforced companions. This is probably due to
the reduction in the stiffness of the material caused by the incorporation
of low modulus carbon fibers.
257
W / C ratio W / C ratio
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Fig. 6: Tensile Strength of Paste

Fig. 7: Fracture Energy of Paste
Fig. 8: Tup Load Plots for Paste as
Modified by Carbon Fiber Inclusion
Note the larger area encompassed by
reinforced Specimens.
Fig. 9: Tensile Strength of Silica
Fume Paste (20% Silica Fume by w t *
of Cement)
Fig. 10: Tensile Strength of Silica
Fume Paste (40% Silica Fume by w t .
of Cement)
Fig. 8
Carbon fiber content (vol. %) Carbon fiber content (vol. %)
Fig. 9 Fig. 10
258
Carbon Fiber Reinforcement of Silica F u m e Cement Paste

Figures 9 and 10 present the effect of carbon fiber content (vol. %) on the
tensile strength in static and impact loading. Figure 9 corresponds to a
silica fume/cement ratio of 0.20, while the ratio for specimens in Fig. 10
w as 0.40. A general increase in the tensile strength with an increase in
the stress rate as well the carbon fiber content m a y be noted. It m a y also
be noted that an increase in the content of silica fume from 20 to 40% b y
weight of cement led to only a minor increase in the strength in tension at
all percentages of fiber content. O n the other hand, the impact fracture
energy was found to have been substantially increased with an increase in
the silica fume/cement ratio (Fig. 11). It m a y also be noted from Fig. 11
that an increase in the carbon fiber content led to an increased impact
fracture energy at both the percentages of silica fume.
The beneficial effect of carbon fiber inclusion on the impact resistance

of silica fume cement paste m a y be further noted from Fig. 12 where the
observed tup load (Pt(t)) vs. time plots for (silica fume/cement = 0.4) for
the various carbon fiber contents have been grouped. A n increase in the
area J*Pt(t)dt, signifying an increased fracture energy [eqn. (3)], with an
increase in the carbon fiber content m a y clearly be seen. It m a y also be
noticed from Fig. 12 that a reduction in the stiffness of the impacted sys
tem occurred with an increase in the carbon fiber content as indicated b y
the lowered inertial peaks for the reinforced specimens.
DISCUSSION
The dependence of the tensile strength of cementitious materials on stress

rate is attributed to the concept of subcritical crack growth combined with
Griffith’s failure hypothesis [9]. In general, these materials can support a
higher load in the case of impact loading due to the lack of available time
for subcritical crack growth. If the emphasis is placed on the critical
failure strain theory, the higher strengths obtained under impact m a y be
explained on the basis of the lack of creep strains in impact tests. While
the stress rate sensitivity of mortar and concrete has been well recognized
and widely reported, the results from the present investigation indicate that
the basic cement paste also has its behaviour altered with stress rate.
The excellent dispersing qualities of silica fume in the context of

carbon fibers is encouraging. Although the inclusion of more than 1% (by
vol.) of carbon fibers in cement pastes without microsilica seemed impos
sible, improvements in the properties could be noticed even at this low
level of fiber inclusion. Excellent impact resistance of silica fume pastes
with carbon fibers, as reported in this study, underlines their potential as
an energy absorbing materials. It remains to be seen, however, if these
improvements are also manifested in carbon fiber reinforced concrete.
The technique of impact testing devised in this study is one of the

m a n y techniques used by the investigators today. However, the authors
believe that the simplicity of its design and the ease of its operation need
a special mention. The data obtained by this technique is rational, free
from parasitic effects of inertia, reliable, and reproducible.
259
Fig. 11: Fracture Energy Absorbed by

Silica Fume Cement Pastes with 20
and 40% Replacement of Cement by
Silica Fume as a Function of Carbon
Fiber Content (vol. %)
Tup load Pt (t), (N)
Fig. 12: Observed Tup Load Vs. Time Plots for Silica Fume
Cement Paste with 40% Silica Fume by Wt. of Cement. Note
an increase in the area under the curve with an increase
in the fiber volume fraction. Also note the reduction in the
first inertial peak load due to an increasing fiber volume
fraction.
260
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The impact tester devised in this study m a y be successfully used to

conduct impact tests in tension on cementitious materials.
(2) Both the tensile strength and fracture energy under impact for plain
and silica fume cement paste m a y be increased by reinforcing them
with carbon fibers. Silica fume acts as an excellent dispersant of car
bon fibers, and in the presence of silica fume, the improvements in
the impact resistance are proportional to the content of carbon fibers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors wish to thank Kureha Chemical Industry Co., Ltd., Japan for
supplying the fibers. The laboratory assistance of Mr. J.-F. Trottier is also
thankfully acknowledged. This w o r k was supported, in part, by Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
REFERENCES
[1] Ohama, Y., Amano, M. and Endo, M., Concrete International, March
1985, pp. 58-62.
[21 Ali, M.A., Majundar, A.J. and Rayment, D.L., Cement and Concrete
Research, Vol. 2, 1972, pp. 201-212.
[3] Nishioka, K., Yamakawa, S. and Shirakawa, K., in Developments in

Fiber Reinforced Cements and Concrete, Rilem Symposium, Sheffield,
England, 1986.
[41 Ohama, Y. and Amano, M., Proceedings of 27th Japan Congress on

Material Research, Kyoto, 1984, pp. 187-191.
[5] Banthia, N., Mindess, S., Bentur, A. and Pigeon, M., "Impact Testing of
Concrete Using a Drop Weight Impact Machine", Experimental
Mechanics (in press).
[61 Banthia, N., Mindess, S. and Bentur, A., Proceedings of S E M - R I L E M

Int. Conf. on Fracture of Concrete and R o c k , Houston, 1987, pp. 22-
34.
[71 Banthia, N., Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver,

Canada, 1987.
[81 Banthia, N., Pigeon, M. and Trottier, J.-F., Steel Fiber-Cementitious

Matrix B o n d Studies at High Stress Rates, Experimental Techniques
(submitted).
[91 Banthia, N., Mindess, S. and Bentur, A., Materials and Structures, Vol.
20, 1987, pp. 293-302.
261
FLEXURAL FATIGUE STRENGTH, ENDURANCE LIMIT, AND IMPACT

STRENGTH OF FIBER REINFORCED REFRACTORY CONCRETES
GEORGE Y. WU
Civil Engineer
Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
Port Hueneme, CA 93043-5003
SOKKE K. SHIVARAJ
Graduate Student
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology
DR. V. RAMAKRISHNAN
Professor of Civil Engineering
501 E. Joseph St., Rapid City, SD 57701
ABSTRACT
Steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete (SFRRC) is a promising material

for heat-resistant airfield pavements. This paper presents the results
of an investigation carried out to determine the flexural fatigue, en
durance limit, and impact strength of SFRRC at 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by
volume of fiber. These properties are compared with the same refractory
concrete mix without steel fiber. The fatigue strength of SFRRC increased
61%, 159%, and 199% with 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by volume of steel fiber,
respectively. The endurance limits expressed as a percentage of plain
concrete modulus of rupture, increased 60%, 160%, and 200% when reinforced
with 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% of steel fiber by volume, respectively. The
addition of steel fibers also substantially increased the impact strength
of SFRRC at failure.
INTRODUCTION
Several U.S. Navy and Marine Corps jet aircraft present concrete erosion
and spalling problems on airfield pavements. The exhaust gas from the
auxiliary power unit of the F/A-18 aircraft, measured at only 385 °F,
causes spalls on Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement. Vertical/short
takeoff and landing (V/STOL) aircraft such as the A/V-8As and the A/V-8Bs,
produce severe jet exhaust blast during vertical takeoff and landing.
Other areas that require heat resistant concrete include aircraft power
check run-up pads, jet engine test cells, fire fighting training facili
ties, and runway ends.
262
The U.S. Navy has been conducting researches on jet blast and heat
resistant pavement materials. One of the most promising jet blast and
heat resistant pavement materials is the refractory concrete. Refrac
tory concrete can retain sufficient strength after repeated and pro
longed exposure to high temperatures, even when subsequently exposed to
free water. Common refractory concrete consists of refractory aggre
gates and Calcium Aluminate cement. The degree of refractoriness
depends mainly on the type of refractory aggregate and the cement.
Test results obtained from jet engine exhaust blast test indicated
that plain refractory concrete test panels cracked and failed rapidly
after being exposed to high temperature jet exhaust blast (9). Steel
fiber reinforced test panels performed substantially better than the
corresponding nonreinforced test panels. Steel fiber reinforcement
enhances the engineering properties and the thermal shock resistance of
refractory concrete. Several researchers have investigated properties
of steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete (1, 7, 8, and 9). However,
the fatigue strength and the endurance limit of steel fiber reinforced
refractory concrete under cyclic loading are not known. The current
investigation is to determine the impact strength, and the flexural
fatigue strength of steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete for which
the design of airfield pavements is based.
OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this investigation was to determine the fatigue

behavior and endurance limit of refractory concrete beams reinforced
with straight stainless steel fibers. Other objectives were:
1. To determine the fresh concrete properties of fiber reinforced

refractory concrete, such as workability, balling characteris
tic and finishability, and compare them with the corresponding
properties from plain refractory concrete.
2. To determine the influence of steel fiber volume on the

properties of fresh and hardened refractory concrete.
3. To determine the flexural fatigue strength of refractory

concretes with and without different volume percentages of
steel fiber.
4. To evaluate the impact strength of fiber reinforced refractory

concrete at three different percentages of fiber (0.5%, 1.0%,
and 1.5% by volume) and compare it to that of plain refractory
concrete.
MATERIALS, MIXES AND TEST SPECIMENS
Dry Ready Mix
The chemical composition of the castable refractory concrete used is

presented in Table 1. It consists of a premixed combination of selected
refractory aggregates and a calcium aluminate cement binder. The castable
refractory concrete is delivered in 100-pound (45.5 kg) bags and required
only the addition of clean water.
263
Water
Two gallon^ (7.57 liters)ôf water for each hundred pound bag of premix
(540 lb/yd or 320.4 kg/m ) were added as per the manufacturer’s recom
mendation.
Fiber
The fiber used in this investigation was 1inch (25.4 mm)long, 0.018
inch (0.46 mm) in diameter, melt-extracted stainless steel,304 fiber.
It has a modulus of elasticity of 18 x 10 psi (12.41 x 10 Mpa) at 1600
°F (871 °C), a tensile strength of 1800 psi (12.41 Mpa) at 1600 °F (871
°C), and a melting temperature range of 2550-2650 °F (1400-1455 °C).
Mixes
The same basic mix proportion was used for the plain (control) and the
steel fiber reinforced mixes. A total of four mixes were used:
1. Plain control refractory mix
2. Refractory mix with 0.5% steel fiber by volume
Two batches were made for each mix for a total of eight batches.^
The mix designations are shown in Table 2. The batch size was 2.5 ft
(0.0708 m ).
Test Specimens
The following specimens were prepared from each mix:
1. 4 inch x 4 inch x 14 inch (102 mm x 102 mm x 356mm) beams for

flexural fatigue test.
2. 6 inch x 2.5-inch (152 mm x 64 mm) cylinders for impact

strength testing.
After casting, the specimens were covered with polyethylene sheet

for 24 hours at room temperature. They were then demolded and placed in
water tank maintained at 72 °F (22.2 °C) for an additional 28-day curing
to simulate saturated wet refractory concrete airfield pavement. Nor
mally only an initial 24-hour wet curing is required for refractory
concrete.
TESTS FOR FRESH CONCRETE
The freshly mixed concrete was tested for slump (ASTM C-143), air content
(ASTM C-231), fresh concrete unit weight (ASTM C-138), temperature of
concrete and vebe time.
264
TEST FOR HARDENED CONCRETE
Flexural Fatigue Test
Third point loading was used in the test for flexural fatigue. The span
length was 12 inches (305 mm). The beams were subjected to a nonreversed
pulsating load. The procedure used for the test is as follows. The
lower load limit was set at 10 percent of the average maximum load ob
tained from the static flexure test performed on three beams. For the
first beam in each mix the upper load limit was set at 90 percent of
average static flexural load of the corresponding mix. The fatigue test
was conducted between these limits. If the beam failed before completing
two million cycles, the upper limit was reduced for the next specimen.
If the beam survived, another beam was tested at the same upper load as
a duplicate. Three specimens were tested at each load level. The fre
quency of loading used for all the fatigue tests was 20 cycles per second.
It has been shown (3 & 4) that frequency has little or no effect in fatigue
tests unless extremely high frequencies are used. Therefore, for purpose
of expediency, a rate of 20 Hz was used.
A MTS test machine was used for all tests. The control and monitor
systems include a MTS 436 control unit, a Hewlett-Packard oscilloscope,
and a digital multimeter equipped with a MTS load cell. There was a
counter to keep track of the number of cycles to the nearest 100. When
a beam failed, this counter reading was recorded and multiplied by 100
to give the number of cycles the beam had been subjected to. A mechani
cal cutoff switch was provided to turn off the machine when a beam has
failed.
Impact Test
The impact specimens were tested at 28 days by dropweight test method

(5). The equipment required for this test are:
1. A standard manually operated 10-lb (4.54 kg) weight with an

18-inch (457 mm) drop (ASTM D-1557)
2. A 2.5-inch (63.5 mm) diameter hardened steel ball
3. A flat steel base plate with a positioning bracket and four

positioning lugs
The specimen, with its rough surface up, was placed on the base
plate within the positioning lugs. The hardened steel ball was placed
on the top of the specimen and within the positioning bracket. The com
pactor was positioned with its base on the steel ball. The test was
performed on a smooth rigid floor to minimize energy losses. The hammer
was dropped consecutively. The number of blows required to cause the
first visible crack at the top of the specimen was recorded. The impact
resistance of a specimen to ultimate failure, as defined by the number
of blows required to open the cracks sufficiently so that the pieces of
the specimen were touching three of the four positioning lugs on the
base plate, was also recorded.
265
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fresh Concrete Properties
The test results on the fresh concrete are presented in Table 3. The
room temperature, humidity, and concrete temperature were recorded during
each mixing to ensure that all the mixes were done under approximately
similar conditions. The room temperature and humidity varied in the
range of 22 °C to 25 °C (71.6 °F to 77.0 °F), and 36% to 48%, respec
tively. The concrete temperature range was 23.0 °C to 27.2 °C (73.4 °F
to 81.0 °F).
Workability
The slump test and vebe time test were conducted to determine the
workability of the m^xes. The wate^ content remained constant for all
the mixes (540 lb/yd or 320.4 kg/m ). The vebe time measures the work
ability of concrete based on the energy needed to compact the concrete.
It was observed that the slump value decreased with increasing vebe
time. In all the mixes there was no balling, bleeding or segregation.
Even though the slump values were almost zero at above 1.0% steel fiber
by volume, no difficulty was encountered in placing and consolidating
the concrete in the laboratory with the use of a vibrator. The fiber
reinforced refractory concrete at 1.5% by volume of steel fiber was more
cohesive than the plain refractory concrete. This shows that slump alone
does not provide an accurate indication on the workability of fiber rein
forced concrete. In general, fiber reinforced concrete seems to be much
more workable than that indicated by its slump. However, the energy
needed to compact the concrete is proportional to the fiber content in
the concrete. Excellent finishability was achieved on laboratory pre
pared specimens, even at 1.5% by volume of steel fiber.
HARDENED CONCRETE PROPERTIES
Fatigue Strength
The flexural fatigue tests were performed to determine the flexural

fatigue behavior of SFRRC. Fatigue strength is defined as the maximum
fatigue flexural stress at which the beam can withstand two million
cycles of nonreversed fatigue loading. The relationship between the
fatigue strength versus number of cycles for all mixes are shown in
Figure 1. The relationship is nonlinear up to the stress level at which
the beam does not fail at 2 million cycles, thereafter, the slope of the
fatigue curve becomes parallel to the axis of the number of cycles; this
is true for all four mixes.
Figure 2 shows that the fatigue strength increased appreciably by
the addition of stainless steel fibers to the concrete. The fatigue
strength was 234 psi (1.61 Mpa) for plain concrete, and 377 psi (2.6 Mpa),
607 psi (4.19 Mpa) and 699 psi (4.82 Mpa) for concretes reinforced with
0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by volume of steel fiber, respectively. These values
correspond to increases of 61%, 159%, and 199%, respectively. Figure 3
shows fatigue flexural stress versus logarithm of number of cycles for
all four mixes. There is a linear relationship between fatigue stress
266
and logarithm of number of cycles up to the fatigue strength of that

particular mix, and the line becomes parallel to the axis of the number
of cycles thereafter as in the previous case.
Endurance Limit Expressed as a Percentage of Modulus of Rupture of Plain

Concrete
The endurance limit is defined as the maximum fatigue flexural stress at

which the beam could withstand two million cycles of nonreversed fatigue
loading, expressed as a percentage of modulus of rupture of plain concrete.
Figure 4 shows that there was a considerable increase in the normal
ized endurance limit expressed as a percentage of modulus of rupture of
plain concrete for the SFRRC beams. The endurance limit for the mix
with the 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by volume of steel fiber were 56%, 91%,
and 105%, respectively, whereas the endurance limit for plain refractory
concrete was only 35%. Thus the corresponding increase in endurance
limit was 60%, 160%, and 200%, respectively. It is interesting to note
that plain portland cement concrete (PCC) has an endurance limit of 55%
(10), whereas the plain refractory concrete has an endurance limit of
35%, indicating refractory concrete is more brittle than plain portland
cement concrete. The addition of steel fibers improved the ductility of
the refractory concrete.
Endurance Limit Expressed as a Percentage of its Modulus of Rupture
Endurance limit of concrete can also be defined as the fatigue flexural

stress at which the beam could withstand 2 million cycles of nonreversed
fatigue loading, expressed as percentage of its modulus of rupture.
The normalized endurance limits for the mixes with 0.5%, 1.0%, and
1.5% fiber content were 44%, 51%, and 40%, respectively, as shown in
Figure 5. The normalized endurance limits at 1.5% steel fiber content
were low because the modulus of rupture at 1.5% fiber content was high
as compared to that of plain concrete. Hence, the improvement in endur
ance limit is evident only when the endurance limit is expressed as a
percentage of the modulus of rupture of plain concrete.
Similar findings were observed when these results were compared to
other studies (3, 4, 10, and 11): there was an apparent decrease in
endurance limit, expressed as a percentage of its modulus of rupture,
with an increase in fiber content. In fact, this phenomenon occurred in
PCC reinforced with corrugated steel, straight steel, and polypropylene
fibers. In particular, the endurance limits for PCC reinforced with
0.5% and 1.0% by volume of fibers, respectively, were 70% and 55% for
the corrugated steel fibers, 67% and 60% for the straight steel fibers,
and 70% and 67% for the polypropylene fibers.
Graphs for the ratio of fatigue flexural stress to modulus of rup
ture of the same mix (f /f ) versus the number of cycles are shown in
Figure 6. The relationship is nonlinear up to the fatigue strength of
that particular mix, then the curve becomes parallel to the axis of the
number of cycles. Graphs for f /f versus logarithm of number of
cycles for each of the four mixes are shown in Figure 7.In this case
the relationship is linear until its fatigue stress level at 2 million
cycles is reached. In further tests, one beam from each mix which had
withstood 2 million cycles was again tested in flexural fatigue for an
additional 2 million cycles at the same load range used previously. All
267
the tested beams withstood 4 million cycles. This suggests that the
beam which initially withstood 2 million cycles may never fail in its
lifetime.
Flexural Test After Fatigue
Static flexure testing was performed on those specimens which had pre
viously been subjected to two million cycles of nonreversed fatigue load
during the fatigue flexure test and did not fail. Table 4 presents
their corresponding static flexural strengths before and after fatigue
cycling tests along with their ages.
Table 4 also provides percentage increase or decrease of static
flexural strength after fatigue testing. There seems to be a decrease
in flexural strength (3.6% to 28.4%) in plain concrete, whereas there
was an increase in flexural strength (15% to 70.3%) in SFRRC. There was
no strength increase in three fiber reinforced specimens, which may be
due to improper fiber orientation particularly in the tension zone.
This type of increase in flexural strength of fiber reinforced concrete
after it had been subjected to fatigue loading was observed and reported
from another investigation (10). The increase in flexural strength after
fatigue loading for fiber reinforced concrete is more pronounced in spec
imens which have been subjected to fatigue stress loadings lower than
the endurance limit value. This strength increase seems to be related
to the hardening effects from fatigue loading rather than from an increase
in age alone.
Impact Strength
The drop-weight test (ACI Committee 544) used in this investigation is

not a reliable standard scientific test, and it is not expected to provide
accurate quantitative values for impact resistance. However, this is a
very simple and inexpensive test that can be performed anywhere including
in the field. If many specimens can be tested, the average values will
provide qualitatively a good index on the impact resistance of the material.
Thus, it is a good and acceptable test for comparative purposes.
Figure 8 shows the number of blows for first crack and full fail
ure. The impact strength at first crack increased considerably when
reinforced with 0.5% and 1% by volume of steel fiber. However, the
increase in the impact strength at first crack at 1.5% fiber volume was
smaller than that at 1.0%. This is probably because the concrete has
become brittle as indicated by the high compressive strength at 1.5%
fiber content. Compared to plain concrete, the increase in impact
strengths at full failure were 215%, 583%, and 730%, respectively, for
concretes with 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% fiber contents. The test results
indicate that refractory concrete with stainless steel straight fiber
has excellent impact resistance.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The fatigue strength of refractory concrete increases with increasing

steel fiber content. The strength increases were 61%, 159%, and 199%
at 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by volume of steel fiber, respectively.
268
2. The endurance limit, expressed as percentage of plain concrete static

flexural strength, increases with increasing steel fiber content. The
increases were 60%, 160%, and 200% when reinforced with 0.5%, 1.0%, and
1.5% by volume of steel fiber, respectively.
3. The static flexural strengths after fatigue loading were higher for
steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete but lower for plain refrac
tory concrete.
4. The impact strength of refractory concrete increases with increasing

steel fiber content. The strength increases were 215%, 583%, and 730%
at 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by volume of steel fiber, respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding and support of the Naval
Facilities Engineering Command. The views expressed in this paper are
those of the authors who are responsible for its contents. The contents
do not necessarily reflect official views or policies of the Naval Facili
ties Engineering Command.
REFERENCES
1. Refractory concrete. In American Concrete Institute, ACI 574R-79,

Detroit, MI, 1979.
2. Robin, T.D., Refractory concretes: past, present and future. In

American Concrete Institute, SP-57, Detroit, MI.
3. Ramakrishnan, V. and Josifek, C., Performance characteristics and

flexural fatigue strength of concrete steel fiber composites. In
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Concrete,
Madras, India, Dec 1987, pp. 2.73 to 2.84.
4. Ramakrishnan, V., Gollopudi, S. and Zellers, R., Performance charac

teristics and fatigue strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced
concrete. In American Concrete Institute, Special Publication, SP105,
Detroit, MI, 1987, pp. 159-177.
5. ACI Committee 544, Measurement of properties of fiber reinforced

concrete (ACI 544 2R-78). In American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI,
1978.
6. Recommended practice for evaluation of strength test results of

concrete (ACI-214-77). In American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI.
7. Lankard, D.R., Steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete. In

American Concrete Institute, SP-57: Refractory Concrete, Detroit, MI.
8. Lankard, D.R. and Sheets, H.D., Use of steel wire fiber in refractory
castables. In Bulletin, American Ceramic Society, vol 50, no. 5, 1971,
pp. 497-500.
269
9. Wu, G. , Steel fiber reinforced heat resistant pavement. In American

Concrete Institute, Special Publication, SP 105: Fiber Reinforced
Concrete-Properties and Applications, Detroit, MI, 1987, pp. 323-350.
10. Ramakrishnan, V., Wu, G . , and Hosalli, G . , "Flexural fatigue

strength, endurance limit, and impact strength of fiber reinforced
concretes." Presented at 68th Annual Meeting of the Transport Research
Board, Washington D.C., Jan 24, 1989. (to be published in TRB record).
11. Ramakrishnan, V. , Oberling, G. , and Tatnall, P., Flexural fatigue

strength of steel fiber reinforced concretes. In American Concrete
Institute, Special Publication, SP 105: Fiber Reinforced Concrete-
Properties and Applications, Detroit, MI, 1987.
12. Robson, T.D., High-alumina cements and concretes, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
13. Ramakrishnan, V . , Materials and properties of fiber reinforced

concrete. In Proceedings of the International Symposium of Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, Madras, India, Dec 1987.
270
TABLE 1
Chemical composition of the castable
refractory concrete
Chemical Name Weight Percentage
Alumina, AI2O3 26.5

Iron Oxide, FeO 1.2
Iron Oxide, Fe20^ 11.5
Lime, CaO 20.1
Silica, Si02 34.0
Sodium Oxide, Na20 4.2
Titanium Oxide, Ti02 0.5
Others 2.0
Price (over 2,000 lb) $32/100 lb bag (1989)
TABLE 2
Mix designation
Mix Number Batch Number Volume of Fiber
FI I & II None (Control)
F2 I & II 0.5%
F3 I 6c II 1 .0%
F4 I 6c II 1.5%
TABLE 3
Properties of fresh concrete
Mix No. Air Content Vebe Time Temp. Humidity Concrete Temp Unit Wt.
(%) (Second) (°C) (%) (°C) (pcf)
F1-I6JI 5.9 7.6 22 36 26.10 132.46
F2-I6cII 5.7 6.0 24 45 25.65 138.30
F3-I6JI 5.8 10.0 25 48 27.20 134.53
F4-I6JI 5.6 11.0 25 41 23.00 142.2
Note: 1 lb/yd3 - 0.5933 Kg/m3 1 lb/ft3 = 16.02 Kg/m3

271
TABLE 4
Static flexural test after fatigue
Specimen Max. Stress fmax Static Age Static Age % Change

Number in Fatigue fr Flexural in Flexural in
(psi) Strength Days Strength Days
After Before
Fatigue Fatigue
(psi) (psi) (4)-(6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (6)
Fl-II-8 254 0.38 453 169 633 32 -28.4

Fl-II-10 235 0.35 453 169 633 32 -28.4
Fl-II-11 230 0.34 610 169 633 32 -3.6
Fl-II-12 236 0.34 593 169 633 32 -6.3
F2-II-5 504 0.59 1042 168 775 38 34.5

F2-II-7 417 0.49 690 168 775 38 -11.0
F2-I-14 377 0.44 681 168 775 38 -12.1
F2-I-15 380 0.44 1293 168 775 38 68.8
F2-II-11 375 0.44 787 168 775 38 1.5
F2-I-13 333 0.39 809 168 775 38 4.4
F2-II-9 337 0.39 1129 168 775 38 45.7
F2-II-10 336 0.36 977 168 775 38 26.1
F3-II-7 644 0.54 2025 167 1189 46 70.3

F3-I-5 602 0.51 1791 167 1189 46 50.6
F3-I-7 610 0.51 1403 167 1189 46 18.0
F3-II-6 609 0.51 1789 167 1189 46 50.5
F4-I-9 861 0.50 1100 164 1562 51 -29.6

F4-I-10 708 0.41 2312 164 1562 51 48.0
F4-II-10 702 0.40 1837 164 1562 51 17.6
F4-II-11 688 0.40 1672 164 1562 51 7.0
Note: 1 psi = 0.0069 Mpa

fmax (psi) (Mpa) fmax (psi) (Mpa)
- 5.52
-4.14
- 2.76
1.38
CONTROL 0.5% 1.0% 1.5%
% OF FIBER
Nx103
Fig. 2 The Effects of Steel Fiber on Fatigue
Fig. t Maximum Fatigue Stress vs. Number of Strength
Cycles
KD
ENOU LIMIT (fmax/fr)
KD
fmax (psi) (Mpa)
CONTROL 0.5% 1.0% 1.5%

% OF FIBER
LOG N
Fig. 4 Endurance Limit, Expressed as Percentage
Fig. 3 Maximum Fatigue Stress vs. Log. N of Plain Concrete Modulus of Rupture vs.
Percentage of Fiber
ENDU LIMIT (fmax/fr) fmax/fr
0.8 -
0 .4 -
0
CONTROL 0.5% 1.0% 1.5%
% OF FIBER Nx103
Fig. 6 Ratio of Fatigue Stress to Modulus of

Fig. 5 Endurance Limit, Expressed as Percentage
Rupture of the Same Mix vs. Number of
of It’s Own Modulus of Rupture vs. Cycles to
Percentage of Fiber
oo
fmax/fr NO. OF BLOWS
600
0.9
0.7
0.5 200
0.3
CONTROL 0.5% 1.0% 1.5%
LOG N % OF FIBER
Fig. 7 Ratio of Fatigue Stress to Modulus of Fig. 8 The Effects of Steel Fiber on Impact
Rupture of the Same Mix vs. Log. N Strength
274
IMPACTS ON FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS
D. CHAUVEL* - M. RAZANI** - P. HAMELIN** - J.C. PERFUMO***

* EDF-SEPTEN - 12/14, avenue Dutrievoz - 69628 VILLEURBANNE FRANCE
** Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1 - 43, Bd du 11 novembre 1918 -
69100 VILLEURBANNE FRANCE
*** EDF-CEMETE - 905, avenue du Camp de Menthe -
13093 AIX EN PROVENCE CEDEX 2 FRANCE
ABSTRACT
Electricite de France has to solve several impact problems in French

Nuclear Power Plant Buildings taking into account the non-linear behaviour
of structures. So, it could be interesting to use fibres to design local
structures for a higher effort without changing the thickness of wall or
increasing the reinforcement.
In order to qualify the good behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete in the
case of impacts, dynamic tests have been carried out on small slabs
including metallic fibres in the ordinary reinforced concrete.
Static crushing tests on slabs have allowed the measurement of load
deformation curves.
The stress strain curves have also been determined for small concrete
cylinders and some calculations have been compared with results.
Although the fibres in concrete do not increase the compressive strength
very much, they improve greatly the impact resistance of slabs.
INTRODUCTION
According to the rules concerning the safety in nuclear power plants, EDF
must include in the design of certain structures the ability to withstand
impacts (aircraft crashes, explosion, whipping by steam pipe).
The majority of the impact problems can be considered as dynamic problems,
which can load the structures in a non-linear area.
It is possible to distinguish between "hard" impacts and "soft" impacts
where the loading can be represented by a force in function to time, which
only takes into account the localised impact.
a) Hard impact
The projectile is considered infinitely rigid compared to the target.
For example two types of projectiles are taken into consideration when
designing a nuclear power station :
275
- an aero-engine with the following characteristiques

weight : 200 kg
speed : 100 m/s
area of impact : 0,5 m 2
- and a turbine missile

weight : 3,6 tonnes
speed : 100 m/s
b) Soft impacts
These impacts are characterised by loading with respect to time,
determined by an impact on a rigid structure.
For example, the following figures 1 to 3 show some different load time
curves for aircraft impact, external explosion and a steam pipe rupture.
According to EDF, it is possible to propose certain design rules :

for "hard" impacts, the proportions can be established using a penetration
formula which gives the minimum thickness of concrete acceptable.
for "soft" impacts the proportions are decided upon by the design office
using static-elastic calculations where the loads take the form
F =c/(i Fmax
where of is the coefficient of dynamic amplification (> 1)
(iis the coefficient of for plasticity (< 1)
Fmax is the maximum value found on the graph F(t)
of and ^ were defined by a parametric study.
Another method is based on dynamic elastoplastic calculations with abiding

by the following deformations criteria.
€ a < 0,8 % for steel

£ ' b < 0,35 % for concrete
This analysis requires a moment-curvature curve and as the main

characteristics of fibrous concrete in the non-linear are now known , we
think that fibres in concrete can improve the resistance of structures to
impact.
The works of BANTHIA, MINDED, BENTUR (1) ; REINHARDT (2) ; G0PALARATNAM (3)
show that it is possible to change quite significantly the impact
behaviour of elements in the structure by adding to the concrete either
metallic or polymer fibres. Our research looking into the characteristics
of the dynamic behaviour of such concretes under dynamic compression loads
and into the analysis of the behaviour of the structural elements
(reinforced concrete slabs) when subject to the impacts of light
projectiles.
IMPACT BEHAVIOUR ON FIBROUS CONCRETE
Composition of the concrete and the types of fibres used

We studied concrete whose composition is given by the table 1. The fibres
we used were either :
276
i) of steel, of the BEKAERT - DRAMIX type, with hooks, ZP 30/50, 30 mm in

length and with a diameter 0 = 0,5 mm
or ii) of cast-iron strips (produced by ST GOBAIN - PONT A M0USS0N) with
dimensions of 31 x 1 x 0,02 mm
Identification of the behaviour law in compression due to a static load

Figure 4 shows the compressive behaviour due to a quasi-static load on a
cylindrical test-piece 16 x 32 cm. Essentially we have a change in
behaviour when the material ruptures ; there is a slight increase of the
maximum strain and a large variation in the deformation behaviour.
The presence of fibres essentially changes the fissuration mechanism of
the concrete and the region of behaviour "post-pic".
Identification of the compressive behaviour law under an impact load

Experimental evidence
The impact load is created using an air-compressed canon as described in
figure 5. The speed of a projectile, weighing 308 kg, can vary between
1,7 m/s to 10 m/s. . .
It is possible to have the loading sp_eeds of 25 <(T< 450 GPa^ " and
deformation speeds between 0,5 < g < 10 S ” .
The test samples used were cylindrical with a diameter of 72 mm, length
145 mm and were taken in the slabs of dimensions 100 x 100 x 20 cm.
Results of the tests

The recording of loads and the deformation with respect to time, allows
one to build the relationships of the deformation strains in function to
the speed of loading as is shown in figure 6.
Synthesis
These results confirm the work that has been carried out by ZAYAT (4)
according to which, the order of size of the coefficient of dynamism for
fibrous concretes varies between 1 an 4. On the other hand for an impact
of short endurance (less than 4 ms) the energy of deformation for
fibrous concrete is very much higher than to that for non-fibrous
concrete. Also the behavioural law is totally different in the respect
where the mechanism of fissuration of the fragile matrix varies with
the presence of fibres and the dammage found was localised by these
fibres and it had not spread throughout all the test-piece.
BEHAVIOUR OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS UNDER IMPACT
There we present a few of our experimental results for the loading of

reinforced concrete slabs obtained by throwing a metallic projectile
towards the centre of the slabs by means of a catapult.
Composition of the slabs

The test samples are squared slabs (10 cm thick 88 cm side) and which are
simply supported.
The composition of the concrete used in this work, the different
combinations of material and the reinforcement studied are all shown in
the table 2.
277
Test conditions, loading conditions

Every element in the structure is loaded under a static charge (the slab
supports on the edge, - load due to the hyudraulic jack at its centre)
and under a dynamic load, following the experiment with the catapult,
described in figure 7. The missile trolley can reach a speed of 30 m/s and
throw a metallic bladed tube (50 kg) diameter 76 mm against the slab.
Test Results
The analysis of the load-deflection graphs set up under a static force,
figure 8, just as the analysis of the moment-curvature relationship
established experimentally (figure 9), shows that the fibres slightly
modify the mechanical performance of the slabs compared to the rupture
loads or the energy values due to global deformation.
It should be noted that adding fibres suppresses the singularity of the

moment-curvature graph of the fissuration of tensioned concrete.
A few tests realised with the association between fibres and high strenght
concrete show that the matrix considerably improves the rupture
characteristics and the fibres contribute a certain ductility in the
material.
The principal impact results are given by table 3. An examination of

figures 10 and 11 gives on one hand the variation of the moment and the
curvature of the slabs with respect to time and, on the other hand gives
the comparison between the moment curvature relation established in a
static region and those measured under impact loads, this allows one to
suggest the following interpretation : we distinguish tow elementary
phases of behaviour. To begin with, an important quantity of energy is
freed during a very small stretch time (0,7 ms).
The velocity of deformation of the steel is 5 S~_and of the concrete
responds with its oun characteristics where i > 1 S" . Consequently the
graph shows thot the deformation responses of the slab are different for
static and dynamic behaviour with slight increase.for the case of impact.
In the second phase of behaviour 0,5 < e < 1,5 S" the difference between
the static behaviour and the impact behaviour diminishes. The normal
responses to vibrations of the slab appear to govern the deformations and
displacements of the structure.
Examination of the appearance of the ruptures shows that the cast of the
fissurations can be modified by the presence of fibres.
278
CONCLUSION
In conclusion it must be pointed out that the presence of fibres in the

concrete changes its properties and the behaviour laws quite a lot under
established load conditions, quasi static and dynamic ones.
The fibres do not significantly change the corresponding mechanical
properties or the manner of loading.
On the other hand they influence the behaviour law and confer an
important non-linear behaviour and an apparent dudility. That is
essentially a phenomena of creating seems by the fibres, between the edges
of the cracks and of the changing the mecanisms of the macro-fissuration
of the material. We find the same phenomeno and the same increases with
regards to a dynamic load, like an impact.
Beyond these constants, it should be highlighted that the presence of
fibres is necessary to significantly change the wave propagation in the
middle and, consequently the sign of the load and the length of the
impact.
Therefore the dammage to material is localised and the velocity or the
propagation of fissures is modified. With regards to the structural
behaviour, and notably the deformation behaviour of the slabs in reinfored
concrete, including the metallic fibres, we are able to say that the
buckling behaviour in flexure is modified because in one hand the law of
the material differed considerably due to the tension and compression with
respect to the speed of loading and, also on the other hand, the fibres
descreases the discontinuity of the classic diagram moment-curvature
relationship at the moment of fissuration of the concrete around the
tensile zone.
Our present research points towards the simultaneous use of fibres and
high strenght concrete in so far as the first results appear to prove that
it is possible to simulateously increase the resistance and the ultimate
deformation on energy.
REFERENCES
(1) BANTHIA N., MINDESS S., BENTUR A., "Impact behaviour of concrete
beams", Materials and structures, 1987, 20, p. 293-302.
(2) KORMELING H.A., REINHARDT H.W., "Strain-rate effects on steel fiber

concrete in uniaxial tension, the Int. J. of cement composites and
leightweight concrete, Vol. 9, n° 4, nov. 1987, p. 197-204.
(3) GOPALARATNAM V.S., "Fracture and impact resistance of steel fibre

reinforced concrete", Ph D. Thesis, Northwestern University, June 1985.
(4) ZAYAT K., "Contribution a l'etude du comportement au choc des betons

de fibres", these de doctorat, Institut National des Sciences
Appliquees de Lyon, Lyon 1, Avril 1989.
279
Fi gure 1 . Impact loading of LEAR JET aircraft
Figure 2. e x t e r n a l s h o c k w a v e - p r o f ile
js a p . 0,4r
Figure 3. w h ip p in g o f s t e a m pipe
280
Concass6 calcaire Ciment Eau

cailloux Fluidifiant Fibres
sable CF* 55R (l/m3)
7 /1 6 0 1 /1 3
sans fibre 1190 720 400 200 0 0
avec fibres 36
894 8 94 400 200 4
de fonte (Vf = 0,5%)
avec fibres 36
894 894 400 200 4
d'acier (Vf = 0,5%)
Table 1. Different concretes used (Kg/m3 )
Q (MPa)
Figure 4. Compressive behaviour due to a quasi static load on a

cylindrical test piece 16 x 32 cm
7 9
7 . P L O T D 'A N C R A G C
D 'E S S A I t
SU* PLATEPO *N «
Figure 5. Air compressed canon

281
CT (MPa)
Figure 6. Deformation - Strain curves in function to the speed of loading
Fllbres waw
en F max
N° Btton eomprs*. FerralHage
Dosage * 28 > Statique
dalle TVpe kg/m * (MPs) (10*^)
1 Tfcmoln 4 2 ,8 1 0 6 tous 16,1
les 5 cm
2 Avec acier 36 4 9 ,2 16,2
3 fibres fonts 36 48 sans ttrier 16,4
4 Ttmoin 4 2 ,8 1 1 0 6 tous 15,3
j les 5 cm
5 Avec acler 36 4 9 ,2 20,1
6 fibres fonts 36 48 [avec ttriers 18,7
7 sans 8 5 .8 [ 1 0 6 tous 13.8

8 | HP acier 78 9 3 .8 ( les 5 cm 27,2
9 acier 156 7 4 ,2 [ sans ttrier 13.8
10 Ifemoin 5 6 ,3 1 0 6 tous 10,8

les 10 cm
avec ttriers
11 20 kg/m3 5 8,1 • 9.4

\ Avec fonts
12 60 kg/m3 4 0 ,8 9.5
/ fibres
13 acier 60 kg/m3 6 8 - 14,0
Table 2. Composition of the slabs

282
Figure 7. Skeleton diagram of the catapult
Figure 8.
Static-test results
vitaaae de deformation
dur6e ftecha maximal* (mm) courbura maximal* (ivT*)
type enargla du maximal* (S '1)
de d'impact choc a 135 mm du A 190 mm du A 150 mm du beton
.centre centra au centre acler tendu beton tandu comprime
dale (KJ) (S) (capteurs centra
da oroximftt) Cacc6l6rom4tre]
1 19,5 17 1.5 0,035 0,015 3.5 37 2.1
2 19,6 16 4.0 0,034 0,013 5,5 8 3,3
3 18,9 17 2.7 0,047 0,013 3.5 45 2.1
5 18.4 16 2.5 0.039 0,005 1,4 26 0.9
6 17.4 18 4.5 1.9 0,042 0,006 2,8 36 1.6
7 17.0 17 BJO 2.1 0.030 0 /) 13 1A 26 1.1
8 17*4 16 7,0 3 JQ 0.037 24
9 17,7 18 5.7 32 0,060 0,004
Table 3. Dynamic test results

283
Moment (N m/m)
Figure 9.
Curves
establisled
experimentally
C u rvatu re (m~ ^
0 .02 .04 M JOB .1

Moment (Nm/s)
Figure 10. Moment-curvature relationship

50000
40000
Curvature (m _1)
3 0 0 0 0 --
20000 --
10000 -■
Time (s)
Figure 11.
Moment
curvature
relationships
establisled
from
material
laws
Curvature (n f *)
.02 .04 08 .08 .1 .12 .14

284
EXPERIENCE IN STEELFIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE APPLICATIONS.
X. Destree, ir.
civil engineer, Director
EUROSTEEL S.A.
Chaussee de Neerstalle, 425 - 1180 BRUSSELS BELGIUM
Abstract
From the very beginning, although backed up by many fruitfull

laboratory researches, steelfibres applications have been
limited by the lack of experience and confidence of many
potential applicators.
To overcome such a difficulty, the author describes here how

since 1983, he has been able to gradually and constantly
overcome that situation.
Decision has been taken to define a typical steel fiber able to

be mixed industrially in the concrete and to provide an obvious
postcracking pseudo-ductility to concrete.
The next step was to concentrate the effort on solving the

jobsites problems by setting up a practical and formal
procedure involving specific machines and operators to prepare
the steelfibre reinforced concrete mix.
This experience was gained mainly in two applications :

industrial concrete flooring and flight auger concrete piles.
THE FIBRE
The constituent wire is of 1,200 MPa tensile strength and the

fibre has a diameter of 1 mm and a length of 60 mm. Its
anchorage is provided through a set of undulations with 7 waves
,14 crests, and a wave depth of 1 mm.
285
The shape of the fibers was determined in function of the

concrete aggregate sizes to develop a good bonding. The high
tensile strength of the steel is essential to stiffen the
undulation and then the anchorage.
When comparative tensile tests were carried out between a

straight wire and an undulated wire the test results showed that
the potential rupture energy of the undulated wire is 2 .5 times
higher.Thus the undulations ensure that the fibres are well
anchoraged into the concrete which is needed to cause the post
cracking pseudo-ductility.
Tensile test
1000 -
soo
Straight wire Undulated wire

0 : 1mm 0 : 1mm
8„: 1250 N/mm2 5„: 1070 N/mm2
Figure 1 : Tensile test

286
A pull-out test was carried out showing that the force to be

applied was increased by the anchorage provided by the
steelfibre shape.
Figure 2 : Pull-out test
MIXING FIBRES INTO CONCRETE
The necessary technologies were developped for the integration

of the fibres into the concrete which gave steel fibre concrete
new opportunity.A machine , called blastmachine 1 * was
developped capable of separating the steel fibres and injecting
them randomly at high speed into the concrete mixer.
287
The fibres are loaded into this machine using a hydraulic

loading device that closely resembles a scoop of a bucket
machine. The fibres are then shaken and hopped using a sieve
to separate them. As the fibres are separated, they pass
through the hopper and fall into a venturi where an air stream
accelerates the fibres. The steelfibres are picked up by this
flow and are blown into the concrete at a speed of at least 30
m/s for each fibre individually.
SITE MACHINE
On site the fibres are blown directly into the concrete truck
mixer. The machine operator first checks the workability of the
concrete. The concrete must have a slump between 50 and 70 mm
on arrival on site. The operator then injects a super
plasticizer that boosts the slump to 180/200 mm.
Figure 3 : Blastmachine on site
The blastmachine is built with a pump that injects the

superplasticizer under high pressure into concrete ensuring
proper mixing while the mixer is turning at its highest speed
(16RPM).
To make it possible for the superplasticizer to operate

correctly it is recommended to mix it in the concrete for at
least 3 minutes.
After this period the operator integrates the fibres into the
concrete. Therefore first of all, he is using the hydraulic
power system in order to position accurately the ejection pipe.
288
Then fiber integration is done at a rate of 30 Kg every 60

seconds. The mixer is still turning at maximal speed, this to
allow for complementary dispersion of the fibres and even fibre
distribution throughout the mixer.
This system has allowed to have a reliable industrial

steelfibre technology at a low cost. Thus steelfibres can be
made available almost anywhere at very short notice.The
characteristics of the site machines are such that they are
completely mobile and autonomous.
PLANT MACHINE
When the fibres are mixed at the concrete plant the fibres are
blown in the pan mixer. So from the ground level, the fibres
are processed to the mixer even if the mixer is at 16 m above
the ground. One advantage of the concrete plant integration is
Figure 4 : Blastmachine at concrete plant

289
that admixture can be saved, the other is that the steel fibres
can be installed even in dry concrete, without extended
concrete mixing time. That advantage has been used often for
concrete road construction.
The blastmachine is installed at a concrete plant when there

is a need, for example for road building, where the concrete
is placed by a slipform paving machine.
Figure 5 : Close-up view of concrete after steelfibres have

been blown into the concrete
Up to 60 Kg. fibres can be blown in 45 seconds ensuring the

high output generally needed by the plant.
MIX DESIGN
In case of industrial flooring applications, to achieve a

homogenous fibre concrete mix, the aggregate grading of the
concrete must be according to specification.
Any discrepancy will carry full disapproval unless preliminary

testing have shown final compliance.
290
Tlx. : 61.716 SILIDU B
0 .1 2 5 0 .2 5 0 0 .5 0 0 1 .0 0 0 2 .0 0 0 4 .0 0 0 8 .0 0 0 1 6 .0 0 0 3 2 .0 0 0
S ieve m esh (m m ) L o g a ritm ic scaJe.
28/06/1988
Figure 6 : Aggregate grading for concrete for Steelfibres

reinforced industrial floors
INDUSTRIAL CONCRETE FLOORING APPLICATION
About 8,000,000 square meter concrete floors have been

completed according to the developped techniques.
The main characteristics of the process are :

- to follow the mix design specification.
- to supply the plain concrete with 50 to 80 mm slump on site.
- to flow the concrete using a H.R.W.R.A. (high range water
reducing admixture).
- to use the blastmachine in order to introduce the fibres into
the concrete
One single operator takes 11 minutes to produce 8 cubic
meter steelfibre reinforced flowing concrete with a
fibre concentration of 30 Kg. / cubic meter.
- to place the floor itself according to the mass pour
technique.
In the course of one day one jobsite can produce up to 10,000

square meter of concrete flooring in this way. Respecting the
said specifications completely.
291
Figure 7 : Jointless floor for Peugeot in France
Following strictly the specifications about 60,000 square

meter with up to 3,000 square meters slabs each of totally joint
less floor (no control joints) have been laid. These jointless
floors are much appreciated by companies using heavy duty
forklift trucks or concerned by the lack of cleanliness of the
joints : no concrete curling, no concrete contraction due to
shrinkage, no joint spalling. Obviously, it is most attractive
to the customer as it is making the warehouse operations much
smoother with less headaches due to forklift maintenance,
concrete repairs, ...
MOBILE STEELFIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE TESTING UNIT
To ensure that all the recommendations are being followed and

also to help when problems arise on site, a unique mobile
steelfibre reinforced concrete laboratory operating on job
sites has been developped.
This mobile laboratory completely computerized is able to

check conformity of the aggregate grading, the water and air
content, the volumic mass, the workability, the fibre content,
the water/cement ratio, the cement content. 60 Minutes after
installation on the job-site, a fully detailed quality report
is issued.
This tool is completely autonomous with its tanks for both

fuel and water, thus being able to provide for its own water,
power and gas. Using this tool it has been possible to further
develop the applications for which the fibres were originally
developed and also explore new applications where steelfibres
could be used.
292
Figure 8 : interior view of the mobile concrete laboratory.
Figure 9 : Mobile concrete laboratory with in the background

a blastmachine with steelfibre boxes and superplasticizer
293
FLIGHT AUGER STEELFIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE PILES
The technique is based upon preparation according to specifi

cations of the steel fibre reinforced concrete on the job site.
The concrete needs a long life slump superplasticizer (about
180 minutes) to keep fluidity until the fibre reinforced
concrete is pumped.
Figure 10 : Steelfibre reinforced pile being prepared for

building of pile cap
As one truck load is sufficient to cast about 3 piles, it is

obvious that the concrete has to wait for the completion of the
drilling of the last pile, although it was superplasticized
when the first pile was drilled. This explains why an extended
slump life is essential.
The concrete is pumped through a line to the flight auger

machine, where the concrete is ''injected through the hollow
shaft of the auger down to the bottom of the pile in order to
gradually replace the space left by the displaced earth with
fresh steelfibre reinforced concrete when the auger is lifted.
The difficulty being that the shaft is only 80 to 100 mm in
diameter.
Unlike conventional flight auger piles reinforced with

cages, the steelfibre reinforcement is present in the total
pile length. Indeed cages are difficult to be placed when the
depth is greater than 8 of 10 meters.
294
With the steelfibre reinforced piles it is possible to make

completely reinforced flight auger piles of a length going
beyond. 35 m.
Figure 11 : Steelfibre piling job in Bordeaux (France)
The process ensures smooth casting of those flight auger

piles reinforced from top to bottom. With the added advantage
of going much faster than conventionally reinforced piles. The
maximal recorded output was done when 140 cubic meters of
steelfibre reinforced concrete were placed in 8 hours.
Tests have shown that failure in flexion of the 30 Kg per cubic

meter steelfibre reinforced pile intervenes later than with a
conventionally reinforced pile at a rate of steel reinforcement
of 0.61 % of the cross section of the pile.
295
Figure 12 : Comparison of steelfibre reinforced concrete pile

with conventionally reinforced concrete pile.
QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE
All those applications have been backed up by a tight quality

control and official guarantees are backed up by insurance
companies.
296
BUILDING PANELS KADE WITH NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED ALTERNATIVE

CEMENTS
VAHAN AGGPYAN and VANDERLEY M. JOHN

Escola Politecnica - University of Sao Paulo and
IPT Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnologicasdo Estado de Sao
Paulc
Caixa Postal 7141 01051 Sao Paulo SP Brazil
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the production method and performance

evaluation of hollowed wall panels made with vegetable fibre
reinforced alternative cement- The selected cement is based on
blast furnace slag (BFS) activated with lime and gypsum
(dihydrate)- The matrix is a mortar with the proportion, by
weight, 1:1 .S (alternative ceraentisand)- Coir fibres, ZA in
volume, are used as reinforcement.
INTRODUCTION
The main drawback to the use of natural fibres is the

durability of these fibres in a cementitious matrix. The
alkaline media damage most of the natural fibres, specially
the vegetable ones which are actually cellulose fibrils
strands liable to be dispersed [1 ].
Vegetable fibres are largely available in Brazil and

other Latin American countries [2]. Among these fibres, sisal
and coir ones were selected for this research because of their
strength and relative durability, in this order.
There are two approaches for the development of new

composites in fibrecement [2]. The first is based on the
production of components free of asbestos; such components are
very similar to those with asbestos-cement (thin sheets)- The
second, adopted in this research, consists of the production
of composites for new types of building components, such as
load bearing hollowed wall panels described in this paper,
297
which are not similar to tne components made wltn asbestos-

cement.
In order to improve tne durability of tne vegetable

fibres it nas been suggested tne fibres sliouid be protected by
a sort of coating or sealing tne dry composite to avoid tne
effect of tne water [3], IFT's worn is directed to tne
reduction of tne free alkaline m tne matrix by developing and
testing low alKallne binders based m industrial and
agricultural by-products.
MATERIALS
Fibres
Brazil is probably tne largest producer of sisal [Agave

sisalana Ferrme; m tne world, wltn an average annual
production of about 250,000 metric tonnes of fibres, Tne
average diameter of tne Brazilian fibres is 0,3mm; tne
tenacity is about 414 mM/tex (ASTM D 3622-62 test raetnod),
wnicn implies on average a tensile strength of 366MFa, The
elongation at break is 5,27 and Young's modulus above i5GFa.
Coconut cultivation is concentrated in tne tropical belts

of Asia and in East Africa [4], It is also cultivated on
commercial basis m Brazil, The Brazilian annual pi'oduction of
coir fibres is higher than 2 million metric tonnes; however
only a small amount, of the 500 million fruits, annually
cultivated m tne country, are used for fibre production [2].
Fibre length varies from 10 to 200mm, and the diameter is
about o,3mro. Using tne same test method previously mentioned
tne average tensile strength is lOTMFa, and the elongation at
break is 357,.
These vegetable fibres present poor durability [1]

especially in alkaline media. The sisal fibres not only loose
strength but also nave their ductility decreased, Tne coir
fibres are less strong than tne sisal ones but they are less
affected by the humid environment, even if this environment is
alkaline. After 4 months conditioning m an alkaline medium
tne rupture load for coir fibres is 4,7N which is higher than
that for sisal ones 2,1N, From tne analysis of tne fibre
surface it is possible to conclude that tne coir fibre nas a
better waterproofing of its surface than the sisal fibre,
which presents flaws of few micrometers. This fact explains
why the durability of coir fibres is higher than tne sisal
ones, although the latter ones have a greater amount of
cellulose than the coir fibres.
As relatively short fibres are used for building

purposes, tne vegetable fibres in this project, are residues of
low value, their market price is about US$0,l5/kg-
298
Alternative Cements
Low alkaline cements based on BFS and rice husk ash (RHA) were
tested.
The IPT has optimized the RHA production in a fluidized

bed boiler. The ash has good pozzolanic activity when added to
the ordinary Portland cement, but has a slow initial setting
when added to lime which costs about 607, of the cement price.
For economical reasons the research was concentrated to
BFS based cement, BFS production in Brazil should be about 3
million metric tonnes per year and the surplus of this by
product is very high therefore its disposal is a crucial
problem for the steel mllls.
The samples for the major steel mills presents vitreous

phase above 947 and hydraulicity ratio (Mlchelsen test)
varying from 3rom issec to 3rom 42sec, Recent studies on the
slags' reactivity demonstrate that the hydration of the slags
takes place because of a dlssolutlon-precipltatlon mechanism
of c-s-H and hydrated alummates or silicoaiuminat.es [5], This
reactivity is related to the speed of the dissolution of the
slags, which is proportional to the factor
R#=(A1203 , Ca0)/(A1203 + sio2)2 (l)
The factor R' for Brazilian slags can be as high as 0,242,

above the minimum value of o,ia.
In order to accelerate the BFS hydration some activators

are added such as lime, cement, or gypsum, or combination of
them as was chosen for this research.
This choice occurred after it has tried to activate the

BFS only with lime but the hydration rate was slow and the
amount of free lime was too high, Experimental research with
several proportions of BFS, lime and gypsum was tried on and
the most suitable proportion was 0,66:0,02:0,10
(BFS:lime: gypsum) taking into account the practical
performance (strength, setting time, exudation) and the rate
of free lime. Nevertheless, in the proportion selected, the
rate of free lime m the hardened specimen is still about 1,57
of the total amount of the binder.
Composite
A mortar was tentatively prepared with the largest suitable

amount of natural sand since the necessary compressive
strength of the material m panels is not high. The mix with
the proportion of 1:2 (binder:sand), by weight, was tested in
comparison with that of l:i which previous studies
recommended.
299
The mechanical behaviour of the mortar has not changed a

lot with the increase of the sand rate from 1 to 2 at early-
age. For instance at the age of 26 days the modulus of rupture
has been reduced from 6.09 to 5.14MPa* which is not
statistically significant. However at the age of 160 days the
difference becomes significant as MOR decreases from 9>06 to
S.83MPa,
A very important practical drawback was detected in the

1:2 mortar which is the slow setting of the fresh mortar. It
took 48h to deraould the specimens.
Therefore an intermediate rate was selected 1:1.5 since

it allows a demoulding in one day while maintaining a good
good mechanical performance.
The MOR of the selected mix are 3.48MPa, 4.41MPa and

5.40MPa for 7, 26 and 180 days respectively. Compressive
strength is 8.26MPa for 7 days and 17.78MPa for 180 days.
To allow a good mixing production* the length of the

fibres was restricted to 3 cm this means that an ordinary pan
mixer can be used without fibre bundling problems. Sisal
fibres retard the setting of the matrix due to their chemical
composition, therefore they were abandoned at this stage of
the research. It should be keep in mind that these fibres have
also low durability in a humid environment.
F ig u r e 1. Im pact str e n g th e v a lu a t io n by d r o p p in g b a ll te s t .
300
Tne experimental worK nas been carried out on coir

fibres. In order to reduce tne brittleness of tne matrix tne
maximum possible volume of fibres was tried out to be added to
tne mortar matrix, Tne effect of fibre reinforcement to tne
matrix can be seen in figures l.
Tne impact tests consist of tne dropping of i,OKg

metallic ball on I50xl50xl0mm specimens placed on a compacted
sand bed, Tne aim of tne test is to determine tne breaking
point or tne point wnere tne wldtn of tne crack is greater
tnan i,oomm, To do so tne neignt of tne drop is being
controlled. It starts witn 10cm neignt, Tnis is tnen increased
m successive trials by 10 cm (an eacn trial) until tne aim is
reacned, Tnis means tnat wnat is being tested is tne
cumulative impact action, Tnerefore tnere is no direct
relationsmp between tne nignest distance tne ball is dropped
and tne actual energy applied to tne specimen wnicn causes tne
failure, Tne static mecnanlcal properties were measured on a
series of 40x40xi60mm specimens following tne ASTM
recommendation, Tne average MOR, for 180 days old specimens,
is 5,5MPa wnile tne fibre volume varies from l to 27„ Tne
proportion of tne mixture of tne material presented m tne two
figures is 0,88:0,02:0,10:1,5 (BFS:lime:gypsum:sand) and
constant consistency, wnicn is tne adopted mixture for tne
panels.
Tne results indicated tnat tne best fibre volume ratio is

l,5X, However for panel production wltn mecnanlcal compaction
it. was possible to increase tnis volume to 2X, Tnis amount of
coir fibre, demands a water-binder ratio of 0,509 to produce a
good consistency (250mm m tne flow-table).
Durability
Durability is tne major concern for vegetable fibre reinforced
materials, next to tne reduction of tne alkalinity of tne
matrix, tnerefore tne performance of tne composite over time
nas been checked, up to 160 days, tne mecnanlcal strengths of
tne composites nave increased for specimens cured m wet
chamber or those kept m laboratory environment [l]. However
if the specimens are kept, m anatural aging station in iFT's
campus m tne city of Sao Paulo, their strength are reduced
along the time. For instance, the MOR of 180 days specimens
cured in tne wet chamber is 5,l9MFa and kept m the station is
2,49HPa.
The effect of carbonation was also analyzed since the
binder is BFS activated with gypsum and lime, , Figure 2
presents the decrease of the strength of tne BFS mortar due
the carbonation and Figure 3 shows the same phenornenum for the
composite. The carbonation of the matrix is very quick and
while it takes place, the strength also stop increasing, It is
necessary to point out that for non accelerated carbonation
condition which takes place m the laboratory environment, the
strength of the mortar (and composite) keeps increasing along
the time at least up to 180 days-
301
For tnis part of tne research the four point bending test
was adopted based on RILEM recommendations [6] as shown in
figure 4-
KEY
Figure e. Effect of accelerated carbonation on bfs mortar.
BUILDING PANELS
Production
The main guideline for the development of the production

process was that the process must be suitable for small scale
industrial plants or even for processing on site.
An ordinary pan mixer has been used for the preparation

of the composite. Firstly the matrix is prepared and then the
fibres are added to the mixer. The fresh composite is poured
into the moulds which are placed on a vibrating table.
Section Design
Figure 5 presents the final design of hollowed panels.

Rectangular hollows are tried out in order to have lighter
panels, but production difficulties led to the choice of
cylindrical hollows. Figure 6 presents the vertical joints of
the panels.
302
KEY
Figure 3, Effect of accelerated carbonation on tne composite.
Performance Evaluation
structural safety was evaluated by a compressive central
loading, impact test (soft body) and pull-out test-
During tne compression test of a wall made up of 3 panels

(compressive strength 6,4-aMFa, Young's modulus 9,65GFa and
Foisson's ratio 0,167) it falls extremely cracRed, Tne age of
tne panels m tne tested wall was 62 days, Anotner wall of 3
panels failed at tne impact energy of 240J applied by a load
of 400N (sand bag), Finally, a load of 1500N was not enough to
pull a screw out of the panel (the fastener falls).
The matrix is incombustible and it is Known that

vegetable fibres m incombustible matrices do not produce
flammable composites, since they represent a small amount of
the total material.
The thermal conductivity of the dry composite is
0,64W/mK, Therefore tne thermal resistance of tne panel should
be 0,20m2K/w, However tne composite has about ax of humidity
m indoor environment, for this reason its conductivity
increases to l,6W/mKand the panel resistancedecreases to
0,l4m2K/w, which is similar to an ordinary concrete panel with
same shape.
303
Figure 4, Typical toehaviour of BFS based composite in Denying.
Figure 5, Standard panel section

304
STEEL BAR
GROUT GROUT
>O O O O C OOOOQ< Ô O O Q (
o
o
o
STANDARD VERTICAL JOINT o
o
ANGLE JOINT
Figure 6, Vertical joints
Similar concrete panels fulfill the needs of acoustic

comfort an d waterproofing for external walls. These
requirements will be checked on a prototype.
The composite is affected by the wet environment as

previously mentioned, in a natural aging station, in S&o
Paulo, its MOR reduction is significant. However, after the
assembly of the panels, their main requirement will be the
compressive strength which should not change much along time.
FINAL REMARKS
The described panels are low cost components for housing and
other types of buildings, The estimated cost for fixed panels
is US$3,00 per square meter which is far cheaper than
brickwork which costs about US$8.00/m^.
The panels mechanical strength is good enough for load

bearing walls despite the durability problems. For one floor-
building the strength of the panel is far higher than the
necessary one (lHPa), Nevertheless long term durability
results should be taken before using these panels for
multistoreys buildings.
305
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Tnis paper presents a part of vegetable fibre reinforcement

studies done by tne autnors at ipt , Tne autnors would like to
tnanK tne Secretariat of science and Teclmology of tne State
of Sao Paulo and tne IDRC - international Development Research
Centre (Canada) - for tne financial support.
REFERENCES
1, AGOPYAN, V„ CINCOTTO, M, A„ DEROLLE, A, Durability O f

vegetable fibre reinforced materials, l/r Froc, 11tn
Triennial Congress - CIB 69, Paris, 1939.
2, AGOPYAN, V, Vegetable fibre reinforced building materials

developments in Brazil and other Latin American
countries, I n : Natural Fibre Reinforced cement and
Concrete, ed, R, N, swamy, Blackie, Glasgow, 1936, p p £ 0 3 -
242.
3, GRAM, H, E, Durability of natural fibres in concrete,

Swedish Cement and concrete Research Institute, Stockholm,
1933, PP, 175-130.
4, AZIZ, M, A„ FARAMASIVAM, F„ LEE, S, L, Concrete

Reinforced wltn natural fibres, i n : New Reinforced
Concretes, ed, R,N, Swamy, Blackie, Glasgow, 1964, pp,iQ6-
140-
5, REGOURD, M, Slags and slags cements. Jour, Materials

Education. 1963.
6, RILEM TECHNICAL COMMITTEE 49 TFR, Testing Methods for

fibre reinforced cement-based composites. Materials and
structures, 1964, 102, 441-56-
306
PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF STEEL
POLYPROPYLENE AND POLYESTER FIBRE
REINFORCED CONCRETE
J.K. P A T E L N.B . D E S A I J. C. R A N A
RESEARCH OFFICER DIRECTOR ASSITANT ENGINEER
GUJARAT ENGINEERING RESEARCH INSTITUTE

V A D O D A R A 390 007 I N D I A
ABSTRACT
The use of s t eel , polypropylene and polyester fibres

to improve engineering properties of concrete has been
investigated. The properties investigated are compressive,
f l e x u r a l a n d s p l i t t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y ,
shear and impact strength. Steel fibres were used at
1.0, 1.5 a n d 2.0 p e r c e n t b y v o l u m e of c o n c r e t e . P o l y p r o
pylene fibres were used at 0.75, 1.0 and 1.5 percent
by volume of c o n c r e t e w h e r e a s polyester fibres at 0.75
and 1.0 percent by volume of concrete were used. The
a d d i t i o n of f i b r e s i n c o n c r e t e i n d i c a t e d f a v o u r a b l e e f f e c t
on ductility, toughness, impact resistance and tensile
strength. The energy dissipators of spillways are prone
to damage due to a brasion and cavitation which may cause
heavy damage. Hence, fibre reinforced concrete which
has relatively better ability to resist abrasive action
was used in e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n a r r a n g e m e n t s for r e p a i r s .
It has given excellent performance which has shown that
f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d concrete h a s w i d e s c o p e for u s e in r u n w a y s ,
penstocks, spillways and energy dissipators.
INTRODUCTION
P l a i n c o n c r e t e as s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l b e h a v e s l i k e b r i t t l e
or s e m i b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l and e x h i b i t s low t e n s i l e strength.
Traditionally to overcome these defects, concrete is
used in combination with st eel. Steel is c o m m o n l y u s e d
in the f o r m of round bars in reinforced concrete. In
a reinfo r c e d concrete member, tension is taken first
by c o n c r e t e a nd g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d to steel w h e n cracks
a r e i n i t i a t e d in i ts t e n s i l e zone. T h u s s i g n i f i c a n t c o n
tribution of reinforcing bar is realised after micro
c r a c k s a r e i n i t i a t e d in t h e t e n s i l e zone.
307
In a d d i t i o n t o s t r u c t u r a l c o n c r e t e , c o n c r e t e is u s e d
i n c o n s t r u c t i o n of m a s s i v e s t r u c t u r e s l i k e d a m s a n d t h e i r
appurtenant structures. In these structure, density and
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e a r e t w o m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s
tics primarily relevant. T h e y c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d e c o n o -
micaly with use of mass concrete. However, there are
a l s o c r i t i c a l a r e a s i n m a n y of c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h
do not r e q u i r e s t r e n g t h and w e i g h t a l o n e but also r e q u i r e
to resist abrasion, fatigue, cavitation, impact and shear
forces. Conventional c o n c r e t e is r e l a t i v e l y w e a k t o m e e t
these requirements. The addition of fibres in concrete
has a favourable effect to improve these properties.
Historically fibres have been used to reinforce brittle
material since the ancient times. Straws were used to
reinforce sunbaked bricks and horse hair was used to
reinforce plaster. In recent age asbestos fibres are
u s e d to r e i n f o r c e p o r t l a n d cement.
Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) is a concrete made

of hydraulic cement, fine or fine and coarse aggregate
a n d d i s c o n t i n u o u s d i s c r e t e f i b r e s . F i b r e s of steel, p l a s
tic, glass and natural materials in v a r i o u s shapes and
sizes can be used. In the experiments at GERI steel,
polypropylene and polyester fibres were used to find
their effects on theproperties such as c o m p r e s s i v e ,
flexural and split tensile strength, modulus of elasti
ci t y , s h e a r a n d i m p a c t s t r e n g t h .
In order to examine performance of FRC in actual

works, i t w a s u s e d fo r r e p a i r of d a m a g e s in e n e r g y dissi
p a t i o n a r r a n g e m e n t s in a f e w d a m s in G u j a r a t S ta te.
FINDINGS FROM INVESTIGATIONS
The findings of investigations c a r r i e d out by several

r e s e a r c h e r s a r e s u m m a r i s e d as u n d e r :
Romualdi and Mandel (1) : T h e u s e of 0. 25 t o 1.0

mm diameter steel fibres upto 4 percent by volume
improves flexural s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e by 2.5 t i m e s .
The dynamic tensile strength has increased 5 to 10
times compared to plain concrete.
C B Kukreja (2,3) : The use of 1.5 percent ste e l

f i b r e s i n d i c a t e d 40 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e in split tensile
s t r e n g t h a n d 17 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n
gth .
Herbert Krenchel (4) : T h e u s e of h i g h f i b r e c o n t e n t

i n t h e m o r t a r i n d i c a t e d 140 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e in b e n d
ing strength.
Gilbert R Williamson (5) : T h e u s e of steel fibres

increased the strength significantly but did not
a f f e c t Y o u n g ' s m o d u l u s or P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o of c o n c r e t e .
308
However, slight tendency to increase these parameters

w a s n o t i c e d for m o r t a r .
V S Parameswaran (6) : T h e u s e of s t e e l f i b r e s u p t o
5 percent indicated slight increase in compressive
strength and 2.5 times increase in t e n s i l e strength
a s w e l l as c r a c k i n g r e s i s t a n c e .
R N Swamy (7) : T h e u s e of s t e e l f i b r e s controlled

the crack growth and imparted ductility.
Mark E Pattan and W L Whittaker (8) : The use of

every 1 percent steel fibre indicated 3.3 percent
i n c r e a s e in Y o u n g ' s m o d u l u s of c o n c r e t e .
S P S h a h a n d B V i j a y a R a n g a n (9) : T h e u s e of f i b r e s
indicated considerable increase in resistance to
crack propagation and tensile and flexural strength.
D a v i d A F a n n e l a a n d A n t o n i e E N e w m a n (10) : T h e s t u d y
i n d i c a t e d t h a t e x c e p t s t e e l f i b r e s a d d i t i o n of o t h e r
f i b r e s to a c o n c r e t e m a t r i x di d not i m p r o v e its c o m
p r e s s i v e strength.
W R Malisch (11) : T h e u s e of p o l y p r o p y l e n e fibres

indicated increase in c o m p r e s s i v e a n d f l e x u r a l stren
gth .
ACI p u b l i c a t i o n (12) : T h e u s e of s t e e l f i b r e s u p t o
4 percent by volume indicated increase in flexural
s t r e n g t h b y 2.5 t i m e s a n d s l i g h t i n c r e a s e in c o m p r e s
sive strength. Split tensile strength of concrete
w a s f o u n d t o i n c r e a s e u p t o 2.5 t i m e s w i t h 3 p e r c e n t
steel fibres.
I C O L D b u l l e t i n 40 (13) : T h e u s e of f i b r e s m a y a p p r o x i
mately increase strength by (-) 25 to 75 percent
in compressive strength, (-) 25 to 25 percent in
modulus of elasticity and 100 to 1200 percent in
imp a c t strength.
In g e n e r a l steel fibres improve different mechanical

properties of FRC. The extent of i m p r o v e m e n t in v a r i o u s
mechanical properties depends mainly on proportions of
different constituents of the mix, fibre content and
fibre characteristics. Fibre characteristics mean shape
a nd a s p e c t ratio. Besides, fibre spacing and orientation
are also i m p o r t a n t factors. There are m a i n l y two theo r i e s
by which flexural strength and ultimate strength are
estimated. They are (a) theory based on spacing concept
and (b) theory based on critical length and ori e n t a t i o n
factors.
However addition of fibres poses certain problems

regarding uniform mixing as fibres tend to form balls
if proper care is not taken during mixing. Moreover,
309
t h e y p o s e p r o b l e m s of inadequate workability and delivery

of h e t e r o g e n o u s mix.
FRC has been used extensively in two areas : (a)

for overlays and repairs of pavements for runways and
b r i d g e d e c k s , a n d (b) fo r r e p a i r s of h y d r a u l i c s t r u c t u r e s
in areas damaged by serious abrasion and cavitation.
Use of polypropylene and polyester fibres in fibre

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e is v e r y rar e. A l t h o u g h p o l y p r o p y l e n e
and p o l y e s t e r fibres make concrete more workable.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Materials
M 25 concrete having proportions of cement, sand

and coarse aggregate1:2.45:2.75 with water cement ratio
0.63 for 20 m m M S A w a s u s e d for FRC. Ordinary portland
cement conforming to Indian Standard "Specification For
Ordi n a r y And Low Heat Portland Cement IS: 26 9-1 976 11 w a s
used. Crushed coarse aggregate from basalt rock and n atu
ral s a n d f r o m r i v e r G o m a b o t h c o n f o r m i n g to Indian Stan
dard "Specification For Coarse And Fine Aggregates From
Natural Sources For Concrete I S:383-1970" were use d .
S t e e l f i b r e s 0 . 4 m m d i a m e t e r a n d 25 m m l on g w e r e u s e d
w i t h 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 p e r c e n t by v o l u m e of concrete.
The tensile strength of steel fibres w a s 79.4 kg/mm .
T h e a s p e c t r a t i o of f i b r e s w a s 62.5.
Polypropylene fibres having 15 d e n i e r linear density

and 20mm long were used at 0.75, 1.0 and 1.5 percent
b y v o l u m e of c o n c r e t e . Polyester fibres having 15 d e n i e r
l i n e a r d e n s i t y a n d 20 m m l o n g w e r e u s e d w i t h p r o p o r t i o n
of 0.7 5 a n d 1.0 p e r c e n t b y v o l u m e of c o n c r e t e . O n e d e n i e r
linear density means 1 g r a m w e i g h t of 9000 m l o n g fibre.
Test Results
All materials were batched by weight and mixed in

a concrete mixer. Cement and sand w e r e first mixed. Fibres
w e r e i n t r o d u c e d g r a d u a l l y in the m i x e r by h a n d s p r a y i n g .
C oarse aggregate was then added t o t h e m i x t u r e of sand,
cement and fibre. Final mixing w a s d o n e b y a d d i t i o n of
water. Different specimens were then prepared from this
m atrix as under :
- 15X15X15 cm cubes for compressive strength,
- 15X15X75 cm be a m s for flexural strength,
- 15X30 cm cylinders for split tensile strength

a n d m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y ,
- 10X45 cm c y l i n d e r s for shear strength and

310
- 15X5.4 cm cylinder for impact strength.
The speciemens were tested at the end of 28 days

for respective strength properties. The test results
are p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e . 1.
DISCUSSION
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete

It is o b s e r v e d t h a t i n c l u s i o n of f i b r e s in c o n c r e t e
d e l a y e d w i d e n i n g of c r a c k s o n c e t h e y a r e f orm e d . P r e s e n c e
of fibres prevent separation of the concrete. Unlike
p lain concrete, t h e r e is no b r e a k i n g u p of t h e c o n c r e t e
a n d no f a l l i n g of d e b r i s fo und . T h e f i b r e s h o l d t o g e t h e r
the concrete by bridging the gap between cracks. The
c r a c k w i d t h in s t e e l f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d s p e c i m e n s w a s l e s s
than that in the plain concrete reference specimens.
Compressive strength, flexural strength, spilt tensile
s t r e n g t h , m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y , s h e a r a n d i m p a c t s t r e n g t h
are found to increase as shown in T a b l e 1 c o m p a r e d to
plain concrete. The percentage increase in impact and
s h e a r s t r e n g t h is f o u n d t o t h e e x t e n t of a h u n d r e d p e r c e n t
w h i l e i n c r e m e n t in c o m p r e s s i v e a n d spl i t t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
is a b o u t 30 t o 45 p e r c e n t . A n o m i n a l i n c r e m e n t is n o t i c e d
i n f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h a n d m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y . T h e f i b r e
content of 1.5 percent of volume of concrete is found
effective to give improvent in each of t h e properties.
Figure 1 indicates the increment in strength parameters
of s t e e l f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e g r a p h i c a l l y .
SH - S h e a r
I - Im p a c t
SP S p l it te n s ile
C - C om pressive
F - F le x u r a l
ME- M od ulu s of e la s t ic it y
0 0-5 10 1-5 2 0
FIBRE CONTENT %
Figure 1 Increment in strength versus steel fibre content

TABLE : 1
Test results of fibre reinforced concrete
Sr. Fibres
Compressive Flexural Split tensile Modulus of Shear strength Impact strength
No. %
strength strength strength elasticity
kg/cm‘2 % kg/cm2 No.of %

% kg/cm 2 % kg/cm2 % kg/cm^ %
blows incre
incr incr incr incr incr
ase
ease ease ease ease ease
S T E E L
1. 0 363 0 56 0 33 0 2.6X105 0 23 0 20 0
2. 1 .0 434 20 58 4 44 33 2.65X105 2 46 100 30 50
3. 1.5 476 31 67 20 48 45 2. 7X1 O'* 4 50 117 38 90
4. 2.0 415 14 60 7 43 30 2.7X105 4 47 104 36 80
P 0 L Y P R 0 P Y L E N E
1. 0.75 365 1 56 0 35 6 2.0X105 0 30 30 35 75

2. 1.0 380 5 60 7 36 9 2.1X105 0 31 35 37 85
3. 1.5 393 8 62 11 39 18 1.94X105 0 32 39 40 100
P 0 L Y E S T E R
1. 0.75 370 2 57 2 35 6 1.9X105 0 21 0 35 75

2. 1.0 380 5 60 7 42 27 2.3X105 0 21 0 40 100
312
Polypropylene and Polyester Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Prevention of separation of concrete after breaking

of s p e c i m e n is f o u n d l e s s c o m p a r e d t o s t e e l f i b r e r e i n
forced concrete. Impact strength is found substantially
increased. Shear strength is found increased by about
35 e p e r c e n t . A nominal increment is n o t i c e d in c o m p r e s
s iv e, f l e x u r a l a n d s p l i t t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h i n b o t h p o l y p r o
pylene and polyester fibre reinforced concrete. The 1.5
percent volume of polypropylene fibre and 1.0 percent
v o l u m e of p o l y e s t e r f i b r e s a r e f o u n d e f f e c t i v e to i m p r o v e
various parameters. Figures 2 and 3 indicate increments
achieved with different percentages of both fibres in
various strengths of polypropylene and polyester fibre
reinforced concrete.
FIBRE CONTENT (° / o) FIBRE CONTENT (%)
Figure 2 I n c r e m e n t in s t r e n g t h Figure 3 increment in

versus polyester fibre content strength versus polyester
fibre content
APPLICATION
In h y d r a u l i c s t r u c t u r e s , energy dissipators are prone

to damage due to abr a s i o n and cavitation. The high v e l o c i
ties of overflows with caught up debris is the chief
c a u s e of d a m a g e to t h e skin concrete. During inspection
of some dam s heavy dama g e to e n e r g y d i s s i p a t o r s r a n g i n g
f r o m a f e w c e n t i m e t e r s t o a f e w m e t e r s in d e p t h w a s o b s e r
ved. Figure 4 s h o w s t y p e s of d a m a g e s o b s e r v e d in b u c k e t
type energy dissipator of a dam. The types of damages
and possible causes were investigated. However, the main
i s s u e w a s t h e m a t e r i a l s b e i n g p r o p o s e d fo r u s e as r e p a i r
m a t e r i a l s so a s t o i m p r o v e t h e a b i l i t y t o r e s i s t e r o s i o n .
The ability of concrete to resist abrasive action of
i m p a c t wa s, t h e r e f o r e , e x p e c t e d t o i m p r o v e w i t h n e w m a t e r
ials like fibre reinforced concrete. Laboratory studies
313
Figure 4 Damaged bucket - Exposed reinforcement
and experiments indicated substantial increase i n shear

and impact strength of fibre reinforced concrete. Hence,
fibre reinforced concrete with steel and polypropylene
fibres was used for repairs in three dams.
Steel fibre reinforced concrete was extensively laid

w h e r e d e p t h of d a m a g e w a s more t h a n 20 mm. T h e d a m a g e d
sur f a c e was t h o r o u g h l y cleaned, d r ied and skin formations,
if any, were c h i p p e d off. The shape of t h e a r e a t o be
t r e a t e d w a s c u t s q u a r e or r e c t a n g u l a r t o r e m o v e i r r e g u l a r i
ties. All loose materials were removed.The surface was
then treated with epoxy as base coat on which FRC was
t o be laid. T h e g r a d e of c o n c r e t e w a s M 30 in w h i c h f i b r e s
of s t e e l w e r e a d d e d at 1.5 p e r c e n t b y v o l u m e . T h e s t e e l
fibres are normally 0.3 to 0.4 mm diameter and 25 m m
lo n g . Steel 2fibre reinforced concrete was laid in a r e a
about 220 m in the year 1981 and 1 985. Polypropylene
fibre ~ reinforced concrete was laid in t h e area about
100 m in 1 984 t o 1 985. A f t e r t r e a t m e n t f l o o d w a t e r h a s
spilled over during monsoon bu t no damage is noticed
in the treated area and thus its performance is found
satisfactory to resist high velocity of overflows of
flood waters.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the experimental

and f i e l d w o r k w i t h FRC:
1. T h e a d d i t i o n of s t e e l f i b r e s by 1.5 p e r c e n t b y volume
of c o n c r e t e is f o u n d m o s t e f f e c t i v e to i n c r e a s e t h e stren
g t h p r o p e r t i e s as under:
S h e a r s t r e n g t h b y 115 p e r c e n t ,
I m p a c t s t r e n g t h b y 90 p e r c e n t ,
S p l i t t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h b y 45 p e r c e n t ,
C o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h by 31 p e r c e n t ,
F l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h b y 20 p e r c e n t a n d
314
Modulus of elasticity by 4 percent.
2. The addition of polypropylene or polyester fibres

by 1.0 percent by volume of concrete is found effective
to increase the strength properties as under:
Impact strength by 75 percent,

Split tensile strength by 9 percent,
Flexural strength by 7 percent and
Compressive strength by 5 percent.
There was no increment in modulus of elasticity and shear

strength.
3. The performance of steel fibre reinforced concrete

as well as polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete is
found satisfactory as repair material for energy dissipa
tors .
4. There is wide scope to use fibre reinforced concrete

in runways, penstocks, spillways and energy dissipators
wherever high resistance to abrasion/cavitation is essen
tial .
RE F E R E N C E S
1. Romualdi, James P. and Mandel, James A., Tensile

Strength of Concrete Affected by Uniformly Distributed
Closely Spaced short Lengths of Wire Reinforcement.
ACI Journal, Proceedings V.61 No.6, June 1964, PP
657-671
2. Kukreja, C.B., Kaushik, S.K., Kanchi. M.B. and Jain,

O.P., Tensile Strength of Fibre Reinforced Concrete.
Indian Concrete Journal July 1980, PP. 184-188
3. Kukreja, C.B., Kaushik, S.K., Kanchi, M.B. and Jain

O.P., Effect of steel Fibres on Compressive Strength
and Compressive strain of Concrete. Journal of Institu
tion of Engineers (India), V.62, Part Cl 2, Sept.
1984
4. Herbert Krenchel, Fibre Reinforced Brittle Matrix

Materials. In Fibre Reinforced Concrete, SP-44, Ameri
can Concrete Institute, Detroit, USA, 1982, PP 45-78
5. Gilbert R. Williamson, The Effect of steel fibres

on the compressive strength of concrete. In fibre
reinforced Concrete, SP-44, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit USA, 1982, PP-195-207
6. Parameswaran, V.S. Fibre Reinforced Concrete. In

Advanced Course on Development in Structural Com
posites and Concrete Technology, Vol.II, SERC, Madras,
pages 1-20
315
7. Swamy, R.N. , S AL-'Taan and Sami, A.R. Ali, Steel

Fibres for Controlling Cracking and Deflection. Con
crete International, Aug. 1979
8. Mark, E. Pattan., and Whittaker., Effects of Fibre

Content and Damaging Load on Steel Fibre Reinforced
Concrete Stiffness. ACI Journal, Jan-Feb. 1983
9. Shah, Surendra P., and B., Vijaya Rangan, Fibre Rein

forced Concrete Properties. ACI Journal, V 68, Feb.
1971
10. David, A.Fanella and Antonie, E. Newman, Stress Strain

Properties of Fibre Reinforced Mortar in Compression.
ACI Journal. V. 82, July 1985
11. Malisch, W.R., Polypropylene Fibre in concrete. Con

crete Construction, V.31, April 1986
12. American Concrete Institute, State of the Art Report.

ACI 544 IR 73. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part
3, 1979, ACI Detroit, USA
13. ICOLD, Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Bulletin 40, ICOLD
™ ‘t T jel
CT
SS
15x15x75
cm
BEAM OF-
FRC
C O M P R E S S IV E STRENGTH FLEXURAL STR E N G TH SPLIT T E N S IL E STRENGTH
CT
i£L X . JQCL IMPACT
SS HAMMER.
IMPACT
COMPRE- 10x45 cm STRENGTH
SSO C Y L IN D -
METER ER OF - -•— TEST
FRC A PPARATUS
1 5 x 5 -3 cm
CYLINDER OF
FR C
MODULUS OF ELA STIC ITY SHEAR STRENGTH IMPACT STRENGTH
L E G E N D .- CT - C om pression Testing M achine S S - S p e c im e n S ize

FRC - F ibre R e in fo rc e d Concrete
SKETCHES SHOWING TESTS CONDUCTED ON FRC SPEC fMENS

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HIGH VOLUME APPLICATIONS OF

COLLATED FIBRILLATED POLYPROPYLENE FIBER
Robert C. Zellers, P.E., L.S.
Executive Vice-President
FORTA CORPORATION
100 Forta Drive
Grove City, Pennsylvania, USA
ABSTRACT
Collated fibrillated polypropylene fibers at 0 . 1 % by volume have been used commercially for
approximately ten [10] years. Based on encouraging results at a 0 .3 % volume level and above in cursory
laboratory studies, extensive laboratory and field studies have been conducted with shotcrete [wet
method] at fiber volumes from 0.44 to 0 .6 6 % .
Using 5' X 5' X 3" [1524 mm X 15 2 4 mm X 75.2 mm] shotcrete test panels, FO RTA C R 1 1/2" [38
mm] long fiber yielded similar results to 4 X 4 - W 2.0 X W2.0 and 6 X 6 - W2.9 X W2.9 welded wire
mesh and approximately 10 1 pounds of steel fiber.
INTRODUCTION
The use of fibers in ancient history has been chronicled by many others. Thus the scope of our
comments shall be confined to current day use of fibers in cement concrete and in more specific terms,
the use of collated fibrillated polypropylene fibers [C FP fibers]. Both at low application rates of 0 . 1 %
by volume and the higher volume rates, between 0 . 3 % and 0 .7 5 % shall be discussed.
Modern technology continues to take quantum leaps within relatively short spans of time. In
conversation, we use phrases like first generation, second generation, and current state-of-the-art.
Although not in the fast track category with computers, construction materials are experiencing a similar
accelerated improvement curve in terms of technology and new materials. Within this context, the
use of fibers as reinforcement [basically steel and polypropylene] in concrete is receiving considerable
attention and the activity level is not confined to laboratory research. Actual applications abound; the
acceptance by the designers, specifiers, contractors, and owners has been very positive.
To properly understand the impact of fibers in todays market on concrete construction, one must
consider two major factors: one, the types of fibers available and their unique properties and two,
the fiber’s contribution to concrete construction in terms of value engineering. As to the latter, the
author’s primary concern is that marketing zeal will out pace technical understanding/support.
The use of all types of fibers in concrete currently demands a bright spotlight. Throughout the world
there are sym posia/seminars providing a forum for the review/dissemination of fiber technology. The
American Concrete Institute’s Committee 544 on Fiber Reinforced Concrete is actively sponsoring
the assem blage of papers focused on use of fibers in various facets of concrete construction. ACI
publication SP -81 - “Fiber Reinforced Concrete” is a compilation of papers from a committee sponsored
symposium as is S P -10 5 .
The American Society of Testing and Materials has a subcommittee, C-9.03.04, charged with
reviewing/approving tests for use in measuring properties unique to fiber reinforced concrete. There
are two fiber concrete test methods in ASTM Volume 04.02: C-995, Time of Flow of Fiber Reinforced
Concrete through Inverted Slump Cone and C -10 18 , Flexural Toughness and First-Crack Strength
of Fiber Reinforced Concrete [Using Beam with Third-Point Loading].
With this background, let’s focus on C F P fiber reinforced concrete. The term collated fibrillated is taken
from the textile industry: it describes the textile process used to impart an open netting pattern in an
extruded thin sheet of polypropylene. The manufacturing process begins with the extrusion of melted
polypropylene pellets into a thin sheet which is elongated approximately 10 times its original length.
This step aligns the polypropylene molecules in the elongated direction. By taking random oriented
molecules and aligning them in a single direction, a tensile strength in excess of 70,000 psi is developed.
317
The thin sheet is then subjected to a patterned cutting roller that slits the film parallel to the molecular
alignment. This slitting step creates the network of interconnected fibrils within the sheet. Polypropylene,
a member of the polyolefin family is chemically inert, which means the fiber bond in the cement paste
matrix must be m echanical. The net system furnishes a positive means of cement paste interlocking
and offsets the low modules of elasticity and high Poisson’s ratio that limits the value of a monofilament
polypropylene in concrete. The typical mode of bond failure for a monofilament is pull out. There are
two generic forms of polypropylene available: copolymer, which is the moldable form of polypropylene
and homopolymer, which is extrudable. This discussion will be limited to homopolymer polypropylene.
Furthermore, there are different grades of homopolymer polypropylene. To maximize tensile strength,
the grade desired will have the greatest elongation potential thus increasing molecular alignment which
equates to higher tensile strength. Also to enhance the polypropylene properties as a concrete
reinforcement, the standard clear white color should be altered to improve ultraviolet resistance. The
color can also serve to mask the fiber in the concrete.
The standard textile fibrillation pattern provides a product where all the fibrils or strands of the network
are the sam e cross section and the pattern is of a uniform consistance. For use as a concrete
reinforcement, this configuration required modification. Additional cross fibrils were added and the
main or longitudinal fibrils were enlarged to provide more cross sectional resistance to applied load.
These modifications/improvements provided measurable gains in dynamic test properties. The most
obvious change being the failure mode of the fiber at the fracture face of the concrete. Failure in tension
shear versus fiber pull out. Actual fiber length/critical bond length must be optimized to achieve this
failure mode.
Producers/marketers initially concentrated their efforts on the use of C F P fibers as a secondary
reinforcement for concrete elements, wherein approximately 0.1 % by volume of fibers would be used
to replace W W F as the secondary temperature/shrinkage reinforcement. In other words, C F P fiber
replaced conventional temperature/shrinkage reinforcement in slabs-on-grade, elevated composite
decks, slab overlays, and various precast products. Also at this volume level, shotcrete/gunite as well
as other specialized applications could be considered target markets. There was no attempt to replace
structural steel. Limited laboratory/commercial attempts had been made to substitute C F P fibers for
higher application levels of reinforcement. It has been proven that polypropylene can be used at volumes
ranging from 0.3 to 0 .7 5 % in the collated fibrillated form.
In the introduction of a new product, the burden of proof or the challenge lies with the inventors and/or
marketing group to prove that the product does have merit. Thus, conventionally, the product would
be evaluated using standard or concensus test methods so that comparisons can be drawn with existing
materials and/or practices. In this case, C F P fibers at 0.1 % by volume have been compared with WWF.
To enhance the understanding of a newly introduced material or process, new or modified testing
procedures, that subsequently become standards for quantifying the unique properties of this new
material, are devised. In the case of three dimensional concrete reinforcement-fibers, the development
of new testing methods or modifications of existing procedures was considered mandatory. The major
hurdle was the lack of standard test methods to evaluate the properties of a W W F when used as a
secondary/shrinkage reinforcement.
FO RTA Corporation has encouraged and supported this learning process in the area of fiber reinforced
concrete based on the belief that a full technical knowledge of C F P fiber is required to appreciate
the complete potential of this composite. As indicated, initial marketing was limited to secondary or
non-structural reinforcement applications. Yet, as a result of enhanced testing/evaluation methods,
in particular ASTM C 10 18 , new markets are now being opened.
The low volume research centered on conventional static testing such as compression, MOR and
splitting tensile tests for the hardened concrete and slump and yield tests for the plastic concrete.
These tests did not reflect the unique durability/dynamic properties of C F P fibers. The focus of the
research required an understanding of such elements as fiber type, configuration, volume, bond,
maximum introduction length, and distribution considerations.
Results of conventional static hardened concrete tests show modest or no significant strength gains
for C F P fiber mixes at 0 . 1 % by volume. Conversely, using a C F P fiber modified for concrete at 0 . 1 %
by volume will not reduce the hardened concrete strength properties with all mix design properties
being equal.
We also have found that for a given w/c, the C F P fiber reinforced concrete had a lower standard slump
than the companion plain mix. Yet, the in-place workability was marginally affected and the C F P fiber
mix consolidated with normal procedures. C F P fibers are hydrophobic; thus, the reduction of slump
was due to the 3-dimensional distribution of the fibers which held the plastic mix together. As a
consideration, the use of ASTM C 995 may be appropriate in evaluating the consistance/workability
characteristics of a fiber reinforced concrete. The reduction in slump has another benefit. Bleeding
is reduced which translates into reduced plastic shrinkage.
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Expanding on previously related information: C F P fibers, when viewed as a reinforcement for concrete,
would be considered second generation with monofilament polypropylene fibers the first generation.
It was found that C F P fibers are easier to introduce and distribute within the concrete matrix. Another
improvement to the standard textile process was the addition of a twist to each fiber bundle. This twist
eliminated the potential of fiber balling and also accelerated the bundle opening process. The
3-dimensional “mini-bundle” reinforcement network resulting from shearing of the primary bundle within
the mixing system improves the bonding potential and the distribution of stress. This coupled with
the non-isotropic/unidirection tensile strength, in excess of 70 ksi, developed at a stretch ratio of
approximately 10 to 1, yielded measurable contributions to the concrete matrix.
As the market grew and the number of applications increased, there was a parallel growth in research.
The research with C F P fibers at 0.1 % by volume centered on concrete durability properties in a three-
dimensional reinforcing system. Impact and abrasion resistance, shrinkage (both plastic and drying),
permeability, fatigue strength and freeze-thaw characteristics were all parameters investigated.
From day one, the researchers had their minds set that primary reinforcement properties were of
paramount interest and saw minimal value in investigating durability properties. For this reason, most
of the researchers included work where the fiber volume exceeded the 0 . 1 % volume level. This work,
at higher volumes, has increased our knowledge of fibers’ value in concrete and, more importantly,
expanded the list of potential applications.
To obtain a basic understanding of C F P fibers contribution to the concrete mass, our initial low volume
research attempted to quantify plastic and hardened concrete shrinkage properties:
1. The plastic shrinkage for C F P fiber reinforced concrete, as measured by the ASTM C 827
procedure, was less than for plain concrete. A portion of this plastic shrinkage reduction can
be contributed to reduced bleeding when compared to a plain mix with the same w/c. One theory
offered is that the fibers intersect bleed channels. Yet another consideration is the effect the
fiber has on slump thus on the forces of gravity.
2. Using an unrestrained concrete beam as the testing element, the hardened concrete shrinkage
for C F P fiber reinforced concrete was found to be less than plain concrete. [1] To achieve a true
direct measurable relationship, the plain concrete specim ens were extracted from the mixer prior
to incorporation of the fibers. This insured that all conventional mix properties were the same
for both subsets. Two maturity cycles were used; 7 days and 14 days. These data provide evidence
that there is a mechanical bonding and that resistance to stress improves as the concrete matures.
Two different C F P fibers were evaluated in this program. The two fibers were identified as F-1
and F-2. As was found with steel fibers, this program proved that materials falling into the same
generic category do not provide the same benefits. Thus, we would caution the specifier/user
to match the material with the project requirements. We would strongly encourage pre-project
testing.
At the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Dr. Ramakrishnan, using flexural beams,
conducted a program aimed at quantifying fatigue strength gains when C F P fibers are introduced to
the concrete matrix. [2] Repeatitive cyclic loading, to a maximum of 2 million cycles at load increments
based on the MOR data, was the mode of testing. The work provided data that showed an improved
fatigue strength with the C F P fiber when compared to plain concrete. The redistribution of the applied
load over a greater volume of the concrete as well as a modification of the cracking mechanism
contribute to the improved properties. Dr. Ramakrishnan observed that the majority of the fibers failed
in tension, and not pull out, at the failure face again providing evidence that a true mechanical bond
can be achieved when the optimum fiber length is used.
A perceived problem, voiced by engineers, contractors and owners, centered on the effect of fiber
on the durability of a slab surface. Would the fibers reduce the service life under traffic? Obviously,
with the three dimensional distribution system, there will be some fibers within the surface. It was
decided to investigate. The research question was: Do the fibers accelerate the wear characteristics
of a fiber reinforced concrete surface? A series of tests utilizing ASTM C944 was conducted. [3] The
program consisted of four parameter sets: plain concrete, C F P fiber reinforced concrete, plain concrete
with metallic surface hardener and C F P fiber reinforced concrete with metallic surface hardener. The
rankings, based on the test results, indicated that the C F P fiber reinforced concrete loss was significantly
less than the plain concrete and both of the metallic surface hardener mixes were equal and superior
to the C F P reinforced mix. This also verified the premise that the C F P fibers do not negatively affect
the orientation of the metallic hardener in the concrete surface.
Two subjects that require additional discussion since both affect overall benefits: optimum fiber
distribution and bonding mechanics. To achieve optimum fiber distribution, the fiber bundles must
be easily introduced without concern for balling, thus allowing the bundle to open quickly and uniformly
distribute as mini-bundles. We have found by pretwisting the fiber bundle that the product exhibited
all of these desired properties, both in low volume and high volume applications.
Since the initial marketing of FO R TA C R in 1978, the primary application has been as a
secondary/temperature reinforcement, where FO RTA C R , at 1.6 pounds per cubic yard, replaces wire
mesh. Although marketing to date has been limited to 1.6 pounds per cubic yard ( 0 . 1 % by volume),
319
as a matter of interest, the research work has always included higher dosage rates. Typically, the
higher volume research provided additional insight into the benefits provided by FO R TA C R to the
concrete matrix, but little was done to promote these higher dosage rates due to a question as to
the application area[s].
DISCUSSION OF HIGH VOLUME RESEARCH

Based on the su ccess of F O R TA C R in wet mix shotcrete at the 1.6 pound per cubic yard dosage
rate, coupled with the increased use of steel fiber shotcrete in specialty applications and the advent
of a test method [ASTM C 10 18 ] that could be used to identify specifiable fiber induced properties,
FO R TA engaged Dr. Colin Johnston in 19 8 7 to conduct a laboratory program for the purpose of
evaluating the toughness index properties of concrete reinforced with FO R TA C R at elevated volumes.
[4] The results were positive precipitating FO R TA to enjoin Dr. D.R. Morgan of Hardy B BT Limited
in Vancouver, British Columbia to conduct field oriented high volume FO R T A C R shotcrete research.
We chose Dr. Morgan based on his considerable experience and knowledge of plain, and wire mesh
and steel fiber reinforced shotcrete.
The scope of the first program conducted by Dr. Morgan was intended to determine the toughness
index/residual strength properties of FO R TA C R at elevated volumes [0.44 and 0 .6 6 % by volume]
utilizing ASTM C 10 18 . Subsequent to the completion of this initial program, two more programs were
conducted, each specifically designed to build on the information generated in the first program. The
second program centered on the importance of fiber length/bonding characteristics. The third program
compared FO RTA C R directly with welded wire fabric and, through the use of work previously conducted
by Dr. Morgan, a comparison with steel fiber.
All specim ens tested in this program were extracted from shotcrete fabricated panels. Cast specimens
will not generate similar data due to difference in material orientation.
Herein is a summary of each program along with the conclusions generated by Dr. Morgan, including
data and a synopsis relating the significance of the work. An actual copy of each program report
prepared by Dr. Morgan is available on request.
BACKGROUND
The use of fiber reinforced shotcrete in tunnel, mine, slope, and excavation applications has been
documented as far back as the early 19 7 0 ’s. The fiber reinforced shotcrete, more specifically, the
steel fiber reinforced shotcrete, replaced wire mesh as the preferred method of reinforcement. The
immediate benefits were major savings of time and money as well as the elimination of work related
danger.
Typically, the steel fiber shotcrete mix design required in excess of 100 pounds of fiber per cubic yard
to equal the reinforcing properties of wire mesh. This quantity of fiber required modifications to the
standard shotcrete mix design and caused unique handling and mixing problems, as well as durability
problems as the fibers rusted.
With the reinforcement expected to provide resistance to shear, tension and bending loading resulting
from soil and/or rock movement and/or hydrostatic pressures, more than the normal 1.6 pounds of
F O R T A C R per cubic yard would be required. Therefore, it was important to develop a
quantatative/qualitative relationship between FO R T A C R , wire mesh, and steel fibers.
Engineers providing the design work for the applications listed above have adopted ASTM C 10 18 as
the means for specifying steel fiber reinforced shotcrete in lieu of wire mesh. Thus, to evaluate FO RTA
C R at higher volume as an equal to steel fibers, it was concluded that a major research program would
be required. The program would center on C 1 0 1 8 and the deflection testing of shotcrete fabricated
panels in restrained and unrestrained modes.
PROGRAM I: REPORT DATE AUGUST 18, 1987

PU RPO SE:
Provide sufficient data base to prove there is a quantifiable benefit when FO R T A C R at high volumes
is added to a standard shotcrete mix. Testing was to be conducted in accords with ASTM C 10 18 and
other standard concensus test methods. Additionally, it was important to show that the mix with a
high-volume fiber content would pump.
SCO PE:
FO R T A C R Type A -10 [ 11/2" length] and Type D -15 [21/4" length] was furnished to Hardy BBT.
Both fiber lengths were tested at a fiber volume of 0 .4 4 % [approximately 7.0 pounds per cubic yard]
and 0 .6 6 % [approximately 10 .1 pounds per cubic yard].
A standard fiber shotcrete mix was used.
Hardened concrete testing included compressive strength, modulus of rupture [first crack and ultimate
strength], toughness index/residual strength and boiled absorption and permeable voids.
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Specim ens were extracted from field fabricated shotcrete panels. A Mayco C30 HD small ball valve
pump was used to generate 2' X 2' X 5" test panels.
CONCLUSIONS:
This study [and a subsequent field application] has demonstrated that 38 mm long [1V2 "] FO R TA C R
can be added directly to the back of a ready mix concrete truck at dosage levels up to 6kg/m3 [0 .6 6 %
by volume], and be thoroughly mixed, dispersed and applied by the wet-mix shotcrete process, using
a common shotcrete pump. No modifications to the shotcrete pump, equipment or application
procedures were required in order to be able to use the fiber.
The 57 mm long [21A "] FO R T A C R was readily mixed and applied by the wet mix shotcrete process
at the 4 kg/m3 [0 .4 4 % by volume] dosage level, but proved difficult to pump and shoot at the 6 kg/m3
dosage level with the particular Mayco C 30 HD ball valve type pump used. It is, however, possible
that a larger pistol type pump could adequately handle a 6 kg/m3 dosage of the 57 mm long fiber.
[It should be noted that the manufacturer recommends the use of the 38 mm [IV 2 "] long FO R TA C R
with the aggregate used in this work].
The plastic shotcrete mixes displayed good adhesion and cohesion characteristics and enables 150
mm [6 in.] thick vertical sections to be built up without difficulty. Rebound, while not quantified, appeared
visually to be no higher [and possible slightly lower] than in a well designed plain wet-mix shotcrete.
The 400 kg/m3 cement content mix design produced shotcrete which consistently satisfied the nominal
30 MPa at 28 day compressive strength specification. There was, however, a tendency to a slight
reduction in compressive and flexural strength at both 7 and 28 days in the mixes with higher fiber
dosage [Due to increase in w/c since no water reducer was used].
The ASTM C -10 18 l5 and l10 toughness index values increased with increasing fiber dosage levels
[with the exception of the 28 day l10 value for the 57 mm long fiber]. Higher toughness index values
were attained with 6 kg/m3 of 38 mm long fiber.
Toughness index values remained essentially constant from 7 to 28 days, with the exception of the
mix with 4 kg/m3 of 57 mm long fiber, where some increase in toughness index was attained at 28 days.
Values of boiled absorption and permeable voids were in the range of 7.6 to 8 .2 % and 16.9 to 1 7 .8 % ,
respectively, for all four shotcrete mixes tested. This represents shotcrete of generally “good” quality.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WORK:
The test data showed that FO R T A C R at higher volumes [0 .4 4 % and 0 .6 6 % ] did produce toughness
index values to a point approaching specification limits established by the design engineers.
At the 4 kg/m3 [7.04 pounds/cy] dosage rate, the D -15 [ 2 V a " ] fiber mixes did show a slight improvement
in toughness values compared to the A -10 [ 1V2 "] fiber verifying the importance on fiber bond length.
There was little to distinguish the A -10 and D -15 fibers at 6kg/m3 [10.56 pounds/cy] due to a distribution
problem for the D -15 . This distribution problem could be attributed to one of two or both factors; non
use of a water reducer, and use of a 2 V a " fiber with a top size aggregate that conventionally would
use an IV 2 " long fiber.
PROGRAM I DATA SHEET
SUMMARY OF TESTS RESULTS
Mix Number 1 2 3 4
Fiber Length, Inches 1.5 1.5 2.25 2.25
Fiber Dosage, L b s/C Y 7.04 1 0 .11 7.04 1 0 .11
Compressive Strength, psi — 7 Days 3857 3 13 2 3683 3726
28 Days 5249 5 0 17 4945 4770
Flexural Strength, psi — 7 Days 638 478 638 566
28 Days 682 609 7 10 609
l5 Toughness Index — 7 Days 2.5 3.5 2.4 2 .7
28 Days 2.5 3.4 2.8 2 .7
l10 Toughness Index — 7 Days 4.1 6.1 3.9 4.4
28 Days 4.1 5.8 4.8 4.1
Residual Strength l5/l10, % — 7 Days 32 52 30 34
28 Days 32 48 40 28
Boiled Absorption, % — 7 Days 7.6 8.2 8.0 7.8
Permeable Voids, % — 7 Days 16.9 17 .9 17.8 17 .1
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PROGRAM II: REPORT DATE JANUARY 6, 1988

PURPOSE:
Previous research with other fiber types showed a correlation between hardened concrete properties
and fiber length. This program was intended to verify that this theory was also valid for FO R TA C F
at high volumes.
SCO PE:
F O R T A C R Type A-5 [ % " length] and Type A -10 [11/2" length] was furnished to Hardy BBT.
Both fiber lengths were tested at a fiber volume of 0 .3 3 % [approximately 5.3 pounds per cubic yard]
and 0 .6 6 % [approximately 10 .1 pounds per cubic yard].
strength], toughness index/residual strength.
C O N C L U S IO N S :
Examination of fracture faces of the flexural tost specimens indicated that pull out was the predominant
mode of failure for the % inch long fibers, and tensile failure the predominant mode of failure for the
1 V2 inch long fibers.
S IG N IF IC A N C E O F W O RK :
The visual observations of the investigators indicated the % " fibers failed in pull out whereas the 1 V2 "
fiber failed in tension. This verifies the critical bond length theory.
At equal fiber volume levels, the fiber length proved to contribute significantly to the toughness index
values.
PROGRAM II DATA SHEET

SUM M ARY O F T E S T S R E S U L T S
Mix Num ber 1 2 3 4
Fiber Length, Inches 0.75 0.75 1.50 1.50
Fiber Dosage, L b s/C Y 5.06 1 0 .1 1 5.06 10 .11
Compressive Strength, psi
7 Days 5220 5249 510 4 5 7 13
28 Days 7 19 2 6626 7670 7656
Flexural Strength, psi
7 Days 696 682 725 638
28 Days 783 754 826 696
l5 Toughness Index
7 Days 1.9 2.9 2.6 3.8
28 Days 2.0 2.8 2.3 3.5
l10 Toughness Index
7 Days 3.0 5.2 4.5 7.7
28 Days 3.1 4.7 3.5 6.6
I20 Toughness Index
28 Days 4.0 6.5 4.3 9.1
Residual Strength l5/l10, %
7 Days 20 46 36 78
28 Days 22 38 24 62
Residual Strength, I10/I 20, %

28 Days 9 19 9 25
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PROGRAM III: REPORT DATE MAY 12, 1988

ASTM C1018
Effect of Fiber Length
FORTA CR Content—Percent Volume
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
PURPOSE:
A direct comparison of FO R T A C R with wire mesh and steel fiber [see Morgan/Mowat paper in ACI
S P 8 1-15 ], wherein the loading conditions typical to soil or rock m asses or hydraulic pressure were
investigated utilizing 5' x 5' x [nominal] 3" panels in both restrained and unrestrained mode [See
Appendix for drawings of test assemblies].
SCOPE:
F O R T A C R Type A -10 [ 1 1/2" length] was furnished to Hardy BBT.
Fiber volume used was 0.44 and 0 .6 6 % by volume [approximately 7.0 and 10 .1 pounds per cubic
yard respectively].
W W F [Welded Wire Fabric] used was 4 X 4 - W2.0 X W2.0 and 6 X 6 - W 2.9 X W2.9.
strength], toughness index/residual strength, boiled absorption and permeable voids.
Testing in the restrained and unrestrained modes of the 5' X 5' X 3" shotcrete test panels was in
deflection.
CONCLUSIONS:
This study has demonstrated that FO RTA C R polypropylene fiber 38 mm [1V2 "] long can readily added
to wet-mix shotcrete in a ready mix concrete truck on site at rates of 4 and 6 kg/m3 [6.7 and 10 .1
Ib/cu. yd.], and be thoroughly mixed, dispersed and applied by the wet-mix shotcrete process, using
a common shotcrete pump. No modifications to the shotcrete pump, equipment or application
procedures were required in order to be able to use the fiber.
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The addition of FO R TA C R polypropylene fiber at rates of 4 and 6 kg/m3 [6.7 and 10 .1 lb/cu.yd.] reduces
the apparent workability of the mix as measured by the slump test. In this study, water was added
to provide the necessary slump of 30 to 50 mm [1 to 2"] required for shooting. This, as expected,
resulted in some reduction in compressive and flexural strength of the fiber reinforced shotcrete
compared to the plain shotcrete. In applications where retempering with water is not considered
desirable [e.g. where high strength and minimizing volume change potential of the shotcrete are
important] then the required workability could be attained through the addition of superplasticizers
in conjunction with fiber addition.
The addition of 4 kg/m3 [6.7 lb/cu.yd.] of FO R TA C R polypropylene fiber produced ASTM C 10 18 l5
and l10 toughness index values of 2.5 and 4.6 respectively at 28 days. These toughness index values
compare favorably with the performance of certain commercially used lower aspect ratio steel fibers
added at a rate of 60 kg.m3 [101 lb/cu.yd.] to wet-mix shotcrete.
The addition of 6 kg/m3 [10.1 lb/cu.yd.] of FO R T A C R polypropylene fiber produced ASTM C 10 18
l5 and ho toughness index values of 3.3 and 6.5 respectively at 28 days. These toughness index values
approach the performances of certain commercially used higher aspect ratio steel fibers added at
a rate of 60 kg/m3 [101 lb/cu.yd.] to wet-mix shotcrete.
The addition of F O R T A C R polypropylene fiber at the rate of 4 kg/m3 [6.7 lb/cu.yd.] and 6 kg/m3 [10.1
lb/cu.yd.] does not result in an increase in the load carrying capacity of either the ASTM C 1 0 18 flexural
test prisms or the large test panels, after first crack. There is, however, a substantial change in post-
first crack residual load carrying capacity. Plain shotcrete, without mesh or fiber reinforcement, would
have no residual load carrying capacity after first crack in either the ASTM C 1 0 1 8 toughness index
test, or the unrestrained large panel tests; i. e. the shotcrete would simply break into two pieces and
separate. Plain shotcrete in a restrained large test panel would continue to carry some load across
the crack as a result of aggregate interlock and anchor restraint effects. The fiber reinforced shotcretes,
by contrast, continue to carry a significant portion of their ultimate load after first crack for substantial
deflections, as illustrated in the appended graphs.
In the restrained large test panels, at deflections of up to about 15 mm [0.6"], the FO R TA C R
polypropylene fiber reinforced shotcrete displayed similar load carrying capacity after cracking to
shotcrete reinforced with 10 2 X 10 2 MW 13 .3 X MW 13 .3 [ 4 X 4 8/8 ] and 15 2 X 15 2 MW 18 .7 X MW
18 .7 [ 6 X 6 6/6] welded wire reinforcing mesh. At larger deflections, up to termination of the test at
approximately 50 mm [2"], the mesh reinforced panels displayed somewhat higher residual load carrying
capacity. From a practical perspective, the performance of the shotcretes at deflections of approximately
15 mm [0.6"] or less is of most interest, as at deflections significantly greater than this the width of
crack opening is generally greater than 3 mm [0.1"] and as such the serviceability of the shotcrete
would likely be compromised in most applications.
In the unrestrained large test panels the FO R TA C R polypropylene fiber reinforced shotcrete and the
shotcrete reinforced with 102 X 102 MW 13 .3 X MW 13 .3 [ 4 X 4 8/8] wire mesh displayed similar residual
load carrying capacity after first crack at deflections all the way up to failure, which occurred at
deflections in excess of 40 mm [1.6"]. The panel reinforced with the heavier 15 2 X 15 2 MW 18 .7 X
MW 18 .7 [ 6 X 6 6/6] wire mesh displayed lower load carrying capacity after first crack, at deflections
up to 20 mm [0.75"] and superior residual load carrying capacity at deflections from about 30 mm
[1.2"] to failure at 70 mm [2.8 inches].
In conclusion, it is considered that this study has demonstrated that the addition of high volume
concentrations [of up to 6 kg/m3 [10.1 lb/cu.yd.] of 38 mm [ 1 V2 ” ] long FO R TA C R polypropylene fiber
can provide a viable alternative to traditional mesh or steel fiber reinforcement of wet-mix shotcretes
for many shotcrete applications. Potential applications for such a system include:
• rock slope stabilization;
• channel and ditch lining;
• lining of underground openings in tunnelling and mining applications;
• shotcrete support of deep excavations in conjunction with soil nailing;
• rehabilitation of deteriorated concrete structures;
• capping and sealing tailings deposits, waste dumps and sites generating acid leachates.
Shotcrete projects completed to date in the Vancouver, B .C. area with high volume polypropylene
fiber addition include rock stabilization of a railway cut and capping of a toxic waste disposal site.
In Southern Alberta an irrigation dam, Old Man Dam, utilized FO R TA C R .
SIGNIFICANCE OF WORK:
The investigator drew a direct quantitative comparison of FO RTA C R to steel fiber based on the data
generated in this program and a previous program conducted by Dr. Morgan wherein steel fiber and
wire mesh were compared in similarly fabricated panels tested in the same manner.
324
This program provided opportunity for direct comparison of FO RTA C R and the two welded wire fabrics.
The investigators indicated the load carrying capacity was equal within the practical range of use [up
to a deflection of 15 mm].
Thus, at elevated quantities [0.44 to 0 .6 6 % by volume], when the optimum fiber length is utilized,
FO R TA C R can replace both wire mesh and steel fibers in shotcrete for those applications indicated
by Dr. Morgan in his conclusions.
We would like to re-emphasize Dr. Morgan’s comments in the conclusions that the slump was increased
using water, not a high range water reducer. Thus the fiber reinforced specimens tested in compression
and flexure reflected measurably lower results. Additional water would also increase boiled absorption
and permeable voids.
LOAD VS. DEFORMATION DATA

[RESTRAINED]
FORTA CR VS. WIRE MESH
PANEL No. 1: 4x4—8/8 WIRE MESH

PANEL No. 3 :6 kg/m* POLYPROPYLENE FIBRE
PANEL No. 4 :4 kg/m* POLYPROPYLENE FIBRE
DEFLECTION [mm]
LOAD VS. DEFORMATION DATA

[UNRESTRAINED]
FORTA CR VS. WIRE MESH

PANEL No. 3:6 kg/m* POLYPROPYLENE FIBRE
PANEL No. 4:4 kg/m* POLYPROPYLENE FIBRE
DEFLECTION [mm]
G E N E R A L N O T E T H A T P E R T A IN S T O B O T H R E S T R A IN E D A N D U N R E S T R A IN E D G R A P H S :
T h e p r a c t i c a l lim it i n t e r m s o f v i e w i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f b o t h r e s t r a i n e d a n d u n r e s t r a i n e d s l a b s i s a t a d e f o r m a t io n
o f 1 5 m m [ 0 .6 in c h e s ] .
B o t h r e s t r a in e d a n d u n r e s t r a in e d t e s t r e s u lt s in d ic a t e d th a t F O R T A C R r e in f o r c e d s h o t c r e t e t e s t p a n e ls c o m p a r e
v e r y f a v o r a b l y w it h t h e w ir e m e s h r e i n f o r c e d p a n e l s .
325
PROGRAM III DATA SHEET

SUMMARY OF TEST RESULTS
Mix Number 2 3 4
Fiber Length, Inches — 1.50 1.50
Fiber Dosage, L b s/C Y — 1 0. 1 1 7.04
Compressive Strength, psi — 28 Days 6873 5742 6076
Flexural Strength, psi — 28 Days 783 667 682
l5Toughness Index — 28 Days — 3.3 2.5
l10 Toughness Index — 28 Days — 6.5 4.6
120 Toughness Index — 28 Days — 10 .2 5.9
Residual Strength, l5/l10, % — 28 Days — 64 41
Residual Strength, ho/ho. % — 28 Days — 37 21
Boiled Absorption, % 6.8 8.8 7.9
Permeable Voids, % 14.9 18.6 16.9
RESTRAINED/UNRESTRAINED PANEL TESTING

TEST PANEL LOAD TERMINATION DATA
CRACK WIDTH, DEFLECTION,
TEST METHOD PANEL NO. INCHES [1] INCHES
Restrained 1 0.20 1.9 7
2 0.39 2.05
3 0.39 1.7 7
4 0.39 1.9 7
Unrestrained [2] 1 0.35 1.5 7
2 0.67 2.76
3 0.28 1. 81
4 0.39 1. 61
N O T E S [1] - Crack width measurement is of first crack.

[2] - Testing of unrestrained panels terminated at complete failure.
K E Y - Panel identification both restrained and unrestrained
Panel 1 - 4 X 4 - W 2.0 X W2.0
Panel 2 - 6 X 6 - W 2.9 X W2.9
Panel 3 - 1 0 . 1 1 L b s/C Y Type A -10 FO R TA C R
Panel 4 - 7.04 Lb s/C Y Type A -10 FO R TA C R
REFERENCES
1. Zollo, Dr. Ronald F., “Collated Fibrillated Polypropylene Fibers in F R C ,” International Symposium
on Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Detroit, Michigan, September, 1982.
2. Ram akrishnan, V., Gollapudi, S .P ., and Zellers, R .C ., “ Performance Characteristics and Fatigue
Strength of Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Concrete” , South Dakota School of Mines and
Technology.
3. Brickey, William J., Lancaster, William Allen, Law Engineering Testing Company, Abrasion Test
Program, Proposal No. 2 5 2 7 -C , Atlanta, GA.
4. Johnston, C.D., Ph.D., P.E., Johnston Engineering Ltd., “Testing of Polypropylene Fibre-Reinforced
Concrete” , Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.
5. Morgan, D.R., Ph.D., P .E., McAskill, N., A .Sc.T., “Evaluation of FO R TA C R Polypropylene Fibre
Reinforced Wet-Mix Shotcrete” , Hardy B BT Limited, Vancouver, B .C ., CANADA.
6. Morgan, D.R. Ph.D., P.E., “Forta Fibre C R Polypropylene Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete Comparison
of 3/4" vs 1 1/ 2 " Fibres” , Hardy B BT Limited, Vancouver, B .C ., CANADA.
7. Morgan, D.R., Ph.D., P .E., “A Comparative Evaluation of FO R TA C R Polypropylene Fibre and
Wire Mesh Reinforced Wet-Mix Shotcrete” , Hardy BBT Limited, Vancouver, B .C ., CANADA.
326
SFRC VERTICAL JOINTS BETWEEN LARGE PRECAST CONCRETE PANELS
HASH1M M. S. ABDUL-WAHAB
P ro fesso r, Building & Construction Engingineering Department.
U n iversity of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq.
ABSTRACT
The e ffe c t of s te e l fib r e on the shear re sista n ce of v e r tic a l jo in ts

between large precast concrete panels i s in v estig a te d . Six specimens with
plane or c a s te lla te d jo in ts containing varying amounts of fib r e s were
te ste d to fa ilu r e under pure shear. R esults obtained in d icate a considerable
improvement in the u ltim ate shear capacity due to the addition o ffib r e s .
Comparison with the recomnended design formulae of BS 8110 and the ACI
code showed th e ir inadequacy when applied to SFRC. A modified formula
i s suggested to add the fib r e s contribution to the strength using the
shear f r ic t io n equation, to the valu es obtained by BS 8110 or the ACI
code methods.
INTRODUCTION
V ertica l jo in ts in large precast concrete panel structures are considered

to be the weakest p arts of the stru ctu re. They are subjected to high shear
fo r c e s, and the re sista n c e to shear i s rrainly provided by the c a s t - in - s it u
concrete of the j o in t , and p a r tly by the dowel action of the reinforcement
crossin g the jo in t (1 ,2 ) .
SFRC i s known to provide a sig n ific a n t improvement in shear (diagonal

ten sio n ) capacity of concrete ( 3 ,4 ,5 ) . The fib r e s in the concrete act as
crack a r r e sto r s and enhance the d u c t ilit y and energy absorption of fib re
reinforced concrete (FRC) members consderably. In ad d ition , the in clu sio n
of s te e l fib r e in creases the sh e a r -fr ic tio n strength which i s the predomi
nant fa c to r in v e r tic a l jo in ts ( 6 ,7 ). The ap p lica tio n of SFRC in the
con struction of v e r tic a l jo in ts between large RC panels can, th erefore,
provide a p r a c tic a l method of increasing the shear resista n ce and reducing
the need for reinforcement in the lim ited space of the j o in t.
In t h is study, the e ffe c t of s te e l fib r e s on two corrmon types of

jo in ts between large precast concrete panels i s in v e stig a ted , namely plane
and cast el la ted j o in t s . The fib r e content in the in - s itu concrete of the
jo in t was varied and a to ta l of six specimens were te sted to fa ilu r e . The
327
experimental r e s u lts obtained are analysed and compared with the predicted
valu es using the BS 8110-1985 (6) and ACI code (7) mehods. And a lte r n a tiv e
approach using a m odified form of the sh e a r -fr ic tio n formula which gave
s a tis fa c to r y r e s u lts for p red ictin g the strength of reinforced concrete
corb els w ith fib r e s (3) i s a ls o presented .
EXPERIMENTAL PPROGRAMME
The behaviour of v e r tic a l plane and c a ste l lated jo in ts subjected to shear

loading was studied in a to ta l of six specimens divided in to two groups.
In each group, the s te e l fib r e content (by volume) in the jo in t concrete
(grout) was varied from 0, 0 .5 and 1.0 percent. Each specimen was made up
of two 700x61Ox150rrm RC precast u n its and join ted by in - s itu concrete to
form a v e r t ic a l j o in t . The jo in t width in both plane and c a ste l lated
j o in t s was lOOrrm. The c a s te lla te d jo in ts had three keys of lOQrrm. depth
and 25mn w idth. D e ta ils of the specimens are shown in F i g .l . A ll the
specimens were te ste d to f a ilu r e .
The reinforcement used in the precast panels and across the jo in ts was
deformed s te e l b ars, lOrrm in diam eter, with a y ie ld strength, fy=450 MPa.
The length of the bar overlap w ithin the jo in t was lim ited to the width of
the jo in t i t s e l f .
The fib r e used in the jo in t concrete was smooth drawn wire with hooked
ends, h ig h -te n s il s te e l (Dramix), 30nm long and 0.50nm in diameter with an
aspect r a tio of 60 and a nominal y ie ld strength of 1177 MPa. The concrete
-I— ^— }— 4— I— I-
H im
-+— i— 4— t-
1 0 m m it
reinforcement
( a ) Specimen with plane
T i 1 i i '
joint. j T U T i
r pr rrT
I— 4— H— h -i— 1-
610 610
SEC. X - X
( b) Specimen with castellated

joint. lOmmX
reinforcement
F ig. (1) d e ta ils of specimens

328
JX2
49 5 165 ,
TOO
21
W T9? f"
5/0
-515 Jf-
■ v
o s opj
\7777A ~ fe .? 5 P S-F.o
S.M.D
F ig. (2) loading arrangement
mix used for both the precast u n its and the jo in t -was 1 :1 .5 :3 (by weight)
of ordinary Portland cement: natural sand : coarse aggregate (crushed
g ra v el) w ith a maximum s iz e of 19mn. The water-cement r a tio (w/c) of 0 .5
was found to g iv e adequate w orkability for both p la in and fib r e reinforced
con crete. A ll other fa cto rs were kept as constant as p o ssib le e .g . the
q u a lity of concrete of the precast u n its , curing conditions and age at
te s tin g which was 28 days for the precast u n its and 21 days for the j o in ts .
Due care was taken in the preparation of the mix for the jo in t concrete to
avoid fib r e b a llin g and to ensure good compaction. Control specimens of
I50xl50xl50rrm cubes, 150mn diameter x30Qmn cylin d ers and 100xl00x500rrm
prisms were a ls o cast w ith each specimen to determine the compressive and
t e n s ile s p lit t in g stren gth , modulus of rupture and modulus of e la s t ic it y
of both the concrete of the panels and of the j o in ts .
The load was applied m onotonically in increments u n til fa ilu r e .
Shear-displacem ents at the jo in ts were measured using d ia l gauges.Concrete
str a in readings on se le c te d p o in ts a long and across the jo in ts as w ell as
along the edge of the precast u n its were taken using a mechanical exten sc-
meter having a gauge length of 15Qnm.
Behaviour of specimens:
A ll the specimens behaved in a sim ilar manner. Shear displacement
increased lin e a r ly u n til a sudden fa ilu r e occurred a fte r the forrmtion of
the f i r s t crack. F ig . 3 shows the load-displacement curves for the plane
and c a s te lla te d j o in t s . It i s clea r that the fib r e content had a more
s ig n ific a n t in flu en ce on the s lip deforrmtion c h a r a c te r istic s for
329
F ig. (3) Load-di splacement curves of jo in ts with d iffe r e n t fib re content.
c a s te lla te d jo in ts than for plane j o in t s . N evertheless, the crack patterns

at fa ilu r e were w idely d istr ib u te d in the jo in t due to the presence of the
fib r e . F ailu re p attern s for a l l the specimens followed the expected
diagonal tension fa ilu r e by s p lit t in g along the in clin ed str u ts envisaged
in the tru ss analogy concept (2 ). F ig .4 shows the fa ilu r e patterns for a l l
the specimens te s te d .
A n alysis of te s t r e s u lts :
Table 1 shows a sunmary of te s t r e su lts of the six specimens te ste d . The
r e s u lts obtained were analysed and compared with the a v a ila b le design
reconmendations of BS 8110-1985 (6) and ACI 318-83 code (7 ), both of which
are based on some m odified form of the *sh e a r -fr ic tio n h y p o th esis'. The
reconmended method of design in BS 8110-1985 (se ctio n 5 .3 .7 ) g iv e s the
u ltirm te shear strength , Vu as:
Vu= (0 .6 As fy/4 ) (1)
where:
<f> - m aterial strength reduction factor (taken as 0.87)
As= c r o ss-se c tio n a l area of dowel bars passing through the j o in t .
fy= y ie ld strength of the dowel bars,
and jx i s the fr ic t io n c o e ffic ie n t taken as 0 .7 for smooth in terfa ce (as for
plane jo in t) and 1 .4 (c a ste lla te d joint).
The ACI code g iv e s the u lt ir a t e shear strength (sectio n 11.7) as:

Vu= (As fy /4 ) (2)
where $ a strength reduction fa cto r (assumed 0.85 for shear), and the
f r ic t io n c o e f f ic ie n t , y * is taken as 0 .6 for norral d en sity concrete in a
plane jo in t and 1.0 for roughened or c a s te lla te d in te r fa c e .
In the two above formulae, the contribution of ste e l fib r e s present
in the jo in t to the sh e a r -fr ic tio n strength i s n eglected . From r e su lts
obtained, i t i s evident that a considerable contribution to the shear
r e sista n c e of the jo in ts i s made by the s te e l fib r e , depending on the fib re
content. The in clu sio n of 1% s te e l fib r e resu lted in an increase in the
shear strength of 20% for the plane jo in t and 54% for the c a s te lla te d jo in t.
By using the same sh e a r -fr ic tio n concept, the additional resista n ce
330
F i g .(4) F ailure P attern s.
TABLE 1
D eta il of specimens and experimental r e s u lts .
Type Fibre Concrete E x p .u lt. Increase Predicted Vu

Specimen of content Corp. st r, load in eqn.3 - kN
j oint V f 'c Vu strength
f BS8110 ACI
% MPa kN %
Al Plane 0 22.44 65.17 0 51.63 72.06
A2 0 .5 28.48 71.12 9.1 57.95 78.20
A3 1.0 25.55 78.48 20.4 64.27 84.35
B1 C aste 0 28.31 96.87 0 103.26 120.1
lla te d
B2 0 .5 22.82 122.63 26.6 129.0 145.84
B3 1.0 20.9 148.96 53.8 154.74 171.57
331
provided by the fibres to shear and diagonal tension was first suggested
by Fattuhi (8) and further modified by the author (3) to predict the
ultimate strength of corbels with fibres. The sameapproach can be applied
to vertical joints with fibres, and the ultimate shear strength is given
as :
Vu = Vul + Vuf (3)
where:
Vul = ultimate design strength of joint using eqn.l or eqn.2.
V u f = r ^ A vf ff u / 4 (4)
= material strength reduction factor (0.87 forBS 8110 and 0.85
for ACI code method).
^ = overall fibre efficiency factor.
A ^ = total area of fibres at the critical section of the joint.
f^ = ultimate tensile strength of fibre.
Itshould be noted that the effective area offibres at thecritical
section (ÂJ, working in shear friction and resisting diagonal tension
as well as ctirect shear, is fictitious. The empirical coefficient for the
overall fibre efficiency, (assumed 0.1 for corbels) takes into account
fibre orientation and bond strength but varies with the fibre type and
content. From the experimental results obtained, the overall fibre
efficiency factor, n was calculated using eqn.4 and foundto be:
for plane joints: 2.8% according to BS 8110 method.
2.0% according to ACI code method,
for castellated joints: 5.7% according to BS 8110 method.
4.9% according to ACI code method.
Results obtained using eqn.3 for values based on BS 8110 method and
the ACI code method are shown in Fig.5. It is clear that neglecting the
significant contribution of the fibre to thestregth by the two methods is
inappropriate. The modified values using the proposed method (eqn.3), follow
closely the experimental results. The use of the concept of adding the
predicted shear strength contribution of the fibre to the predicted
strength of the joint using one of the reconmended design methods is
rational and supported strongly by the available experimental results.
However, futher experimental data is needed to establish suitable design
values for the overall efficiency f a c t o r , , for different types and
configurations of joints as well as different types of fibre.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The results obtained in this study indicate that a considerable increase

in the ultimate shear strength of vertical joints between large RC
panels is achieved by the addition of moderate amounts of fibres. With
a fibre content of 1.0% an increase of 20% in the strength was obtained
in plane joints and 54% increase in castellated joints.
2. Conparison of test results with those predicted using the modified
shear-friction methods of both BS 8110 and ACI code clearly indicate the
inadequacy of both methods because they neglect the contribution of
fibres to shear strength.
3. The proposed method (eqn.3) of adding the contribution of the fibres to
the shear resistance, using either BS or ACI reconmended methods of
design, is rational and supported by the experimental results. Safe
and economical vertical joint design can be made by combining steel
332
(a) Plane joints. (b) Castellatted joints■
Fig. (5) Effect of fibre content on joint strength
fibre contribution to shear resistance in a narrow but lightly reinforced

joints.
4. Further research is needed to obtain suitable values for the overall
efficiency factor, , for different types of vertical joints as well
as different types of steel fibre.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The experimental work reported in this study was carried out at the depart
ment of Building and Construction Engineering, University of Technology,
Baghdad, Iraq. The assistance of Messrs, A.S.Moayad, H.A.Sharif,
S.Abdullah and K,M.Amin in conducting the testing programme is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Abdul-Wahab,H.M.S., "An experimental investigation of vertical

castellated joints between large concrete panels", The Structural
Engineer, Vol.64B,No.4, Decl986, pp.93-99.
2. Abdul-Wahab,H.M.S. and Sarsam,S.Y.H., "Strength of vertical plane
joints between large precast concrete panels", The Structural
333
Engineer, V o l.6 6 ,N o.14, July 1988, p p .211-215.

3. Abdul-Whab,H.M.S., "Strength of reinforced concrete corbels with
fib r e s" , American Concrete I n s t itu te , Structural Journal, V o l.8 6,N o.1,
J a n ./F e b .1989, p p .60-66.
4. Abdul-Wahab,H.M.S., Al-Ausi,M.A. and T aw fiq,S.H ., "Steel fib r e
reinforced concrete merrbers under combined bending, shear and torsion",
Proceedings, RILEM Symposium on Developments in Fibre Reinforced
Cement and Concrete, U n iversity of S h e ffie ld , July 1986, V o l.2, Paper
N o.8 .1 1 .
5. Mansur,M.A. ,Qng,C.G. and Paramasivam,P. , "Shear strength of fibrous
concrete beams without stirru p s" , Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, V o l.112,No.9, S e p t.1986, p p .2066-2079.
6. BS 8110: Structural use of concrete: Part 1, London, B r itish
Standards I n s titu tio n , 1985.
7. ACI Comnittee 318, "Building code requirements for reinforced concrete,
ACI 318M-83", American Concrete I n s titu te , D etro it, 1983,111pp.
8. F a ttu h i,N .1 ., "SFRC corbel t e s ts " , ACI Structural Journal, Proceed
in g s, V o l.84 ,N o.2, March-April 1987, p p .1190123.
334
A MODEL TO PREDICT RESTRAINED SHRINKAGE CRACKING OF FIBER

REINFORCED CONCRETE
MIROSLAW GRZYBOWSKI SURENDRA P. SHAH

Department of Structural Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
The Royal Institute of Technology Northwestern University
S- 100 44 Stockholm Evanston, Illinois 60201
Sweden USA
MUSTAFA E. KARAGULER*
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois 60201
USA
Abstract
Cracking due to restrained shrinkage occurs very often in an engineering practice, causing
serious problems such as increased water permeability of the structure and corrosion of
the reinforcement. In order to improve concrete behavior in tension, fiber reinforcement
is often used.
A Finite Element Model of fracture in fiber reinforced material is presented in this paper.
The model assembles time dependent phenomena such as aging, drying, shrinkage and
creep with continuous damage mechanics. A computer program was developed based on
the proposed theoretical model. The efficiency of two types of fibers was tried in the
calculations, polypropylene fibers and steel fibers. The fiber volume varied from 0.1%
to 1.5%. A good agreement was found between the theoretical predictions and the test
results obtained by the authors.
1 General
The presented model describes general, 2-dimensional behavior of the material under
arbitrary boundary, and load conditions. The time-dependent problem of an element
under restrained shrinkage conditions is solved using a step-by-step method. At the
beginning of each time-step, the restraint on each element is released and the deformation
•Visiting Scholar, on leave from the Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul, Technical University, Turkey.
335
corresponding to the shrinkage deformation during the current time interval is imposed.
The imposed incremental strain on the element at the beginning of the ith interval is
defined as:
(1)
Li
where 6*h is the shrinkage deformation at the time is the shrinkage deformation
at the time j.
If the stress due to imposed shrinkage strain is less than that corresponding to the tensile
stength of the element during that time interval, then the element remains uncracked.
The response of the element prior to cracking is termed Stage I.
2 Response of the Uncracked Element (Stage I)
The response of the uncracked element is assumed nonlinear due to strain-dependent

damage (microcracking). The current material stiffness matrix [D] is given by:
[D] = [D(E,v,fuP)) (2)
where E is the Young’s modulus of elasticity, v the Poisson’s ratio, fi a damage parameter,
and ft the tensile strength. Note that the values of /?, E , and f t are functions of aging,
the initial value of the damage parameter and the history of loading.
However, due to creep, there will be relaxation of stress during the time-step. If {d^} is
the rate of the relaxation of stress, then the constitutive law will have the following form
{cr} = [D]{e} + {**} (3)
2 .1 Application: Element Subjected to Restrained Shrinkage

in One Direction.
Using the step-by-step method, the equation governing material behavior within the cur
rent time interval will have the following form
A <7,- = D A e f + A of (4)
where A a, is the stress change within the time interval, Ae’h is the shrinkage strain
imposed on the element during the interval, and D is the current tangent modulus, which
336
is, like the earlier described stiffness matrix [D] (Eq. (2)), microcrack and age dependent.
A o f is the released stress due to relaxation caused by all deformations imposed during
all previous and the current interval
= - I X = - - m , *;)]A e f (5)
j=i j=1
where i2(tf(,+i), tj) and R(U,tj) are relaxations functions for different times of the load
(shrinkage deformation) imposition.
Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) give the total stress change in the element due to restrained shrinkage
for a given time-step
Act,- = D A e ? - £[*(*,+ „ <>) - R(U, *,•)]A e f (6)

j=i
3 Response of the Element During the Second Stage
Once the stress exceeds the current tensile strength of the material, a crack is assumed
to form. Consistent with the experimental observations ( [1], [2], [3]), a cohesive crack is
assumed. That is, a crack in concrete is assumed to resist tensile stresses. However, the
value of these cohesive stresses decrease with an increase in crack width. For simplicity,
a linear relationship between the decreasing stresses and increasing crack width may be
assumed. This means that cracks would be traction-free when their width exceeds a
certain value
If the element subjected to restrained shrinkage were unreinforced, thenthe material

outside thefracture zone would experience unloading. For a fiber reinforcedelement in
the fracture zone, increasing crack width may provide additional resistance due to fibers
bridging the crack. The resistance provided by fibers consists of two parts: interfacial
stress-transfer in the embedded fibers and the stresses in the exposed fibers (Stage III).
3 .1 Finite Element Formulation for a Fiber Reinforced Ele

ment with a Fictitious Crack (Stage II)
3.1.1 Division into an Uncracked and Crack Zone
The Finite Element representing fiber reinforced material at this stage, consists of two
subelements connected in series. Subelement d represents the uncracked part of the
Element, and Subelement cr represents the fracture zone. After cracking, the total strain
rate is distributed in the crack zone ({ecr}) and uncracked zone ({ed}). That is
337
{e} = {e'} + {^ } (7)
The stress rate for the whole Element {<r} is equal to the stress rate in Subelement d, and
to the stress rate in Subelement cr.
{ * } = {<7J} = {<7~} (8)
3.1.2 Subelement Representing Crack Zone
The imposed deformation in the crack zone can be resisted by cohesive stresses in the
matrix and interfacial transfer stresses in the bond between matrix and fibers. The first
phenomenon will here be represented by Subelement m and the latter by Subelement b.
These two subelements are connected in parallel.That is, the total stress rate in Subele
ment cr is the sum of the contributions: from Subelement m ({<rm}), and from Subelement
b ({*” })
M = {<*m} + {<^} (9)
Since Subelements m and b are connected in parallel, the strain rates for both subelements
are equal to the total fracturing strain rate for Subelement cr ({e0’’})
{e-} = { e ™ } = {e6} (10)
Fracturing Strain Rate ({e07’}). Subelement cr contributes to the total strain rate
with a fracturing strain rate {e0’'}, which is equal to the crack width rate {u?} smeared
over the length of the Element L, that is
i n = 7 ~ ~a
L cos (ii)
where a is an angle describing the inclination of the crack.
Stress-Strain Law for the Zone of Cohesive Stresses in M atrix (Subelem ent
m). A general stress-strain law for Subelement m, averaged for the whole specimen is
given by
{<jm} = L cos a[M]{ecr} (12)
or
338
M nn M nt M n, 1f
= L cos a M tn M u M u * (13)
. M ,n M ,t M „ 1i ?
where ‘n’ stands for normal, ‘V for transverse, and ‘s’ for shear.
Since the crack width in the direction ortogonal to the crack surface is equal to zero, then
Eq. (13) becomes
Min M n.
(14)
Lays a
M .n (?)
where M nn is a softening modulus of matrix ( A n ) - M S8 is usually assumed to be a shear
modulus for matrix (Gm), multiplied by a certain reduction factor /?m, which has value
between 0 and 1. However, it is more accurate to assume that /3m depends on the crack
width. Because of the lack of experimental data on the influence of deformations in a
cohesive zone on the stresses in a perpendicular direction, the elements M ns and M sn of
the matrix [M] are assumed to be equal to zero. Then Eq. (14) becomes
(5 )
An 0
L cos a (15)
0 j3m(w)G„
Stress-Strain Law for the Zone of Interfacial Stress Transfer Between Ma
trix and Fibers (Subelement 6). A general stress-strain relation for Subelement 6,
averaged for the whole element can be expressed as
{<j6} = Lcosa[B]{ecr} (16)
Using similar assumptions as for Subelement m the stress-strain law can be defined by
Eb 0
L cos a (17)
{$}- 0 faGb in
where E b is a modulus of pulling out, G b is a shear modulus of fibers crossing crack and
f3b a reduction factor of the shear modulus G b.
Assembling Subelement m and Subelement b. Constitutive law for Subelement

cr. The stress-strain law for Subelement cr can be obtained by substituting Eq. (12)
and Eq. (16) into Eq. (9), so that
{d} = L cos a([M] + [£]){ecr} (18)

339
or
(19)
3.1.3 Subelem ent R epresenting Uncracked Zone
The material outside the crack zone is assumed to respond in the same way as the material
of a similar zone in the Stage I (Eq. (3))
3.1.4 Assem bling Subelem ent d and Subelem ent cr. C onstitutive Law for a
Fiber Reinforced Elem ent w ith a Fictitious Crack
Adding strain rates contributed by the uncracked part of the Element ({ed}) and the crack
zone ({e^}) we have finally stress-strain law for the whole element
{&} = [[D]-1 + ([M\ + [5])"1]"1 ({e} + [D ]-1^ } ) (20)
and after returning to the global coordinates
K } = [Tf [[D]-1 + j l - m + [B])-1} ' 1 [T]({eff} + [T?]-1^ } ) (21)
where [T] is the transformation matrix
cos2 a sin2 a sin a cos a

[T] = sin2 a cos2 a —sin a cos a (22)
—2sin a cos a 2sin a cos a cos2 a —sin2 a
3.2 Application of the Second Stage: Element Subjected to

Restrained Shrinkage in One Direction
3.2.1 Uncracked Part of the Elem ent
For loading, the same constitutive law as at the Stage I (Eq. (4)) is assumed. Unloading
along a straight line , assuming that microcrack density remains unchanged /? = 0. In
this case the stress-strain relation has the following form
A <7, = E Ae? + A o f (23)

340
A£? = i(A<7,-A<T?) (24)
where E is the unloading modulus.
3.2.2 Crack Zone
Sub element m. Softening in matrix is assumed here for simplicity to be governed by

a constant softening modulus D m as follows
Dm= (25)
Wcr
where is a material property - a critical crack opening, at which there is no more stress
transfer through the matrix (here assumed Wcr = 50//m), and f t is the tensile strength of
the matrix.
The stress-strain relation (Eq. 12) in this case reduces to
A of = - L - ^ - A e f (26)
Subelement b. The stress-strain relationship for bond transfer can be given by
A<t? = E bA ef (27)
where Eb is an effective modulus of pulling out.
Assembling Subelement m and Subelement b. Constutive law for Subelement

cr. The stress-strain law for Subelement cr can be obtained by substituting Eq. (26)
and Eq. (27) into Eq. (9), so that
A eT = j ( E b- ^ - ) Aa, (28)
L \ Wcr)
341
3.2.3 Assembling Subelement d and Subelement cr
Adding change in strain contributed by the uncracked part of the Element (Aed) and the
crack zone (Ac07*) we have finally stress-strain law for the whole element
(29)
where Ae*h is the imposed shrinkage strain during the ith interval.
4 Response of the Element During the Third Stage
In this stage, the crack width exceeds its critical value wcr. There is no more any cohesive
stress transfer through the matrix. The deformation in the fracture zone results from the
deformation in the fibers crossing the crack, and the deformation in the bond between
fibers and matrix. The material outside the fracture zone behaves in a way similar to
that during Stage II.
4.1 Finite Element Formulation for a Fiber Reinforced Ele

ment with a Real Crack (Stage III)
4.1.1 The Composition of the Element
The whole element is now composed of three subelements connected in series. Subele
ment d, which represents that part of the material which is outside of the crack zone and
Subelement 6, which represents the interfacial deformation in the crack zone, are identical
to the corresponding elements from the Stage II. Subelement / represents elastic defor
mation of that part of the fibers, which is in the crack opening. Since the subelements are
connected in series, the total strain rate is distributed in Subelement d ({ed}), Subelement
b ({e6}) and Subelement / ({e^})
(30)
The stress rate has the same value for all three subelements
{*} = {**} = {*>} = {*'} (31 )

342
4.1.2 Stress-Strain Law for Subelem ent /
Linear elastic deformation of the fibers in the crack opening is assumed. In that case the
constitutive law for Subelement / is given by
(32>
where A is the cross-section area of the element, A/ the effective area of the fibers crossing
the crack, the crack opening at the beginning of the current interval, and [F] the
stiffness matrix, which is given as
E, 0
[F] (33)
0 Gs
where E j and Gf are the Young’s modulus and shear modulus respectively, of the fiber
material.
4.2 Constitutive Law for a Fiber Reinforced Element with a

Real Crack
Constitutive law for Stage III is obtained by substituting Eq. (12), Eq. (16) and Eq. (32)
into Eq. (30). Thus we have
{*,} = mT [ w r + ([B]-1+ ^ [ j t 1)] 1 m ({*,}+idr 1^ } ) (34)
where [T\ is the same matrix as in Eq. (22)
4.3 Applicationof the Third Stage: Element Subjected to Re

strained Shrinkage in One Direction
The stress-strain law for Subelement / , Eq. (32), reduces in this special case to the
following form
(35,
By setting Eq. (26), Eq. (27) and Eq. (35) into Eq. (30) a stress-strain law for this
special case is given by
343
FIBER VOLUME ( * ) FIBER VOLUME ( * )
a.
Figure 1: Comparison between experimental and computational results for steel fibers
(a), and polypropylene fibers (b).
A* = (s +1% +T T ,t) ' (Aef +5 a^) (36)
5 Details of the M odel
A detailed description of the given components (creep, shrinkage, continuous damage,

bond behavior etc.) of the model can be found in [4] and [5].
6 Comparison with the Experimental D ata
Tests were conducted by the authors, using a ring- type of specimen to simulate restrained
shrinkage cracking. The effect of two types of fibers (steel and polypropylene) was tried.
The fiber volume varied from 0.1% to 1.5%. The specimens were drying for six weeks
under a given environment (40% R H and 20°C). The details of the experimental study are
presented in [5] and [6]. Using the theoretical model described above, and the experimental
input data, computational calculations were performed. A very good agreement was found
for steel fiber (Fig. la). Less successful agreement was found for polypropylene fiber
(Fig. lb). This was probably caused by the lack of the experimental data on pull-out of
polypropylene fibers.
344
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research reported here was partly supported by a National Science Foundation Grant
DMR-8808432 (Program Manager: Dr. Lance Haworth), and the National Swedish Coun
cil for Building Research. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Hillerborg, A., ‘Analysis of Fracture Mechanics by Means of the Fictitious Crack
Model, Particularly for Fiber Reinforced Concrete,’ International Journal of Cement
Composites, Vol. 2, No. 4, Nov. 1980, pp. 177-184.
[2] Gopalaratman, V. S., Shah, S. P., ‘Softening Responce of Plain Concrete in Direct
Tension,’ ACI Journal, Vol. 82, May-June 1985, pp. 310-323.
[3] Reinhardt, H. W., Cornelissen, H. A. W., ‘Post-Peak Cyclic Behaviour of Concrete
in Uniaxial Tensile and Alternating Tensile and Compressive Loading,’ Cement and
Concrete Research, 1984, Vol. 14, 263-270.
[4] Grzybowski, M., Shah, S. P.,‘A Model to Predict Cracking in Fiber Reinforced Con
crete Due to Restrained Shrinkage,’ Submitted to Magazine of Concrete Research for
publication in 1989.
[5] Grzybowski, M., Ph.D. Thesis, to be submitted at the Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden in 1989.
[6] Grzybowski, M., Shah, S. P., ‘Shrinkage Cracking of Fiber Reinforced Concrete,’
Submitted to ACI Journal for publication in 1989.
345
STRUCTURAL MODELLING AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF

STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
PIET STROEVEN and WEN GUO

Faculty of Civil Engineering , Delft University of Technology
Stevin Laboratory, Stevinweg 4, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Estimates of mechanical behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete can be

based on a structural model of a partially-oriented fibre dispersion. Aniso-
metry and segregation, recorded in quantitative image analysis approaches to
such composites, are incorporated in the model. It is shown that anisotropic
mechanical behaviour in splitting tension mode is in agreement with the
theoretical predictions. The same theoretical concept is extended to the
boundary zone in which the reinforcement ratio in a cross-section is experi
mentally shown to decrease. It is demonstrated that model predictions and
image analysis results closely match each other. Rupture will take place in
a significantly under-reinforced cross-section - the weakest chain link -
unless macrocracking is forced to take place under the load, as in four-
point bending and splitting tensile modes. An approximate solution is given
to the associated structural problem. The best approach is offered by compu-
ter-simulation. Such a system has been developed for that purpose. This way
of tackling structural problems will shortly be introduced.
INTRODUCTION
The contribution of the fibre reinforcement to mechanical behaviour of steel

fibre reinforced cementitious composites (SFRC) is governed by the volume
fraction of fibres (Vf), by the fibre's aspect ratio (a) and by the "bond"
between fibres and matrix (if). Regression analysis on the basis of a linear
combination of these parameters - the so called fibre factor - is widely
recognized allowing for a joint evaluation of tests on different SFRC mixes
[1,2]. The large amount of scatter around the regression line is generally
associated with the natural variation in material properties.
More recently it was demonstrated that part of the scatter came from
systematic influences, such as the non-uniformity in the fibre distribu
tion. Many experiments have revealed that placement and compaction of the
fresh mix will introduce a certain amount of anisometry and segregation in
the fibre structure. Both are the inevitable result of differential volume
tric densities of fibres and matrix. Disturbing effects are additionally
exerted by external surfaces (amoung which the mould). As a result, boundary
layers will generally be under-reinforced. This may give rise to a size
346
effect for more slender or flat elements, but also to early cracking.
Fibres are reinforcing the matrix between (in particular) the larger
particles in the material. It is well-known that even under low loading con
ditions part of the particle-matrix interfaces are debonded. In case of the
larger particles this may locally imply a significant reduction in stress
transfer capability. As a result, such interface cracks tend to penetrate
into the matrix pockets. This process will be highly erratic because of its
structure-sensitive nature. It nevertheless defines on a global level the
onset of major microcracking or onset of crack initiation [12].
Fibres can neither exert a significant influence on particle-matrix de
bonding nor on local microcrack initiation. Crack propagation will be strong
ly inhibited, however, by fibres in the crack path. Weak areas are elimina
ted by microcracking without full loss in stress transfer capability, that
is even maintained when cracks coalesce and further grow. Hence, cracks are
temporarily stabilized, so that others can beinitiated and grow. This
causes a discernible rise in the global crack initiation "point". Major
mechanical gain is the improved load-bearing capacity, of course. But fibres
will even in the post-peakrange slow-down in a controlled way the structu
ral disintegration process. Yet, toughness canbe significantly deminished
in this range (particularly, in case of plain fibres) due to a polishing of
the slip plane.
Global modelling can profit from structural information, such as the
degree of fibre anisometry and segregation inside the material body as well
as in boundary zones. A concise framework will be outlined, yielding struc
tural and mechanical estimates that will be compared with experimental and
quantitative image analysis results. Details are published elsewhere
[3,4,5]. The mo-delling of local regions would be highly relevant for
cracking studies, such as in certain fracture mechanical approaches. One is
confronted here with a particulate aggregate that can be classified as a
dense random packing. Fibres are distributed in the finer grained matrix
pockets. This is a situation not easily accessible for analytical approach
es. Only global approaches based on simplifying assumptions are possible
[7], Computer-simulation of such composite material structures would offer a
way of solution.
GLOBAL MODELLING OF BULK FEATURES OF SFRC BODIES
The general concept treated in the next chapters is that of a cracked SFRC
material body under tensile loadings. We consider a representative region,
which may physically be interpreted as a series of scattered sub-regions
each containing one single fibre-bridged meso-crack. Mutual in-plane displa
cements of crack surfaces are neglected for simplicity reasons (but could be
incorporated as well). The two controlling mechanisms for stress transfer in
the cracked region are fibre pull-out and shearing of the fibres over the
crack edges. Plastic deformation of the fibres at the cracks is considerd to
be less important than analytically predicted [8], among other things,
because of early local destruction of the matrix.
In a law-of-mixtures concept, the fibre contributions to the stress
transfer normal to the crack plane are coming from friction between embedded
fibre part and the surrounding matrix, if, the "plowing" resistance of a fi
bre's "anchoring" facility (expressed in terms of an imaginary, uniformly
along the embedded fibre part distributed friction component, Tf*) and the
friction between the fibre and the matrix at the crack edge (characterized
by a coefficient of friction, f). Composite strength in a direction perpen
dicular to the crack can be demonstrated given by [3,8]
347
n ■ a (1-V ) + 1 aV x* — + 1 ay T * ( 1)
° c_l m V ~ aVf2Tf 1+f - a V f3^* U;
T x * ( T + Ti )(i+ f) ( i a)
f f f
Vf2 and Vf3 are the 2-D and 3-D components, respectively, of the total vol-
lume fraction, Vf, of the fibres. Introducing the degree of orientation, to -
Vf2/Vf, and taking for simplicity reasons (l+2f/ir)/(l+f)=C, eq.(l) yields
a c_L = am(1 _ V f ) + ^ * V f T fs { l + ( | c - l ) u } (2 )
This expression can be used for predicting ultimate tensile strength of a

partially-(planar)oriented SFRC body. C is only slightly lower than unity. C
can be strain-dependent, as in case of synthetic fibres [9]. co is (approxi
mately) linearly fluctuating with Vf • xf~incorporates the combined effects
of friction and anchor resistance.
By introducing the crack opening, w, the softening branch can be model
led as well [3]. It suffices here to mention that for practical crack
openings the contributions of the friction component to load-bearing capaci
ty tends to zero for 1/4, whereas the plowing force does so for 1/2.
Eq. (2) assumed the orientation plane of the 2-D fibre component (per
pendicular to the gravity field) to be perpendicular to the crack plane. It
can easily be shown that in an orthogonal direction, due to fibre anisome-
try, ultimate strength can be defined by
ac// = am (1- V + *(!-“ > (3)

Of course, the first term on the right in eqs. (1) and (2) should be slight
ly modified to account for the partially-oriented character, however, this
is only of marginal importance. Eqs. (2) and (3) reveal the anisometric
basis of the anisotropy in the mechanical properties of SFRC composites. For
practical values of Vf, the anisotropic effect could be expressed by
a) (4)
0 c// 2
^ m 1-V
1 v-
showing the linear dependence upon u) , and hence, the parabolic increase in
anisotropy with fibre content!
On the basis of the same structural concept, it can be shown that the
reinforcement ratio (expressed in numbers of fibres per unit of area) in
orthogonal sections is given by [3]
2 V, k
N = - -f {!+(— "1)U) } (5a)
AJ. TT dz T*
N. = - (1-0) ) (5b)
A// tt d2
so that a degree of anisometry can be defined by
= it — = - uj ( l + o ) ) (6)
TT 1-0) TT
Eq. (6) displays the parabolic dependence of the degree of anisometry upon
V f . Counting in two orthogonal sections provide means to estimate oo . x-p36
follows from pull-out tests, accounting for the factor (1+f) given in eq.
(la). Reliable estimates for f can be derived from the literature.
348
GLOBAL MODELLING OF THE BOUNDARY OF A SFRC BODY
Approximate and exact solutions to the boundary problem have been published
elsewhere [3,5], The additional assumption governing the solution is, that
the fibres in "idealized” 2-D and 3-D components that would have theoreti
cally intersected with the external surface of the material body, are re
moved from the model. This implies that the probability of a fibre being
removed from the model is larger the more unfavourably (in terms of stress
transfer capability parallel to the external surface in the direction of the
tensile loading) the fibre is oriented. The average projected length of the
fibres in a volume element in the loadingdirection (âverage tangent
height) is as a consequence increased upon approach of the external surface.
The same holds for the average embedment depth of the fibres intersecting a
crack perpendicular to the loading direction. Both factors only moderately
compensate for the loss in volumetric fibre density when the external sur
face is approached. Strength is governed by density and average embedment
depth of fibres, reinforcement ratio by density and average tangent height.
Fig. 1 presents normalized factors revealing the decline in reinforcement
ratio ( C 2) and in strength ( C ) of a SFRC composite reinforced by a uniform
random (3-D) fibre system. The appropriate expressions are
C= - cosa lntg{^ + r} - - cosa sina + 1 -- (7)

2 TT 2 k TT TT
C - 3 cos3a - 6 cos2a + 6 cosa ln2 (O^t^l/^) (8a)
C = - cos3a + 6 cos2a - 3 cosa - 6 cosa lncosa - 1 (1/2^ t ^ l ) (8b)
with cosa=t/l, t being the distance to the external surface and 1 the fibre
length. The normalized factors in eqs (7) and (8)are defined by
NA = 2 s2 ^
°c - = J aV f Tf * C (10)
In analogy with the foregoing - introducing the reduction factors given in

eqs (7) and (8) - the strength expressions for the two orthogonal directions
for a boundary zone of a partially-planar fibre reinforced composite are
readily obtained
Figure 1. Decline in reinforcement ratio (C2 ) anc* in fibre contribution to

strength ( £ ) as a function of the relative depth, t/1, under the surface.
349
(11a)
°«(1" c V = 7a V f * {c + <| ~5 >»>
(lib)
0c//" am(1" 5 V = â Vf Tf* (1 )C
Similarly, for the reinforcement ratio (C=l for simplicity)
(12a)
(12b)
COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Data are selected from an investigation on twelve SFRC slabs (and two unre
inforced ones) from which six prisms 10x10x50 mm3were obtained per slab. The
prisms were tested in bending, whereupon two cubes were cut from the rem
nants that were subjected to splitting tension. Up to 3 volume percent of
straight ARBED fibres (0,38x25 mm2 ) have been employed. About 300 sections
were subjected to fibre counting. Distribution in reinforcement ratio was
analysed in the sections, so that boundary effects could be evaluated, too.
Most of the data were published before, to which one is referred for conve
nience reasons. It can generally be stated, that the predicted features of
anisometry were reflected accurately by the image analysis results, the
degree of orientation being almost linearly increasing with nominal fibre
content. Anisotropy in mechanical behaviour also closely matched theoretical
predictions. Different amounts of superplasticizer (percentage by weight of
cement is indicated) have been used to control workability. The parabolic
development of anisotropy, predicted by eq. (4), is indeed reflected by the
mechanical results.
The formulas for the boundary zone show the decline in reinforcement
with deminishing distance, t, from the external surface. To obtain reliable
image analysis data, however, average values were obtained for strips with a
width of half the fibre length. Hence, comparison can only be achieved upon
integration of the relevant formulas over a boundary zone of equal dimensi
ons. Results of such integrations are presented in [4]. The average values
for a boundary zone of half the fibre length are £2=0»61 and £ =0.64. Eqs.
(12) and (5) allow to formulate the average decline in reinforcement ratio.
(13a)
(13b)
Taking an average value of about 0.35 to 0.4 for the degree of orientation
leads to estimates for ft in the two successive orthogonal directions of 0.8
and 0.6. Quantitative image data, dealing with the first case, are found at
a level of 0.75 to 0.8 (with no significant influence of co )[6,10]. The
agreement is obviously good.
Manipulating similarly with eqs (11) and (2,3), we can formulate as an
approximation for the strength decrease in the boundary layer (with respect
to bulk properties) for both orthogonal directions
350
1 a
c
{At-1/2}
n (14)
{t >,1/2}
Taking as before an average value for u> and £ =0.6, eq. (14) leads to an
average strength of 90%. However, a crack initiated at the external surface
of the material body and propagating perpendicularly to the surface can be
expected being controlled by the average nearest neighbour spacing, A2, of
the fibres in the crack plane. Close to the external surface we find
(15)
With 03=0.4, Vf=0.01, we find A2=8.8 d. For a=100 this can be expressed as
A 2= 0.1 1, which allows to calculate £(=0.2). The resulting drop in
strength will hence be twice as large, i.e. (l-0.2)/(l-0.6). It should be
noted, however, that the resistance to crack initiation of the external
layer will still be lower.
WEAKEST LINK IN SFRC
Having developed a complete structural and mechanical model for bulk and
boundary properties of SFRC bodies, the next problem to be faced would be
the modelling in such composites of the weakest link. Subjected to loadings
the material body is tempted to crack and thereupon break in a under
reinforced section. This section is however not necessarily flat as revealed
by X-ray radiographs of major cracking areas in experiments on large scale
SFRC specimens subjected to direct tension [11].
An approach to analysing structural variations in particulate fibre
reinforced materials would have to deal with variations in the dense random
packing structure of the particles, in the fibre density in the fine-grained
pockets and in the fibre anisometry. The weakest cross-section can be consi
dered encompassing a high content of particles together with a low reinfor
cement ratio. Seemingly, we deal with a conditional probability. Both pheno
mena are however not independent. It might even be so that the higher parti
cle density unfavourably effects the fibre density. We will therefore not
attribute a lower probability to the joint occurrence of both events.
Experimental results are derived from studies on SFRC - reported on
in [10,11,13,14,15] - considering mortar mixes with a maximum grain size of
8 mm. In at least part of the specimens equal amounts of these grains
(amounting to about 30% of the particle mix), as well as of the fibres were
considered (1.5 - 1.7% by volume). The investigated specimens had cross-
sectional areas of about 5000 mm2 [15] and 10000 mm2 [11,13]. The fibre
structures of all specimens were analysed by means of stereological tech
niques, in most cases involving counts of fibre intersections in series of
orthogonal sections. In the direct tensile tests as well as in the 4-point
bending experiments, cross-sections as close as possible to the fractured
ones were additionally analysed. In other cases, where the mechanical system
forced the crack development to take place in a given section, the section
with the lowest fibre content was recorded.
Stereological estimates for volume content of either particles or
fibres are available [12,16]. The one for particles has been evaluated on
concrete mixes containing a similar amount of coarse aggregate [12], so that
351
estimates can be corrected for the present case. The two expressions are
( s { V 7V " 1 , 2 / n p ( 1 6 a )
(s{Vf }/Vf ) = 1/Nf (16b)
in which Np and Nf are the number of particle and fibre sections, respecti
vely, observed in the cross-section. From the standard deviation the range
is derived for the actual sample and compared with experimental data, if
available. For large structural units, the number of independent cross-sec
tions would be so large that an estimate for the weakest cross-section can
be provided that is generally applicable. Table 1 contains some of the
relevant details of the experiments referred to. Further, experimentally
observed coefficients of variation are listed, as well as the estimated
ones. Experimental observations on weakest or lowest reinforced cross-
sections are compared with estimates resulting from subtracting half the
range from the mean value. Obviously, agreement is fairly well. It should be
noted, nevertheless, that the estimated scatter in the fibre contribution is
only based on density and not on anisometry. Yet, the latter parameter is
TABLE I.
Scatter in reinforcement ratio encountered in three different investigations
on SFRC compared with estimates obtained by application of eqs (16). The
weakest section is estimated for given sample sizes by means of a t-test.
Experimental data in
[11,14] [10,13] [15]
Max. grain size [mm] 8 8 8

Percentage of coarse 15 and 26 30 30
particles in mix.
W/C-ratio. 0.4 and 0.6 0.5 0.56
Volume fraction of
fibres, Vf. 1.73 0.5-1.5-3.0 1.5
Reinforcement ratio,
N [mm-2]. 0.11-0.22 0.060 0.066
A^*ea of cross-section
A [mm2]. 10000 10000 5000
Sample size, n. 10 18 12
Observed coefficient of
variation (CV) in [%] 12.8 15.0 19.4
Estimate (acc. to eq
(16a) for CV in Vp [%]. 8.9 8.8 12.5
Estimate (acc. -to eq
(16b) for CV in Vf [%]. 3.0 4.1 5.5
Estmated CV in (sum
previous two CV's) [%]. 11.9 12.9 18.0
Estimate for N. min/N^ 1.37 x 11.9 = 1.74 x 12.9 = 1.47 x 18.0 -

for given n [%J. 16.3 22.5 26.5
Experimental observation
on N A min/NA [%]. 15.6 16 to 24 23 to 33
352
observed to fluctuate quite strongly. Therefore, the estimates are somewhat

on the safe side. A better insight into the parameters governing the charac
teristics of the weakest cross-section can be provided by a computer-simula-
tion approach. This approach is pursued in a recent study.
COMPUTER-SIMULATION OF STRUCTURES
To simulate fibre reinforced particulate (cement-based) structures, a dyna

mic system has been developed. The dynamic character implies that structural
elements such as particles and fibres undergo a sort of Brownian movement.
As a result, structural features revealed by sections and projections are a
function of time. Initial density distributions are based on Poisson fields.
Overlap or penetration is avoided by rejection of relevant structural ele
ments. Thereupon, a new set of randomly selected parameters is generated for
the structual elements. Principles of the system are outlined in [17]. The
system envisages matrices in which particles of spherical or polyhedron
shapes are dispersed. The two types of aggregate are intended to represent
river gravel and broken rock. Volume fraction can take up any value up to
that of a dense random packing. Next, fibres can be added to such particu
late systems.
The mechanisms that govern the aggregation of such materials can be
studied by quantitatively comparing generated structures with real ones.
This can be achieved by quantitative image analysis, either based on sec
tions or on projections. Such operations can be performed directly by the
computer on the generated composite. Such an approach has earlier been
pursued solely for the particulate structure of concrete [12]. The computer
can, however, also determine exact measures for the morphological features
of the generated structures. This additionally allows evaluating how stereo-
logical methods for quantitative image analysis fare in case of real struc
tures, as the present ones. In particular, it would be significant to obtain
information on the size of representative samples as a function of structur
al parameters of the composite. The system, finally, provides possibilities
for the generation of cracks, so that basically, upon comparison with actual
situations, the details of the morphology of fracture can be studied [18].
In the present context it suffices to demonstrate the potentiallities
of the very approach. To that end, figs. 3a and 3b are selected. They dis
play two sections of different computer-simulated fibre-particle composites.
Although various grain sizes can be incorporated the two examples concern
mono-sized systems. The river gravel concrete of fig. 3a contains about 17
volume percentage of 16 mm particles (80 particles in a 100x100x100mm 3
cube). The broken rock concrete also contains 80 particles, however, with a
"size" of 22 mm. Volume percentage of (plain 12.5x0.4 mm2 ) fibres amounts in
the two cases, respectively, 0.45 and 0.35. The concrete composite of fig.
3b encompasses a range of regular polyhedrons. Irregularly-shaped particles
can be conceived, as well. The relative amount of tetra-, penta-, hexa-
septa- and octahedrons is randomly selected in agreement with experimental
values (10, 25, 35, 20 and 10% for mixes used in railway beds in the Nether
lands). The fibre projections on the section plane are shown allowing a
visual inspection of spatial orientation and embedment depth of the fibres
with respect to the section plane. These parameters can, of course, be
generated exactly by the computer. Fibre anisometry and segregation can be
incorporated by selecting at random fibres from a partially-planar popula
tion revealing segregation in one direction. Also boundary effects, as
discussed in this contribution, can be studied. Research is going on in such
fields. We will focus on the relevant results elsewhere.
353
Figure 3. Computer-simulated sections of SFRC containing particles in sphe

rical form (left, fig- 3a) and shaped as polyhedrons (right, fig. 3b).
CONCLUSIONS
A complete, structure-based model for predicting anisotropical behaviour of

(steel) fibre reinforced cementitious composites has been outlined. It
additionally envisaged the boundary zone in which fibre density and effi
ciency is influenced by the external surface. Estimates are compared with
experimental data taken from studies on SFRC subjected to bending, direct
and splitting tension loadings. Agreement is demonstrated to be satisfactory
A computer-simulation system has been developed to support the modelling
approach and to check the stereological methods for quantitative image
analysis. In addition to global measures, this system could provide more
detailed information on particle-fibre interaction. Some of the potentials
of the very approach were indicated.
REFERENCES
1. Swamy, R.N., Mangat, P.S., Rao, C.V.S.K. The mechanics of fibre reinfor
cement of cement matrices. ACI. Spec. Publ. SP-44, 1974, pp. 1-28.
2. Naaman, A.E., Moavenzadeh, F., McGarry, J., Probabilistic analysis of

fibre reinforced concrete, Journ. Engr. Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Civ.
Engrs, 100, EM 2, 1974, pp. 397-413.
3. Stroeven, P. Structural characterization of steel fibre reinforced

concrete, In Proc. Sec. Int. Symp. Brittle Matrix Composites, Cedzyna,
20-22 Sept. 1988. To be published by Elsevier Appl. Sc. Publ. in 1989.
4. Stroeven, P., Boundary effects in fibre reinforced composites, Report

354
Stevin Laboratory 25-89-01, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 1989.
5. Stroeven, P., Structural and mechanical characterization of bond-based

wire-reinforced cementitious composites, In Advancing with Composites,
Proc. Int. Conf. Composite Materials, Milan, ed. I.C. Visconti, CUEN,
Napels, 1988, pp. 159-66.
6. Stroeven, P. and Babut, R . , Fracture mechanics and structural aspects

of concrete, Heron, 1986, 31, 2, pp. 15-43.
7. Stroeven, P., In Fracture Mechanics of Fibre Reinforced Cement-Based

Composites, Proc. Symp. Delft, ed. Stroeven, P., Stevin Laboratory,
Delft University, 1979, pp. C1-C45.
8. Brandt, A.M., The optimization of fibre orientation in brittle matrix

composite materials, Report Stevin Laboratory, Delft University of Tech
nology, Delft, 1985.
9. Li, V., Wang, Y., Backer, S., Effect of fibre-matrix bond strength on
the crack resistance of synthetic fibre reinforced cementitious compo
sites, In Bonding in Cementitious Composites, Proc. Mat. Res. Soc. Symp.
114, Boston, ed. Mindess, S., Shah, S.P., M.R.S., Pittsburgh, 1987, pp.
167/73.
10. Stroeven, P. and Babut, R . , Wire distribution in steel wire reinforced

concrete, In Acta Stereologica, Proc. 4-th Eur. Symp. Stereology, Gote-
borg, 1985, Suppl. 2, 5, pp. 383-8.
11. Stroeven, P. and Shah, S.P., Testing and Test Methods of Fibre Cement
Composites, Proc. RILEM Symp., Sheffield, ed. Swamy, R.N., The Constr.
Press, Lancaster, 1978, pp. 275-88.
12. Stroeven, P., Some Aspects of the Micromechanics of Concrete, Ph. D.

Thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 1973.
13. Babut, R., Structural and mechanical investigations of steel fibre re
inforced concrete 1-86-11, Report Stevin Laboratory, Delft University of
Technology, Delft, 1986.
14. Stroeven, P., Micro- and macromechanical behaviour of steel fibre mor
tar in tension, Heron, 1979, 24, 4, pp. 7-40.
15. Donker, L., Mechanical properties of steel fibre concrete in four-

point bending, A: Structural investigations (in Dutch), Report Stevin
Laboratory 25-88-104, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 1988.
16. Hilliard, J.E., Assessment of sampling errors in stereological analy

ses. In NBS Spec. Publ. 431, Proc. 4-th Int Congr. Stereology, Gaithers
burg, eds. Underwood, E.E., deWit, R . , Moore, G.A., Nat. Bur. Stand.,
Washington, 1976, pp. 59-67.
17. Guo, W . , Some material parameters on numerical statistical continuum

mechanics of concrete, Report Stevin Laboratory 25-88-38, Delft Univer
sity of Technology, Delft, 1988,
18. Yokobori, T., Strength, Fracture and Fatigue of Materials, Noordhoff,

Groningen, 1965, p. 27.
355
SIMPLE MODELS FOR THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR

OF THIN STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE PLATES
CHRISTOPHER F. KEARNS
WM Consulting Engineers
Bristol
ABSTRACT
The paper describes one approach to the prediction of the behaviour

under load of thin steel fibre reinforced concrete plates. The
results are compared with those obtained from simply supported
experimental specimens possessing varying amounts of reinforcement.
The load-deformation behaviours exhibited by the specimens are complex
and are strongly influenced by membrane action.
The approach used in this paper is to employ simple models of

behaviour to provide predictions of key features of the responses of
the plates to applied load. In particular, the cracking and ultimate
load behaviour of the plates are of interest.
INTRODUCTION
To the majority of practising engineers fibre reinforced concrete

(FRC) may still appear as a complex impractical material suited only
to use in laboratory conditions. This is unfortunate as the material
possesses many positive mechanical properties and is suited to a
variety of construction techniques e.g. preforming, extrusion and
shotcreting (1,2). More widespread use of FRC is likely to be
encouraged by the development of simple ,Tuser friendly" models for the
behaviour under load of FRC structural elements. Much valuable work
has been done on the background theory to FRC but the author considers
that it must continue to be moulded into forms suitable for everyday
use. The author considers a contribution by Ghalib (3) to be a good
example of what can be achieved and hopes that the present paper may
further the cause.
356
This paper presents one approach to the prediction of key features of

the response under load of thin steel fibre reinforced concrete
plates. Results obtained from a programme of load tests performed at
University College Dublin on conventionally reinforced and fibre
reinforced thin planar and curved microconcrete plates have shown the
FRC elements to possess good flexural behaviour in both the pre and
post-cracking phases of performance (4-8). The simple models
described in this paper are usedto estimate the cracking and ultimate
loads for the FRC plates. These are two key features of the response
of the plates as they are directly related to servicability and
collapse performance. These two criteria play a dominant role in many
codes of practice for structural design.
LOAD-DEFORMATION RESPONSES OF THIN STEEL FRC PLATES
It is not the intention of this paper to describe the full

load-deformation responses of the thin steel FRC plates examined in
the original study as the interested reader can obtain this
information elsewhere (4-8). In addition the paper is limited to an
examination of flat simply supported plates. Other sources contain
experimental results for flat and curved plates with a variety of
boundary conditions and describe the test apparatus in detail (4-8).
A typical load-deformation curvefor a steel FRC thin plate is shown

in Figure 1, and is compared with the behaviour of a plate of
identical geometry but with discrete wire reinforcement. The FRC
plate possessed 0.5% by volume melt extract stainless steel fibres
with an aspect ratio of 70 and the other plate possessed 0.5% by
volume discrete bars arranged in orthogonal directions in the
mid-surface of the plate. The fibres possessed an average yield
stress of 400 ^/mm^ and an average ultimate tensile strength of
630 ^/mm^. The ductile steel bars possessed an average yield strength
of 375 N/mm2 .
The mid-surface arrangement for the discrete bars arose from the fact
that the flat plate was being examined as a degenerate shell as one of
the parameters in the study was the effects of curvature.
357
Reinforcement for shell structures is generally placed close to the

mid-surface to resist direct tensile membrane stresses arising from
shell behaviour and also to maintain cover in what is a relatively
thin structural element (9).
The specimens were tested under controlled conditions using a 16 point

approximation to uniform transverse loading. The specimens were
550 mm square, 20 mm thick and had a two-way clear span of 500 mm.
Figure 1 shows that the initial elastic behaviours of the two specimen
types are quite similar as might be expected. The steel FRC element
possesses a stable ductile (or pseudo ductile) post cracking response
up to central deflections of the order of the plate thickness.
Tensile membrane action (10) is apparent in the behaviours of both
types of specimen with failure of the conventionally reinforced
specimens being characterised by snapping of reinforcement at large
deflections.
15
(kN )
LOAD
10
30
DEFLECTIO N (mm)
Specimen A: 0.5% by volume melt extract fibres

Specimen B: 0.5% by volume discrete wires
indicates termination of load test
Figure 1. Typical load-deformation curves from tests
358
It is not the intention here to directly compare the performance of

the two types of specimen but merely to note key factors affecting
their responses. The discretely reinforced specimens possessed
reinforcement which was adequately anchored and bonded to the matrix
but which, for bending behaviour, was disadvantageously positioned in
the cross-section. The steel FRC specimens possessed relatively short
fibres, 35mm long, randomly distributed in a planar fashion throughout
the depth of the specimen.
The location, number and orientation of fibres within a cracked

section is of paramount importance in determining the post-cracking
behaviour of the composite. The type of failure which occurs depends
on the bonded lengths of the fibre on either side of the crack and
also on the interfacial bond strength between fibre and matrix, i.e.
failure can be characterised by gross fibre fracture or debonding. In
the response shown for the steel FRC elements in Figure 1, it is
likely that a combination of fracture and debonding is present during
failure.
SIMPLE MODELS OF BEHAVIOUR
The load-deformation response of the steel FRC plate in Figure 1 is

complex and is influenced by the effects of tensile membrane action.
In addition, the response of the specimen is governed by the location,
number and orientation of fibres within a cracked section as
discussed. As a result, the prediction of every phase of such a
response is not practically or rationally possible. The empirical
approach suggested in reference (1), based on experimental results and
on theories of composite materials, is used here to predict the
cracking load and maximum load for the steel FRC plates. The
resulting equation, which recognises the importance of volume
percentage of fibres and their aspect ratio as very significant
factors affecting the performance under load, is
sc = ASm (l-Vf ) + BVfL/d

359
The equation is in units of stress and the subscripts c,m and f refer
to composite, matrix and fibre respectively. Vf is the volume
fraction of fibres present. L denotes the length of the fibre and
d is the diameter. L/d is the aspect ratio therefore. The first term
on the right hand side of the equation represents the contribution of
the matrix and the second term represents the fibres. A and B are
constants with B depending on bond strength and randomness of fibres.
The values of A and B used here are those borne out by research at
Sheffield University (11), i.e. 0.843 and 2.93 respectively for first
crack composite strength and 0.97 and 3.41 respectively for ultimate
composite strength.
The basic value of Sm necessary for the implementation of the equation

was determined by load testing plain microconcrete plates, of
identical geometry to the other specimens, to obtain a failure load.
For these brittle plates the cracking and maximum loads were equal. A
carefully calibrated finite element model was used to develop
relationships between applied load and internal moments and hence
stresses. Once Sm was known predictions for all the other plates were
possible using the equation.
Tables 1 and 2 show the observed and predicted cracking and ultimate
loads for plates possessing varying fibre contents in the range 0-2%
by volume. The equation predicts the cracking load quite well,
although not conservatively in all cases. For all of the steel FRC
specimens the equation conservatively underestimates the maximum load
which the plates can carry.
This could be due to the fact that the equation only applies when
failure is due to fibre debonding and, as discussed, it is likely that
failure here is due to a combination of fracture and debonding hence
increasing the overall maximum load. The author considers, however,
that the main reason for the reserves of strength is the effects of
membrane action in the plates. This would not be so dramatic in beam
specimens upon which most of the research in FRC has been based.
360
Conventionally reinforced slabs by comparison also possess large

reserves of strength over collapse loads predicted by rigid plastic
yield line models and this is due again to membrane action.
TABLE 1
Predicted and observed cracking loads
Sc(N/mra2) Pcrack (kN) Pcrack (kN) %

vf
(%) (cracking) (observed) (predicted) difference
0.0 4.36 4.60 4.60 0
0.5 4.69 5 40 4.95 9

1.0 5. > ,60 6.00 7
1.5 6.70 7.40 7.07 5
2.0 7.70 8.10 8.12 0
TABLE 2
Predicted and observed ultimate loads
Vf Sc (N/mm2) Pmax (kN) Pmax (kN) %
(%) (ultimate) (observed) (predicted) difference
0.0 4.36 4.60 4.60 0
0.5 5.27 6.50 5.56 17
1.0 6.45 9.60 6.81 41
1.5 7.62 10.40 8.04 29

2.0 8.79 12.10 9.27 31
361
CONCLUSIONS
1. The responses to load of steel FRC thin plates are complex and are
not amenable to exact prediction.
2. A fruitful approach is to use simple models to estimate key

features of the response, e.g. cracking load and ultimate load
levels.
3. The empirical approach described in references (1) and (11) leads

to quite accurate predictions for the cracking loads of these
plates. It may thus form a useful basis for design.
4. The model conservatively underestimates the maximum load carrying

capacity of the plates. This may be due to the inherent
assumption of gross failure due to fibre debondingbut is more
likely to be due to the effects of tensile membrane action which
the model cannot account for.
5. The models provide a simple basis for design/analysis/estimation

but yet ensure that the benefits of fibres are accounted for in
terms of increased load and stress levels in the structural
element.
6. More research in this area would be useful to extend the range of

experimentally determined A and B coefficients to cover plate and
even shell elements.
AGKNOMLEDGBfENTS
The research described in this paper was carried out in the Department
of Civil Engineering at University College, Dublin, and the author
thanks Professor T.J. Casey, Head of Department, for the extensive
facilities granted. He also thanks his supervisor, Mr. G.M.
McConnell, and Dr. R.N. Swamy, who provided much encouragement for the
paper. The author also wishes to thank the Directors of Whicheloe
Macfarlane, Bristol, who provided financial and secretarial support
for the paper.
362
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 544 "State of the Art report on fibre reinforced

concrete". Concrete International, May 1982, pages 9-30.
2. ACI Committee 506 "State of the Art report on fibre reinforced

shotcrete". Concrete International, December 1984, pages 15-27.
3. Ghalib M.A. "Moment capacity of steel fibre reinforced small

concrete slabs" ACI Journal, July - August 1980, pages 247-257.
4. Kearns C.F. "Load-deformation behaviour of planar and curved

microconcrete plates reinforced with melt extract fibres". PhD
thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University College,
Dublin, 1986.
5. Kearns C.F. and McConnell G.M. "Load tests on small scale

microconcrete plates reinforced with melt extract steel fibres".
Proceedings of the RILEM Symposium on Developments in Fibre
Reinforced Cement and Concrete. Sheffield 1986, Vol. 2., paper
8. 6.
6. Kearns C.F. and McConnell G.M. "The structural behaviour of thin
microconcrete plates reinforced with melt extract stainless steel
fibres". Proceedings of the Fourth Irish Durability and Fracture
Conference, Queens University, Belfast, 1986, pages 35-44.
7. Kearns C.F. and McConnell G.M. "Load-deformation behaviour of

planar and curved microconcrete plates reinforced with melt
extract fibres". Int. Jrnl. Cement Composites and Lightweight
Concrete. Vol. 10, No. 3. August 1988, pages 159-166.
8. Kearns C.F. "Structural behaviour of thin planar and curved

microconcrete plates reinforced conventionally and with steel
fibres". Materiaux et Constructions, RILEM, Vol 22, 1989.
9. Haas A.M. "Thin Concrete Shells", Volumes 1 and 2, John Wiley and
Sons, 1962 and 1967.
10. Park R. "Tensile membrane behaviour of uniformly loaded

rectangular reinforced concrete slabs with fully restrained
edges." Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol 16, No. 46, March
1964, pages 39-44.
11. Swamy R.N., Mangat P.S., and Rao C.V.S.K. "The mechanics of fibre
reinforcement of cement matrices". Fibre-Reinforced Concrete,
SP-44, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1974, pages 1-28.
363
CONSTITUTIVE MODELING OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED C ONCRETE

UNDER DIRECT TENSION AND COMPRESSION
Parviz Soroushian and Cha-Don Lee

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
ABSTRACT
Experimental results and analytical simulation techniques were used to develop

predictive equations for the strength and complete stress-strain relationship of
steel fiber reinforced concrete under direct tension and compression.
The developed equation for tensile strength accounts for the contributions of
fibers through their pull-out action and also by arresting the growth of microcracks
in cementitious matrices. The modeling of post-peak performance in tension has
been based mainly on the results of pull-out tests on single and multiple fibers which
were aligned or inclined with respect to the pull-out directions.
The developed equations for compressive strength and stress-strain relationship
are simple and practical, and they account for the improvements in concrete ductility
and energy obsorption capacity in compression resulting from steel fiber reinforce
ment.
The developed constitutive models compare satisfactorily with experimental
results, and they can be used as practical tools for analytical investigations on steel
fiber reinforced concrete.
INTRODUCTION
There are important advantages associated with the application of steel fibers in
load-bearing structual elements[l]. Such applications can be realized in large scale
only if structural engineers are provided with design equations and guidelines for
optimizing the use of steel fibers in conjunction with conventional reinforcing bars in
structural elements. The very basic tools required for analytical studies on fiber rein
forced concrete elements are reliable constitutive models of fibrous concrete which
have been verified using comprehensive sets of experimental results.
The study reported herein is aimed at deriving tensile and compressive constitu
tive models for steel fiber reinforced concrete based on the current knowledge of the
physics of material behavior under stress, using the relatively large number of test
results reported in the literature or produced in the earlier phases of this study. The
results will be presented in two sections, one concerned with direct tensile behavior
and the other with compressive behavior of steel fiber reinforced concrete.
364
TENSILE BEHAVIOR OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED C ON CRE TE
The pre-peak tensile behavior of fiber reinforced concrete is characterized by the

process of microcrack propagation in matrix prior to the formation of a continuous
crack system across the critical section at peak load. Under tensile stresses, micro-
cracks tend to grow around internal flaws, eventually leading to the formation of an
unstable microcrack system which grows rapidly and brings the material to its post
peak range of behavior.
The process of microcrack propagation tends to be influenced by the presence of
fibers. Microcracks encountering steel fibers may be shifted ( Fig. la ) or branched
out ( Fig. lb ). Hence, the propagation of microcracks in steel fiber reinforced con
crete involves dissipation of extra energy from the stressed system due to the interac
tion of microcracks with fibers. This illustrates an important mechanism through
which fibers increase the tensile strength of concrete.
(a) Shifting of Microcracks (b) Branching of Microcracks

Figure 1. Interaction of Microcracks with Steel Fibers in Concrete[2].
Another mechanism through which fibers enhance the tensile behavior of con
crete relates to the debonding ( Fig. 2a ) and slippage ( Fig. 2b ) of fibers near the
peak tensile stress and in the post-peak region. The pull-out action of fibers would
be mobilized when a crack tends to widen at the critical section[3]; this starts to
occur at peak load and tends to dominate the post-peak tensile behavior. The
debonding process uses up energy from the stressed system. Some important dissipa
tion of energy would also occur during fiber pull-out (which is resisted by frictional
forces).
(a) Debonding (b) Pull-Out

Figure 2. Debonding and Slippage of Fibers under Tension
365
The pre-peak tensile behavior of steel fiber reinforced concrete deviates from
linearity when microcrack propagation has already occurred. Some fiber pull-out
may also be taking place at the peak tensile stress. The post-peak tensile behavior
in SFRC (see Fig. 3 for the relationship between tensile stress and average strain
shown in full line for a gage length 82.6 mm, 3.25 in.) is marked by the opening of
one crack at the critical section which transfers practically all tensile stresses to the
fibers bridging the crack. From then on it is the debonding and pull-out action of
these fibers that largely provide the post-peak tensile resistance of steel fiber rein
forced concrete. The matrix residual tensile strength has a relatively small effect in
the post-peak region. The concentration of deformations at the cracked section and
the sudden drop in tensile resistance associated with it, actually lead to unloading in
regions outside the cracked section (see the dashed curve in Fig. 3)[4].
Figure 3. Tensile Stress-Strain Relationship of Steel Fiber

Reinforced Concrete[4].
PREDICTION OF TENSILE STRENGTH
This section presents a relationship for predicting the tensile strength of SFRC in
terms of some basic fiber and matrix properties. This relationship is based on the
physics of the fibrous material behavior and some experimental data.
Past investigators have generally used either the composite material concept or
the spacing concept for predicting the tensile strength of steel fiber reinforced con
crete. The composite material concept[3,5-8] attributes the increase in tensile
strength in the presence of fibers to the pull-out action of fibers. The spacing con
cept [9,10], on the other hand, mainly relies on the ability of fibers to stop and shift
the microcracks and disregards their bonding characteristics.
Soroushian and Lee[ll] have discussed some deficiencies of both the composite
material and spacing concepts in predicting the tensile strength of steel fiber rein
forced concrete. A so-called "interaction concept" has been developed for predicting
the tensile strength of steel fiber reinforced concrete, which considers the microcrack-
arrest action of fibers (influenced by their spacing) as well as the pull-out action of
fibers and their bond characteristics, noting that the pull-out action of fibers is only
partially mobilized at the peak tensile stress of the material. The following equation
has been derived in Ref. 11 based on the "interaction concept "and a comprehensive
set of experimental data (50 test results) reported in the literature for the tensile
366
strength of steel fiber reinforced mortar :
oc = ctm ( 1 + 0.016N ,1/3+ 0.05ndf lf N x) (1)

where :
oc = tensile strength of S F R C ;
Gm = tensile strength of matrix ;
N ! = number of fibers per unit cross sectional area
vf
= P~ - ;
Af
P = orientation factor ( see Fig. 4. noting that the
actual p is roughly averageof 2 - D and 3 -D
conditions [12]) ;
df = fiber diameter ; and
If = fiber length.
In the above equation, the term am( 1 + 0.016-iV XV3 ) represents the contribu
tion of a matrix which is strengthened by the microcrack-arrest action of fibers (N i
fibers are present at unit cross sectional area). The term Gm •( 0.05• K 'd flf'N l ) in
the above equation represents the contribution of fiber pull-out resistance to the ten
sile strength of the composite material. The bond stress mobilized at peak tensile
load in this equation is assumed to be proportional to the matrix tensile strength.
The relatively favorable comparison of the "interaction concept" predictions (Eq. 1)
with test results is demonstrated in Fig. 5.
1 .1 -1
fc- 6& TM~'ir h yTaH'li7*t
1 .0 -
L.
o 0.9-
o
*♦o
—
0.8
c
o
"o 0.7
c
.®
o 0.6:
p j- T a n -k -g - j j - H 1.56+ 0.766 )
0.5
P, - 0.098 * 0.2 I, • < Y r 1 ♦ 0 405
0 .4 - -rr-p m
0.0 1.0 2,0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
b /if
2 —D and 3 - D orientation factor for
different geometric conditions
Figure 4. Fiber Orientation Factor
Pre-Peak T ensile C on stitu tive Modeling

Empirical methods were employed to simulate the pre-peak tensile behavior of steel
fiber reinforced concrete. A bi-linear constitutive model was selected to represent the
tensile stress-strain relationship of steel fiber reinforced concrete prior to the peak ten
sile stress. As shown in Fig. 6, the behavior was assumed (based on the reported
367
Figure 5. Tensile Strength Test Results vs. "Interaction Concept"

Preditions[4,8,13,14,15].
tension test results) to be linear, with a slope equal to the elastic modulus, up to the
matrix tensile strength (cm). At this point, due to major microcrack propagation in
matrix, the stiffness was assumed to be reduced, and the stress-strain relationship was
continued linearly up to the peak tensile stress. Strain at peak tensile stress was
derived empirically, using the test data summarized in Table 1, as a function of some
fiber reinforcement properties:
ec = ^ ( 1 + 0.35-Nvdf -lf ) (2)

where :
ec = composite tensile strain at peak tensile stress ; and
= matrix tensile strain at peak tesile stress.
Tensile Strain( e )
Figure 6. Proposed Model for Pre-Peak Tensile Stress-Strain Relationship of

Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete.
368
Table 1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Tension Tests
m atrix fiber com p osite

specim en size
R ef. ten sile strain diam eter length Vf w id th x d ep th ten sile strain
c:s:w stren gth at peak stren gth at peak
(m m ) (m m ) (% ) (m m x m m )
(M pa) (xO.OOOl) (M pa) (xO.OOOl)
4 1:2:0.5 2.8 1.74 0.41 25.4 0.5 -1 .5 76x19 3.0 -3 .6 1.9-2.2

* 2.0-2.5 *
1:2.5:0.6 1.68 0.25 18.8 1-3 38x51
8 * 0.25 12.7 1-3 •• 1.8-2.1 *
♦ •• * 0.25 25.4 1-3 " 2.2 -2 .7 *
1:3:0.5 3.38 1.43 0.25 19.1 0 .6 -1 .7 102x102 3 .7 -4 .0 1.6-1.8

•• •• •• " 38.1 0.3 -1 .7 " 3.5-3.8 1.5-1.9
" •• 25.4 0 .3 -1 .7 •• 3.0-4.3 1.6-2.2
" - •• 0.41 13.8 0.6 -1 .7 •• 3 .4-3.5 1.5-1.6
13 •• •• " •• 25.4 0.6 -1 .7 •• 3 .6 -4 .0 1.5-1.8
•• •• " •• 38.1 0.6 -1 .7 •• 3.8-4.5 1.7-2.0
" " 0.43 15.2 1.7 " 3.7 1.6
" •• •• ” 30.5 1.2-1.7 " 3.5-4.1 1.7
- M " 45.7 0 .6 -1 .7 *• 3 .7 -4 .6 1.6-1.8
1:2:0.45 1.74 0.85 0.5 50 0.6-1.8 16x100 1.9-2.6 1.2-2.1

14 •• " 0.35 35 0 .6 -1 .8 " 1.9-2.4 1.1-2.2
" " •• 0.15 25 0 .6 -1 .8 " 1.6-2.0 0.9 -1 .7
* 2.8 * 0.43 12.7 1-3 12.7x76 3.6-5.3 1.6-4.4
15 * * 19.1 1-3 2 .7 -4 .6 1.2-6.6
* * 25.4 1-3 3.5 -5 .3 1.3-6.0
* N ot R eported
Fig. 7 presents the relatively desirable comparison between predictions of above equa
tion and the reported test results for strain at peak tensile stress in steel fiber rein
forced concrete.
Figure 7. Increase in Strain at Peak-Tensile Stress in the Presence of Steel

Fibers As a Function of Some Fiber Reinforcement Properties
(AJi'dr lf )
369
P o st - P e a k Tensile C o n stitu tiv e Modeling

In the pre-peak region the matrix and fibers interact and both contribute to the ten
sile resistance of fibrous concrete. Crack opening at peak load, however, sharply
reduces the contribution of matrix and tends to transfer tensile loads mainly to the
fibers bridging the crack. Hence, it may be assumed that the post-peak tensile
behavior of steel fiber reinforced concrete is determined by pull-out action of fibers
(the possibility of fiber rupture during pull-out, which may occur for excessively long
steel fibers, is neglected in this study). The observed tensile performance of steel
fiber reinforced concrete further indicates that the peak pull-out resistance of fibers is
reached shortly after the composite material reaches its peak tensile strength, and
thus the post-peak tensile behavior of steel fiber reinforced concrete has a descending
tendency representing the post-peak pull-out behavior of steel fibers. Based on this
observation, it may be assumed that fibers reach their pull-out performance upon the
cracking of matrix at the composite material peak tensile stress. Hence, as shown in
Fig. 8, the tensile resistance of the composite material, upon cracking at its peak
load, drops to the resistance provided by peak pull-out load of fibers. The post-peak
tensile behavior of the composite can thus be simulated by the post-peak pull-out
behavior of fibers.
The empirical model developed in this study for the post-peak pull-out behavior
of straight-round steel fibers is presented in Fig. 9. This bilinear post-peak constitu
tive model includes two characteristic bond stress values (xu and Tr in Fig. 9) and
two characteristic pull-out deformation values (Sr and 5 0).
The characteristic values of bond stress and slip in the model of Fig. 9 were
derived empirically using 36 experimental load-deformation curves reported in Refs.
16-21.
The empirical expressions for characteristic values of average bond stress and
pull-out deformation derived from pull-out test results of straight steel fibers (using
the correction factor of Ref. 8 for effects of the number of fibers per unit area) are
presented below :
xu = 2 .6 2 - 0.0036 N x (Mpa) ; (3)

xr = 0.3 xu (Mpa) ;
Sr = 2.8 (mm) ; and
S 0 = If 12 (mm ) .
Tensile Load
Figure 8. Simulation of the Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Tensile

Behavior upon Cracking at Peak Load.
370
Pull-Out Load
\\
\
\
\
Sr Post-Peak Deformation
Figure 9. Post-Peak Model of Pull-Out Load-Deflect ion Relationship for

Straight-Round Steel Fibers.
A typical comparison between the above model and experimental post-peak

pull-out behavior of straight-round steel fibers is presented in Fig. 10. The com
parison between derived values and empirical test data is observed to be reasonable.
The available pull-out load-deflect ion test results for mechanically deformed fibers are
not sufficient for reliable empirical modeling of their pull-out performance.
While using the above model of post-peak fiber pull-out behavior for simulating
the post-peak tensile failure behavior of the composite material, it was assumed that
the fiber embedment length (on the shorter side that pulls out) is equal to the statis-
cally derived average value of If I 4. Tensile resistance can thus be derived through
multiplying the average value of bond stress by the interfacial area of all fibers cross
ing the cracked section (computed assuming an average embedment length of If / 4 ):
(4)
where :
Pull-Out Load, N
4 8 12 Pull-Out Distance (mm)
Figure 10. Comparison of the Experimental Pull-Out Load-Deflect ion

Relationships in the Post-Peak Region with the Empirically
Derived Model of This Study.
371
a = average tensile stress across the compoiste material section ;

A = cross sectional area of compoiste material ; and
x = average bond stress.
It is worth mentioning that the tensile behavior of fiber reinforced concrete in

the pre-peak region, where stretching tends to take place along the whole specimen
length, can be represented by the relationship between tensile stress and tensile strain.
In the post-peak region, however, tensile deformations are mainly concentrated at the
crack and the use of an average strain value does not reflect the details of this type of
behavior. The post-peak behavior of fiber reinforced concrete can thus be
represented more reasonably by the relationship between tensile stress and tensile
deformation (mainly crack opening). In order to represent the complete tensile
behavior it is suggested that the pre-peak strains should be transformed to deforma
tions by simply multiplying them with the gage length used in strain measurements.
With this transformation, the complete tensile behavior can be represented by tensile
stress-deformation relationships. Fig. 11 typically compares the experimental tensile
stress-deformation relationships with prediction of the model developed in this study.
The proposed model is observed to predict experimental results with reasonble accu
racy.
Mpa
(a) Pre-Peak[4] (b) Post-Peak[5]

Figure 11. Comparisons of Experimental Tensile Stress-Deformation
Relationships with Predictions of the Model Developed in This Study
C O M P R E SSIV E BEH A V IO R OF ST E E L FIBER R E IN F O R C E D C O N C R E T E
In compression, fibers improve the post-peak ductilitv, energy absorption capacity

and, to some extent, the strength of concrete (Fig. 12). The pre-peak compressive
behavior of concrete is only slightly refined by fibers, and the strain at peak compres
sive stress tends to increase in the the presence of steel fibers[22]. The improvements
in concrete compressive behavior resulting from steel fiber reinforcement are depen
dent on the volume fraction and aspect ratio of steel fibers, mechanical deformation
of fibers, matrix mix proportions and maximum aggregate size, specimen geometry,
and loading versus casting direct ion [23].
372
a.
S
¥
Q.
£o
U
5 10 15
Figure 12. Effects of Fiber Reinforcement on Compressive Behavior of Concrete[23].
Co m pressiv e C on stitu tive M odeling

Very few analytical studies on the compressive behavior of steel fiber reinforced con
crete have been reported in the literature. Fanella and Naaman[22] have presented a
compressive stress-strain diagram for steel fiber reinforced mortar, and Soroushian
and Lee[24] have simulated the steel fiber reinforcement effects on compressive
behavior of concrete with the confinement effects of transverse reinforcement.
A constitutive model for the compressive behavior of steel fiber reinforced con
crete is presented below. This empirical model represents the compressive stress-
strain relationship of concretes reinforced with straight steel fibers as a function of
the matrix strength and the fiber reinforcement index (Vf 'If I df). The constitutive
model presented in this paper is a modified version of a model used earlier by Scott,
et.al.[25] and Soroushian, et.al.[26] for plain concrete. It consists of a curvilinear
ascending portion followed by a bi-linear descending branch ( Fig. 13 ):
for e< tpf

a = (5)
for £ > tpf
Figure 13. The General Form of Compressive Constitutive Model

373
where :
a = concrete compressive stress ;
e = concrete compressive strain ;
zp! = compressive strain at peak stress ;
° c f = compressive strength of steel fiber
reinforced concrete ; and
2,0 0 = coeffi cients to be derived empirically in
terms of the compressive strength and the fiber
reinforcement index.
The slope of the descending branch (z), the residual stress (o 0), and the stress and
strain at peak stress ( a cy , Zpf) in this model were derived empirically, as functions
of the matrix compressive strength and fiber reinforcement index, based on a rela
tively large number of experimental results. Test results[27-32] used in the develop
ment of the empirical model were perfomed on coarse aggregate concretes with
maximum aggregate sizes between 9.5 mm and 19 mm (3/8 in. and 3/4 in.). In all
tests the direction of loading was parallel to the direction of casting, and the speci
mens were cylinders with 150 mm (6 In.) diameter and 300 mm (12 in.) height.
Empirical expressions for different variables of the proposed compressive consti
tutive model (Fig. 13), derived using least square curve fitting to experimental results
are presented below :
V/f ’*/
l
°C f = ffc + 3 6
j (Mpa); (6)
a
Vfl
O'o = 0.12 a cf + 14.8 J (Mpa);
1 d
V flf
= -343 a c •( 1. - 0.66■ ' \ j ‘ ) < 0 (Mpa) ; and
= 0.0007 Vf - f - + 0.0021 .
yj J df
It should be mentioned that variations in specimen geometry, loading versus

casting direction, loading rate, maximum aggregate size (e.g., mortar versus concrete),
and steel fiber deformation patterns will modify the compressive behavior of fibrous
concrete. More test results are needed to refine the developed model for considering
the effects of these factors.
Typical comparisons between predictions of the empirically derived constitutive
model and experimental compressive stress-strain relationships of 150 mm by 300 mm
(6 in. by 12 in.) concrete cylidrical specimens reinforced with straight fibers are
presented in Fig. 14. The developed model is observed to predict experimental
results with reasonable accuracy.
374
(a) V f l f /d = 1.71 , <JC = 42. Mpa , R ef. 6
Compreaaiv* Strain ( x 0.001 )
(b) Vf 'lf !d = 0.81 , C c = 38.5 Mpa , fle/.2 7

Figure 14. Comparisons Between Experimetal and Analytical Compressive
Constitutive Relationships
SU M M AR Y A N D C O N C L U S IO N S
Reinforcement of concrete with randomly oriented short steel fibers improves the ten
sile strenth, and the tensile and compressive toughness of the material. In order to
develop methods for analysis of reinforced concrete structures incorporating steel
fibers, reliable tensile and compressive constitutive models are needed for fiber rein
forced concrete. Empirical models were developed in this study for predicting the
complete stress-strain relationship of steel fiber reinforced concrete under tensile and
compressive stresses.
The "interaction concept", an alternative to the spacing
Tensile C o n stitu tiv e M odeling:
and composite material concepts, for the prediction of the tensile strength of steel
fiber reinforced concrete was introduced. The "interaction concept" is based on the
physics of fibrous concrete behavior under tension, and it accounts for the contribu
tion of matrix strength (noting that the microcrack system is more stable in the pres
ence of fibers), and also the partial contribution of fiber pull-out action to the tensile
strength of steel fiber reinforced concrete. Experimental results were used to derive
the constant coefficients in an expression based on the "interaction concept" for tensile
375
strength, and also to develop a bilinear pre-peak tensile stress-strain relationship for
the material. The post-peak tensile resistance of steel fiber reinforced concrete was
attributed in this study to the pull-out resistance of steel fibers. A constitutive model
for the post-peak tensile behavior of steel fiber reinforced concrete was developed
based on an empirical simulation of steel fiber pull-out behavior.
An empirical constitutive model was developed for
Com p ressive C o n stitu tiv e M odeling:
steel fiber reinforced concrete. The model cosists of a curvilinear ascending branch
and a bilinear descending branch, and it accounts for the effects of fiber volume frac
tion and aspect ratio, and matrix compressive strength on the compressive strength
and post-peak ductility of steel fiber reinforced concrete.
Both the tensile and compressive constitutive models developed in this investiga
tion are relatively simple, and have been based on relatively large numbers of experi
mental results produced for steel fiber reinforced concretes with wide ranges of fiber
reinforcement conditions and matrix strengths. They predict test results with rea
sonable accuracy. More test data would be needed to refine these models for consid
ering the effects of factors such as fiber mechanical deformations and maximum size
of aggregates.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported herein was conducted at the Composite Material and Struc
tures Center, and the CASE Center for Computer Aided Engineering, in the
Engineering College of Michigan State University. The financial support for this
project was provided by the Research Excellence Fund of the State of Michigan, the
DEED research program of the American Public Power Association, and the GE
faculty development program in Computer Aided Engineering. These contributions
are gratefully acknowledeged.
REFERENCES
1. Craig, R.J., Germann,J. McConnell, Dib, N. and Kashani, F.,"Behavior of Rein

forced Fibrous Concrete Columns," Fiber Reinforced Cocrete , SP-81(4), pp.69-
105.
2. Diamond, S. and Bentur, A.,"On the Cracking in Cement and Fiber Reinforced
Cements," Application of Fracture Mechanics m Cementitious Composites ,
NATO-ARW, September 4-7, 1984.
3. Soroushian, P. and Bayasi, Z,"Prediction of the Tensile Strength of Fiber Rein
forced Concrete : A Critique of the Composite Material Concept," Fiber Rein
forced Concrete , SP-105, American Concrete Institute, pp.71-84.
4. Gopalaratnam, V.S. and Shah, S.P.,"Micromechanical Model for the Tensile
Fracture of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete," RILEM Symposium , 1986.
5. Mangat, P.S.,"Tensile Strength of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete," Cement and
Concrete Research , 1976, Vol.6, pp.245-252.
6. "State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete," ACI Committee 544.
7. Swamy, R.N. and Mangat, P.S.,"A Theory for the Flexural Strength of Steel
Fiber Reinforced Concrete," Cememt and Concrete Research , Vol.4, 1974,
pp.313-325.
8. Naaman, A.E. and McGarry, F.J., "Probabilistic Analysis of Fiber Reinforced
Concrete," j ournal of lh£ Engineering Mechanics , Vol. 100, No.EMZ, April 1984,
376
pp.397-413.
9. Romualdi, J.P. and Mandel, J.A., "Tensile Strength of Concrete Affected by Uni
formly Distributed Closely Spaced Short Lengths of Wire Reinforcement," ACI
Journal , Vol.61, No.6, June 1964, pp.657-671.
10. Soroushian, P. and Lee, C.D.,"Tensile Strength of Steel Fiber Reinforced Con
crete : Correlation with Some Fiber Reinforcement Properties," ACI Journal
Proceedings Submitted for Publication.
11. Soroushian, P. and Lee, C.D.,"Steel Fiber Reinforcement Effects on the Tensile
Strength of Concrete," ACI Journal Proceedings Submitted for Publication.
12. Soroushian, P. and Lee, C.D.,"Distribution and Orientation of Fibers in Steel
Fiber Reinforced Concrete," ACI Materials Journal. Accepted for Publication.
13. Johnston, C.D. and Coleman, R.A.,"Strength and Deformation of Steel Fiber
Reinforced Mortar in Uniaxial Tension," Fiber Reinforced Concrete. SP-44,
pp. 177-193.
14. Walkus, B.R., Januszkiewicq, A. and Jeruzal, J.,"Concrete Composites with Cut
Steel Fiber Reinforcement Subject to Uniaxial Tension," ACI Journal , October,
1977, pp. 1079-1092.
15. Fanella, D. and Krajcinovic, D.,"Comtinuum Damage Mechanics of Fiber Rein-
fVoLl U Augu sT^ 9^,Epp% Tl1009MeChaniCS'
16. Naaman, A.E. and Shah, S.P.,"Pull-Out Mechanism in Steel Fiber Reinforced
Concrete," Journal of the Structural Division , August 1976, pp. 1537-1548.
17. Gray, R.J. and Johnston, C.D.,"The Measurement of Fibre-Matrix Interfacial
Bond Strength in Steel Fibre-Reinforced Cementitious Composites," RTIEM
Symposium , 1978.
18. Hughes, B.P. and Fattuhi, N.I.,"Fibre Bond Strengths in Cement and Concrete,"
Magazine of Concrete Research. Vol.27. No.92, September 1975, pp.161-166.
19. Narayanan, R. and Kareen-Palanjian, A.S.,"Factors Influencing the Strength of
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete," RILEM Symposium.
20. Burakiewicz, A.,"Testing of Fibre Bond Strength in Cement Matrix," RILEM
Symposium , 1978.
21. Stroeven, P. de Haan, Y.M. and Bouter, C.," Pull-Out Tests of Steel Fibers,"
RILEM Symposium.
1978.
22. Fanella, D.A. and Naaman, A.E.," Stress-Strain Properties of Fiber Reinforced
Mortar in Compression," ACI Journal , July-August 1985, pp.475-483.
23. Soroushian, P. and Bayasi, Z.," Mechanical Properties of Fiber Reinforced Con
crete," Proceedings, ACI Seminar on Fiber Reinforced Concrete, East Lansing,
MI, February 1987, pp.3.1-3.29.
24. Soroushian, P. and Lee, C.D.," A Physical Simulation of the Fiber Reinforced
Concrete Behavior under Compression," Proceedings of the International Sympo
sium on Fiber Reinforced Concrete , Madras, India, December 16-19, 1987.
25. Scott, B.D., Park, R. and Priestley, M.J.N.,"Stress-Strain Behavior of Concrete
Confined by Overlapping Hoops at Low and High Strain Rates," ACI Journal ,
January-February 1982, pp. 13-27.
26. Soroushian, P. and Sim, J.," Axial Behavior of R/C Element under Dynamic
Loads," ACI Journal. Vol. 83, No.6, November-December 1986, pp. 1018-1025.
27 Shah, S.P., Stroeven, P., Dalhuisen, D. and van Stekelenburg, P./'Complete
Stress-Strain Curves for Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete in Uniaxial Tension and
Compression," RILEM Symposium. 1978.
28. Williamson, G.R.," The Effect of Steel Fibers on the Compressive Strength of
Concrete," Fiber Reinforced Concrete , SP-44(11), pp. 195-207.
377
29. Bayasi, z.," Mechanical Properties and Structural Application of Steel Fiber
Reinforced Concretes," Ph.D. Thesis, Vol.II, Michigan State University, 1987.
30. Birkimer, D.L. and Hossley, J.R.," Comparison of Static and Dynamic Behavior
of Plain and Fibrous-Rein forced Concrete Cylinders," Technical Report No.4-69,
Department of Army, Ohio River Division Laboratories, Corps of Engineers,
December 1968.
31. Soroushian, P. and Bayasi, Z.," Optimum Use of Pozzolanic Materials in Steel
Fiber Reinforced Concrete," Report No.88, Transportation Research Board, 68th
Annual Meeting, Jan.22-26, 1989, Washington, D.C.
32. Bayasi, Z.," Mechanical Properties and Structural Applications of Steel Fiber
Reinforced Concrete," Ph.D. Thesis, Vol.II, 1989.
378
DAM AGE EVOLUTION IN FRC MATERIALS

M ODELLING A N D EXPERIM ENTAL OBSERVATIONS
Dr. HENRIK STANG

Technical University of Denmark, Building 118
DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark.
Formerly, Post Doctoral Fellow at Northwestern University, USA.
k
Professor S.P. SHAH
Director of S&T Center for Advanced Cement-Based Materials
Northwestern University, Evanston, 111 60201, USA.
ABSTRACT
The present paper represents an attempt to bridge the gap between theoretical modelling
and experimental observations of microcrack evolution in FRC materials as function of
the loading history.
The experimental observations are collected from a series of experiments with poly
propylene fibre reinforced cement paste, loaded in uniaxial tension. The microcracks were
observed using a thin sectioning technique combined with fluorescent epoxy impregnation
and fluorescence microscopy. The data were collected using digital image analysis.
The theoretical modelling is based on a continuum damage mechanics model, and the
paper discusses the ability of such a model to predict the mechanical response of the
material along with the damage evolution as function of the loading history.
INTRO DUCTIO N
Microcracking is one of the most important micromechanical mechanisms governing the
behaviour of fibre reinforced cementitious (FRC) materials. Microcracking is a key mech
anism to the understanding of the macroscopic mechanical behaviour (stress/strain be
haviour as well as macroscopic cracking) and an important parameter to consider in
connection with permeability and durability aspects.
379
Since most techniques for experimental observation of microcracking patterns in ce

mentitious materials are tedious and destructive in nature it is important to be able to
model microcracking patterns correctly along with a precise description of the mechanical
(stress/strain) behaviour of the material. Furthermore it is desirable that the modelling
is performed in a general way which makes it possible to incorporate other material prop
erties which depend on the microcracking pattern such as permeability, damping etc.
Continuum damage mechanics (CDM) is a theoretical framework which offers such pos
sibilities. Briefly a CDM theory can be described as consisting of:
• a geometrical modelling part which describes the behaviour of a volume element
and which implicitly or explicitly incorporates a damage description e.g. cracks or
voids.
• a physical modelling part which sets up the equations which governs the damage
evolution.
• a calculation part which on the basis of the two previous parts calculates the me
chanical behaviour and thus predicts the stress/strain behaviour as well as the dam
age/strain behaviour.
For a more exhaustive and general introduction to CDM theories see [1,2,3,4,5,6].
In order to calibrate such a model and verify its ability to model the physical reality,
detailed experimental observations must be available. Here, a FRC system consisting
of aligned infinitely long polypropylene fibres in a cement matrix and loaded with uni
axial stress in the fibre direction was investigated in detail.See [7]. The investigation
included determination of the microcrack density using vacuum impregnation with fluo
rescent epoxy, thin sectioning, and fluorescence microscopy. In order to make the micro
crack observations as unbiassed as possible the microcrack density was determined using
an automatic algorithm implemented on a digital image analysis system. A considerable
amount of work has been done on the use of digital image analysis for quantitative mi
crocrack characterization in cementitious systems, see [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15]. However,
this work was based on semiautomatic algorithms rather than automatic algorithms. The
automatic algorithm used in this work should ensure completely unbiassed results for the
microcrack density.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The experimental procedure used for specimen preparation, testing, epoxy impregnation,
and thin sectioning is described in detail in [7]. The microscopy and image processing
and analysis is described in detail in [16], however, since the algorithm used is new and
essential for the validity of the comparison between the theoretically predicted and the
observed crack density the digital image handling will be outlined in the following. All
digital image handling was carried out at Northwestern University, Department of Civil
Engineering.
The Image Processing

The image processing starts with the image acquisition where the image is transferred
from the optical microscope to the image analysis system using a high resolution video
380
camera. In the image analysis system the image is digitized , i.e. the image is translated
into a numerical array of integers, ’pixels’, where each integer represents the average light
intensity coming from a square element of the material.
Since the FRC material is porous with a wide rage of void sizes, cracks with a crack
opening larger than a pixel width and voids with a characteristic dimension larger than
a pixel width are shown with the same light intensity, so there is no way of separating
voids from cracks just by looking at the light intensity.
Thus an image processing algorithm was written in order to separate the cracks from
the voids on a geometrical basis. The algorithm consists of the following steps:
1. A sharper image is produced using a standard Laplacian convolution [17]. An ex
ample is shown in fig.l.
2. A binary (black and white) image is produced from the sharpened image by thresh
olding (for every pixel in the sharpened image with an intensity higher than a preset
level, the corresponding pixel in the binary image is set).
3. Larger voids are eliminated by means of successive geometrical translations of and
logical operations on the binary image.
4. Smaller voids are eliminated without damaging the crack pattern using successive
logical operations on the new binary image
5. The cleaned binary image is skeletonized, i.e. the image areas representing cracks
are reduced to single layer pixel lines. The binary image corresponding to fig.l is
shown in fig.2.
580 MICRONS
Figure 1: A digital image showing the microcrack pattern in the FRC material at 1%
strain.
The Image Analysis

Because all cracks are represented by a single pixel layer at this stage the crack length can
381
Figure 2: The processed binary image corresponding to fig.l.
be determined by a simple pixel count. Assume now that the images have been handled
so that the direction of the uniaxial stress is vertical. Thus the direction of cracks is
primarily horizontal. In order to collect information about the anisotropy of the crack
pattern the crack pixels were divided into pixels representing projected crack length in
the horizontal (x) direction and those representing projected crack length in the vertical
(y) direction. Which class of pixels a specific pixel belonged to was determined by is
neighbouring pixels. Due to the nature of the skeletonization process a crack pixel will
always have a pixel right above and/or right below and/or to the left and/or to the right.
Thus if a pixel has a neighbour pixel to the left, the pixel represents a projected crack
length in the x direction corresponding to half the pixel length. If a pixel has a neighbour
pixel to the left and to the right it represents projected crack length in the x direction
corresponding to the whole pixel length and so on.
Following this line of thought the binary image is divided into four binary images
B IN 1, B IN 2, B IN 3, B I N 4 . The first image contains the pixels which have a neighbour
to the right, the second pixels which have a neighbour to the left, the third pixels with a
neighbour above, and the fourth contains pixels with a neighbour below.
The total projected crack length in the x and y directions, lx and /y, can now be
determined by simple pixel count:
/* = ^ ( E ( B I N 1 ) + E (B IN 2 )) (1)
ly= B I N 3 ) + E( B I N 4 ))
where pxand py designatethe pixel length in the x and y directions respectively, while
E representsthepixel counting process where all pixels which are set count for 1 while
the pixels not set count for 0.
382
Stereological analysis
Stereological analysis is performed in order to derive equations which relate the above
results obtained in a two dimensional test plane to quantities describing the underlying
three dimensional crack pattern.
First, it is necessary to convert the absolute projected crack lengths to specific total
projected crack lengths L :
L- J i <3>
l--'i (4>
where A is the total image area.
Then, it is necessary to make some assumptions about the geometry of the crack
pattern. Here it is assumed that the crack surfaces can be divided into two classes, one
which contains cracks oriented so that the crack normal points in the vertical direction
and one which contains randomly oriented cracks.
It can be shown [18] that:
Sv —L x -J- Ly (5)
where Sv is the total specific crack surface (area per volume).
A convenient measure, 0, for the degree of orientation is given by Underwood, [18]:
n=£ r v (6»
Finally, it can beshown [18] that following a fibre in the vertical direction, the average
number of encounteredcracks per length of the fibre n is given by:
n = L x. (7)
ANALYTICAL PRO CEDURE

In order to model the experimental results in terms of stress/ strain and strain/ damage
relations, a CDM model was set up according to the CDM outline given in the introduc
tion.
The representative volum e elem ent

The first task to carry out is to define the representative volume element geometrically
and to calculate the mechanical response of the element. Here, a representative element
was chosen which consists of one fibre with thickness 21 and length L . The fibre is
surrounded by two matrix layers each with thickness b. The volume element is assumed
to contain a number N of matrix cracks which are assumed to be stress free. The matrix
cracks are assumed to open up, thus the matrix cracking is accompanied by a fibre/matrix
debonding with a total length 2d . The fibre/matrix debonding is assumed to be stress
free. The uncracked matrix material is assumed to be elastic with Young’s modulus E m
and Poission’s ratio i/m. The corresponding quantities for the fibre material are desig
nated Ef and i// . The representative volume element is shown in fig.3. The fibre is now
383
M -------------------------- L -------------------------- r
Figure 3: The representative volume element used.
loaded with a force per length P as shown and a shear lag type of analysis is performed
in order to determine the corresponding extension u and finally the compliance M of
the volume element given by:
e= Ma (8)
e= j (9)
"= m ry m
According to the above equations e and a can be interpreted as the overall composite
strain and stress.
It can be shown that:
(11)
with
(A/)2 = 2(ft ~ ^ (1- c) [(1 - c)Ej( 1 + vm) + cEm( 1 + VJ)] (12)

and
E = cEf + ( l - c ) E m (13)
The quantity c represents the fibre volume concentration and is related to the geometrical
properties through:
-? T J (I4)
while and /?2 are non-dimensional damage measures defined by:
N
= 2nt = 2T t (15)
Ij
and
A=f (16)
384
Note that the above solution is only valid when:
A < J x- (17)1
The damage evolution law

Given a prescribed overall strain state e , the strain energy density in the volume element
is equivalent to the free energy density available for consumption related to damage;
growth.
Thus:
¥ = (18)1
and the energy release rate or damage vector R related to the two types of damage:
growth is given by:
dV
R' = (19)
and
r * = ~ w 2- (20)
Assuming that the damage evolution takes place as matrix cracking with a constant
debonding length, a damage evolution law can be expressed in the following way.
First, define a damage surface, D:
0 (e ,A ,ft) = /? i-» (/9 i,ft) (21)

Secondly, assume that damage evolution takes place only when:
D = 0 Ai > 0 (22)
and then in such a way that D = 0 is never violated.

The expression for D chosen in this investigation is given by:
D(e,pu 02) = \e 2M ~ - (dt0 + 3^/?,) (23)
where 3£0 and Si are constants with dimension energy per volume.
According to the above damage evolution law, damage evolution takes place when the
energy release rate reaches a critical level which depends on the amount of damage already
accumulated in the material. This can be interpreted as a description of a material with
a strength which varies throughout the volume resulting in the creation of cracks at the
weakest planes first while the cracks that are created at the stronger planes requires more
energy.
The calculations
Given a prescribed strain history the material response can be calculated incremental
according to the following algorithm:
1. Increase the strain with the prescribed increment.

385
2. Calculate the position of the damage vector in the damage space, D .

3. If D < 0 carry on with a calculation of the stress using the stiffness M ~x.
4. If on the other hand D > 0, the damage is adjusted so that D = 0 using a nonlinear
root finding algorithm. Then the new M can be calculated and finally the stress is
calculated.
5. Return to 1.
COM PARING RESULTS
The results from the above outlined calculations are shown in fig.4 and fig.5 where the
analytical predictions are compared to the experimentally observed stress/ strain curves
and the damage/ strain curve.
The experimentally observed damage/ strain curve is obtained from a number of iden
tical test specimens each loaded to different strain levels. The total crack surface Sv as
well as the number of cracks per length of a fibre n is reported. Note that n has been
zeroed so that n corresponds to the cracks formed by the mechanical loading.
In all the calculations the following material parameters were used:
E m = 30.5 GPa, vm — 0.2, E f = 6.0 GPa, vj = 0.4, t = 86//m,c = 0.135 which cor
respond to the material parameters of the FRC-material, see [7]. Looking at fig.4 we
A xial s tr e s s , cr (MPa)
15.00 -
xxxxx Experimental results

3*0=0.17 MPa, 3*j=0.15 MPa 02=O.O2
10.00 3*0=0.24 MPa, 3*t= 0 .15 MPa fr>=0.5
3*o=0.20 MPa, ^ = 0 . 2 0 MPa /S2= 0 .2
5.0 0
A xial
s tr a in , s (%)
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I i i i i i i i i i i i ri ( i
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Figure 4: The stress/ strain relationships.
see that it is possible to adjust the parameters &0and9fii so that the analytical stress/
strain curves follow the experimental values very closely (only one experimental stress/
strain curve is shown, however, the experimental scatter is generally small, see [7]). It
even seems as if the parameters are not uniquely determined. However, examining the
386
(l/m) ***** s . (experimental)

,3 -2
6 .0 0 E + 0 0 3 GQ0OO n, (zero corrected experimental)
n, ato=0.17 MPa, 5Ri=0.15 MPa, 0Z=O.O2
n, 5R0=0.24 MPa, 5R,=0.15 MPa, /3Z=0.5
5.00E+003 n, 5R0=0.20 MPa, SRÔ.20 MPa, /?z=0.2
4.00E+003
3.00E+003
2.00E+003
1.00E+003 A xia l
s t r a in , £ (% )
I I I I 'I "T"T T l ~ I " r | I I I l~l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0.00 1.50 2.00
Figure 5: The damage/ strain ralationships
damage/ strain curves it becomes clear that even though the stress/ strain curves corre
sponding to small and medium interfacial debonding ( ) are very similar the damage
(/?i)/ strain relationships are not. Thus it is possible to determine - uniquely - a com
bination of and/?2 which optimizes the predictions for stress/ strain as well as
damage/ strain behaviour.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the National Science Foun
dation (Grant No. ECE-8520361, Program Manager, John Scalzi). Dr Henrik Stang
wishes to acknowledge the support from the Danish Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (grant number 16-4239.B) and from ’’Grosserer Emil Hjort og Hustrus Legat”,
which made his stay at Northwestern University possible and additional support from the
Danish Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (grant number 5.17.1.6.34).
References
[1] Kachanov, L.M., On the Creep Rupture Time, Izv. AN SSR, Otd. Tekhn. Nauk. No.
8, 1958, pp. 26-31
[2] Lemaitre, J., and Chaboche, J.L., Aspect Phenomenologique de la Rupture par En-
dommagement. J. Mec. Appliquee. Vol. 2, 1978, pp. 317-365.
[3] Kraicinovic, D., Constitutive Equations for Damaging Materials. J. Appl. Mech. V.
50, 1983, pp. 355-360.
[4] Krajcinovic, D., Continuum Damage Mechanics. Appl. Mech. Rev. Vol. 37, 1984, pp.
1- 6 .
387
[5] Krajcinovic, D., Continuous Damage Mechanics Revisited: Basic Concepts and Def
initions. J. Appl. Mech. Vol. 52, 1985, pp. 829-834.
[6] Sidoroff, F., Damage Mechanics and its Application to Composite Materials. In Me
chanical Charactersation of Load Bearing Fibre Composite Laminates, (eds. Cardon,
A.H. and Verchery, G.) Elsevier, 1985, pp. 21-35.
[7] Krenchel, H. and Stang H., Stable Microcracking in Cementitious Materials. Paper
presented at The 2nd International Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites - BMC
2, Cedzyna, 20-22 Sep. 1988, Poland. To be published.
[8] Stroeven, P., Some Aspects of the Micromechanics of Concrete. Stevin Laboratory,
Technical University of Delft, 1973.
[9] Stroeven, P., Application of Various Stereological Methods to the Study of the Grain
and the Crack Structure of Concrete. In NBS Special Publication 1976, pp.
281-286.
[10] Stroeven, P., Amplitude Effect on Fatigue Behavior of Concrete Qualitatively Eval
uated by Stereological Techniques. In Sonderbande der Praktischen Metallogra-
phie, band 8, Quantitative Analysis of Microstructures. Dr. Riederer-Verlag GMBH,
Stuttgart, 1978, pp. 264-272.
[11] Stroeven, P., Geometric Probability Approach to the Examination of Microcracking
in Plain Concrete. J. Mat. Science, V.14, 1979, pp. 1141-1151.
[12] Ringot, E., Automatic Quantification of Microcracks Network by Stereological
Method of Total Projections in Mortars and Concretes. Cem. Con. Res. V.18, 1988,
pp. 35-43.
[13] Stroeven, P., Discussion of Paper Automatic Quantification of Microcracks Network
by Stereological Method of Total Projections in Mortars and Concrete by Erick
Ringot.Cem. Con. Res. V.18, 1988, pp. 657-659.
[14] Ringot, E. and Olliver J.-P., A Reply to a Discussion of Paper Automatic Quantifica
tion of Microcracks Network by Stereological Method of Total Projections in Mortars
and Concrete by Erick Ringot. Cem. Con. Res. V.18, 1988, pp. 660-661.
[15] Reinhardt, H. W.; Stroeven, P.; den Uijl, J. A.; Kooistra, T. R.; and Vrencken, J.
H. A. M., Influence of Amplitude, Load and Frequency on the Vibration Resistance
of Concrete at a low Number of Breaking Load Cycles. Beton + Fertigteil- Technik,
no. 9, 1978, pp. 498-503.
[16] Stang, H., Mobasher, B., and Shah, S.P., Quantitative Damage Characterization in
Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Paper presented at ACI Spring Conven
tion, Atlanta, USA, Feb. 22-24, 1989. To be published.
[17] Nieblack, W., An Introduction to Digital Image Processing. Prentice/Hall Interna
tional 1986.
[18] Underwood, E. E., Quantitative Stereology. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
1970.
388
INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL STRUCTURE OF SFRC ON TOUGHNESS INDEX
LESLAW HEBDA, LECH RUDZINSKI

Technical University of Kielce, Poland
ANDRZEJ BURAKIEWICZ
IFTR, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw
ABSTRACT
The paper presents results of the calculation of the ASTM

C1018 toughness index of fibre reinforced concrete materials
with two types of matrix /limestone and basalt aggregates/,
two kinds of fibre /plain round fibres and Harex fibres/ and
three fibre volume contents /0.7%, 1*3%, 1.45%/• The results
are taken from three different tests which were carried out
with one year pause between each of them. The values of tough
ness indices 1^ are compared with the values of dynamic and
static Young’s modulus, compressive strength, flexural
strength, type of matrix, kind of fibre and fibre content.
INTRODUCTION
An extensive and sustained research and development effort has

been carried out over the last twenty five years in the field
of fibre concrete technology [l].
New kinds of fibres and new composites have been submitted
to the evaluation of the properties of both fibres and the com
posites [2 ]. New parameters which would be useful in comparing
mechanical properties of different composite materials with
fibres were necessary in such a situation. A toughness index
389
TOUGHNESS INDEX I c =-£Et 4££?

5"area o’a b
0 * 1,9mm
1,9r OO' B D F H
DEFLECTION — - DEFLECTION ►
Fig. 1. Schematic load-deflection curves: a/ ACI toughness
index, b/ ASTM C1018 toughness index
is one of the propositions of such a parameter. There have

been several attempts to define the toughness index for fibre
reinforced Concretes [3 ]. The ACI [4 ] defined a fracture
toughness index as the ratio of the area under the load - de
flection curve in flexure for the fibre reinforced specimen up
to a deflection limit of 1.9 mm to that of the area to first
crack /Fig. 1a/, The main advantage of the ACI toughness index
is that it is readily obtained from a standard specimen and
does not require a new test geometry or new testing equipment.
TOUGHNESS IN D E X = -^ p
Ik
/
/
DEFLECTION AT/FIRST
CRACKING,5 /
X /
8 25
DEFLECTION
Fig. 2. Definition of toughness index after Barr et al. [5]

390
More recently, Johnston [5, 6, 7], using unnotched specimens

and Barr [8, 9], have proposed definitions of toughness in
dices which are calculated using the ratios under the load -
deflection crack /Figs. 1b and 2/ [3 ]. Toughness indices cal
culated on the basis of these last definitions are independent
of specimen geometry and test conditions. Johnston’s defini
tion of toughness index is inserted in A S T M C1018 standard [7 ]*
The codification toughness index definition is used in this
paper.
SPECIMENS AND THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The mixtures were prepared in a forced horizontal concrete

mixer. Plain round fibres were added through a vibration sieve.
During preparation of the speciments for tests, special atten
tion was given to obtain a good distribution of fibres in the
tested beams. The Harex fibres were added like other mixture
components.
The fresh concrete was cast as plates 600 x 1000 x 70 mm
and placed in a fog chamber. The plates were cut, using the
diamond saw, in beams of 50 x 50 x 1000 mm /Pig. 3/ at the age
of 28 days and moved to a chamber of 60% RH and 18°C.
The ordinary Portland cement type fl35M from Nowiny cement
plant was used and as the coarse aggregates - crushed basalt
from Wilcza Gora quarry and crushed limestone from Morawica
quarry were used, both of 8 mm maximum size. The properties of
aggregate are given in Table 1.
As a fibre reinforcement two types of fibres were applied:
plain round fibres cut from mild steel wire /0.4 x 40 mm/ and
Harex fibres of German origin. The Harex fibres are produced
by milling process and as a result of the fabrication procedure
their cross section is very irregular, the length being 25 mm.
The mix proportion for cement2sand:aggregate was: 1:1.07:
3.56 for concrete composite with basalt aggregate /B/ and 1:0.9
:2.34 for concrete composite with limestone aggregate /L/. Both
proportions were designed for equal mix density with 400 kgs of
cement for 1 nr and nominal water/cement ratio was equal to 0.6.
391
TABLE 1
Parameters of aggregate structure
Aggregate
Property
Basalt /B/ Limestone /L/
Bulk density [kg/nr*] 3030 2480

Compressive strength [MPa] 185 100
Porosity [%] 1.7 8.5
Weight water absorption [%] 0.45 3.1
The volumetric contents of fibres were 0.7%, 1.3% and 1.45%.

The four point bending tests were performed at the speci
men age of 28 to 30 days. The tests were made using a 2 kN
testing machine "ZL-IO11 with a controlled load rate. The de
flection of each beam in the midspan was measured using an
LYTD gauge during the tests /Fig. 4/. The load was measured
using the 4.5 kN load cell. Luring the experiments the deflec
tion - load curves were plotted.
After the tests the beams were cut for shorter samples to
392
measure the dynamic and static Young’s modulus /specimen size;

50 x 50 x 145 mm/ and compressive strength /specimen size:
50 x 50 x 50 mm/.
% %
[|[LVTD
50j 300 300

1000
Fig. 4. Beam loading scheme
The full experiment was repeated three times for the same
kind of materials and mix proportion. Details are shown in
Table 2.
TABLE 2
Test program
Type of Type of Fibre Test

matrix fibre volume [%] I II III No
0.7 + + + 1
Plain + +
1.3 2
ordinary + + +
L 1.45 3
Limestone
0.7 - - + 4
Harex
1.3 - - + 5
0.7 + + + 6
B Plain
1.3 ■f + + 7
Basalt ordinary
1.45 + — 8
The tests I - III were carried out in one year distance.

393
RESULTS AND DISCLSSION
Results of the tests are presented in Figures 5 - 1 1 and in

Table 3.
It follows from Table 3 and Figure 5 that the value of
toughness index 1^ depends on fibre volumetric contents, kind
of matrix and the type of fibre. The kind matrix influence is
connected with the type of aggregate /the limestone aggregate
is more absorbable than basalt one/ and the real value of
water-cement ratio /the real value of water-cement ratio is
smaller than the nominal value in concrete mix with limestone
aggregate/. The limestone aggregate has a possibility to gener
ate a specific contact zone with cement paste, which improves
the mechanical properties of concrete /matrix/.
The toughness index value increases with the fibre vol
umetric contents to the limit 1.3^ for plain round fibres.
PLAIN ROUND LIMESTONE MATRIX

FIBRES
□ LIMESTONE MATRIX — PLAIN ROUND

o BASALT MATRIX FIBRES
— 1st t e s t — HAREX FIBRES
— 2 nd TEST
in — 3 rd TEST
o
z
CO
CO
n
X
o
1-
H 1--- * H h
0.7 1 1.3 1,5 0.7 1 13 1.5
FIBRE VOLUME [% ]
Fig. 5 * Influence of fibre volume on toughness index 1^
394
TABLE 3
Results of the tests
No.of Shortened Test

test symbol I II Ill
1 X 0.7 3.6 4.0 3.8

2 1 1.3 6.5 5.0 5.4
3 I 1.45 4.2 - -
Toughness index 4 LH 0.7 - - 2.3
I5 5 LH 1.3 - - 3.2
J
6 B 0.7 4.4 3.4 3.0
7 B 1.3 4.8 3.5 3.8
8 B 1.45 3.8 - -
1 I 0.7 30421 32015 31065

2 I 1.3 37618 33846 34997
3 X 1.45 26860 - -
Static Young’s 4 LH 0.7 - — 26860
modulus [MPa] 5 LH 1.3 - - 31650
6 B 0.7 18025 16178 15524
7 B 1.3 19183 16792 17000
8 B 1.45 18605 - -
1 L 0.7 32113 34318 33175

2 L 1.3 39062 35427 36724
3 L 1.45 28729 - -
Dynamic Young’s 4 LH 0.7 - - 28276

modulus [MPa] 5 LH 1.3 - - 32812
6 B 0.7 19342 17926 16834
7 B 1.3 20278 18057 18011
8 B 1.45 19811 - -
1 L 0.7 71.4 62.4 60.0

2 L 1.3 68.2 60.5 71.5
3 L 1.45 51.8 - -
Compressive 4 LH 0.7 - - 53.5
strength [MPa] 5 LH 1.3 - - 65.3
6 B 0.7 60.8 54.3 54.0
7 B 1.3 59.2 52.4 66.1
8 B 1.45 57.1 - -
1 L 0.7 8 .6 5.3 7.9
2 Jj 1.3 9 .0 7.8 8 .3
3 L 1.45 7 .7 _ -
Flexural 4 LH 0.7 _ 7.4
strength [MPaJ . 5 LH 1.3 - — 8.1
6 B 0.7 5.8 5.9 6.0
7 B 1.3 6.8 7 .8 7.2
8 B 1.45 5.8 - -
395
Increase of fibre content to value 1.45% causes decrease of

toughness index 1^.
The toughness index value for SFRC with Harex fibres is
always smaller than that for SFRC with plain round fibres. The
latter fibres are longer than Harex, whose geometry and diam
eters are different and somewhat similar to aggregate. It
causes a different behaviour of SFRC with Harex and plain
round fibres.
BASALT MATRIX
LIMESTONE MATRIX
9- a 0 ,7 % FIBRE
a 1 ,3 % FIBRE
a a 1 st JEST
7- o • 2 nd TE S T
o ■ 3 rd TEST
U«1
►
—
x 5
LU
O
tP
oo 3
UJ J
z
X
o
ZD
£ 1
15 20 25 30 35 UO
STATIC YOUNG'S MODULUS [ m P q x IO*3]
Fig. 6. Influence of static Young’s modulus on toughness index
It follows from Table 3 and Figure 6 that toughness index 1^

is related to static Young’s modulus. It is very interesting
because Young’s modulus is a parameter which describes the
elastic properties of material. If this relation was real, it
might be possible to estimate Young’s modulus basing on the
toughness index 1^ value. The number of tests is too small now
and it is impossible to find a mathematical form of the rela
tion between toughness index and Young’s modulus. A similar,
396
but not such a simple relation is between 1^ and dynamic

Young’8 modulus.
4 0 + PLAIN ROUND FIBRES

□ LIMESTONE MATRIX
o BASALT MATRIX
— IS* TEST
2nd TEST
35
— 3 rd TEST
i
o
S . 30+
.r .
oo
§25+
r
00
Id
z
° 20+
LJ
s
oo
15 — V
0,7 1 1,3 1,5
FIBRE VOLUME [ % ]
Fig. 7. Influence of fibre contents on static Young's modulus
In Figure 7 is shown that the relation between static Young's

modulus and volumetric fibre contents has the same shape as
the relation in Figure 5. The same situation is for dynamic
Young's modulus nad fibre contents.
Figures 8 and 10 show that it is difficult to find a
simple function between the toughness index and compressive or
flexural strength. It results from the fact that SFRC strength
depends not only on the elastic properties of this material.
5 31
oo LIMESTONE MATRIX a a 1s* TEST
oo 9 1 ____
LU i BASALT MATRIX o . 2nd TEST
0 ,7 % FIBRE 3 rd TEST
§1 1 ,3 % FIBRE
o
51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH [M P a]
Fig. 8. Influence of compressive strength on toughness index
PLAIN ROUND FIBRES

a □ LIMESTONE MATRIX LIMESTONE MATRIX
a • BASALT MATRIX — PLAIN ROUND FIBRES
— 1st T E S T — 3rd TEST — HAREX FIBRES
— 2 nd TEST
P
vD
z
LU
oc
I—
</>
</>
CO
LU
a
a
2:
o
LU
H h-
1 1,3 1,5 0,7 1 1,31,5
FIBRE VOLUME [% ]
Pig. 9. Influence of fibre contents and types on compressive
strength
398
6-
in
J
5 ■
o 4 f°-
oo 3
i/i
LIMESTONE MATRIX a 1s* TEST
a
1 2 BASALT MATRIX o . 2 nd TEST
o 1 1 A O □ 0 .7 % FIBRE □ - 3 rd TEST
° T a . - 1 . 3 % FIBRE
6 8 10 12
FLE X U R A L STRENGTH [M P a]
Fig. 10. Influence of flexural strength on toughness index 1^
PLAIN ROUND FIBRES LIMESTONE MATRIX

o LIMESTONE MATRIX — PLAIN ROUND FIBRES
12 • BASALT MATRIX
HAREX FIBRES
1st JE ST
a
CL — 2 nd TEST
r
10
- 3 rd TEST
CK'
H h-
0.7 1 1.3 1,5 0.7 1 1.31,5
FIBRE VOLUME [ % ]
Fig. 11. Influence of fibre contents and types on flexural

strength
399
The geometry of samples in the compressive strength tests

/50 x 50 x 50 mm/ has an influence on the results, too• So
small cubes are very supple on different displacements. It is
visible in Pig. 9 /relation between compressive strength and
fibre contents/, but the differences between Harex and plain
round fibres have a similar form as shown in Fig. 5. This last
relation is smaller only in Fig. 11 /flexural strength - fibre
volume/, but in this figure the dependence between SFRC with
limestone and basalt aggregate in the relation flexural
strength - fibre contents is nearing this, which is repre
sented in Fig. 5. It is interesting that for testing SFRC the
plain round fibres volume on level 1.3% is the limit of the
mechanical properties increase.
CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions are as follows.

1. The mechanical properties of SFRC depend on the matrix type
too.
2. It is probably possible to find a function between toughness
index 1^ and static Young's modulus.
3. For each kind of SFRC the optimal fibre content has a spec
ified value, when the mechanical properties are the best.
In this tests, for plain round fibres, this value is 1.3%.
REFERENCES
1. Hannant, D.J., Fibre cements and fibre composites, John

Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1978.
2. Swamy, R.N. /Editor/, Testing and test methods of fibre

cement composites, RILEM Symposium 1978, The Construction
Press, Lancaster, 1978.
3. Purhiss, J.A., Toughness measurements on steel fibre con

crete at elevated temperatures. International Journal of
Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, 1988, 1, 39-47.
400
4. ACI Committee 544, Measurement of properties of fiber rein

forced concrete, ACI Journal, 1978, 7, pp. 283-289.
5. Johnston, C.D., Definition and measurement of flexural

toughness parameters for fiber reinforced concrete, ASTM,
Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, CCAGDP, 1982, 2, 53-60.
6 . Johnston, C.D., Precision of flexural strength and tough

ness parameters for fiber reinforced concrete, ASTM,
Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, CCAGrDP, t982, 2, 61-67.
7. Johnston, C.D., Cray, R.J., Plexural toughness and first-

crack strength of fibre reinforced concrete using ASTM
Standard C1018. RILEM Symposium PRC 86 "Developments in
Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete", Vol. 1, Sheffield
1986.
8 . Barr, B.I.G., Hasso, E.B.D., A study of toughness indices,

Magazine of Concrete Research, 1985, 132, pp. 162-174.
9. Barr, B.I.G., Liu,K., Dowers, R.C., A toughness index to

measure the energy absorption of fibre reinforced concrete,
Int. Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete,
1982, 4, pp. 221-227.
401
AN IDENTITY CHART FOR STEEL FIBRES
D. Nemegeer, CE
Technology Development Manager
Building products
N.V. Bekaert Zwevegem S.A.
Belgium
Abstract
The influence of steel fibres on the characteristics of concrete is eva

luated on the basis of bending tests. Various criteria are examined in
order to evaluate the toughness of the steel fibre concrete. The relati
ve increase of the Modulus of Rupture and the toughness value, compared
with plain concrete, allows us to characterize the steel fibres and draft
"their identity chart".
Introduction
The growing success of SFC has provided the impetus for ever more types
of steel fibres to be placed on the market. The need to map out a method
enabling evaluation of the various types of fibres and their influence on
the characteristics of concrete is becoming increasingly urgent. This
level of quality must then serve as the basis upon which subsequent
calculations can be build. The main difference between normal (plain)
concrete and steel fibre concrete is the post-crack behaviour, the
ability to withstand load even after crack formation. This toughness is
decisive for the design value of the flexural strength and a direct
measure of the shock resistance and ability to absorb energy in a fatigue
load situation.
The increase of flexural strength on account of the steel fibres is,

itself, mostly slight and can, if wished, most often be arrived at by
less expensive means than by the addition of steel fibres (lower W/C
factor in combination with superplasticizer, addition of micro silica,
etc.). However, it is obvious that any increase in the flexural strength
ascribable to the steel fibres is a matter of interest and should be
examined and recorded.
Characterization of the fibres, the so-called identity chart for steel

fibres or simply the standardization of the steel fibres must then also :
402
- give indications with regard to their influence on the flexural

strength and toughness of the concrete;
- be based on a standard test;
- provide data per type of fibre as a function of the percentage of
fibre used;
- if possible, not have to make allowancefor the kind of concrete.
In the following notes, several methods areset out which can provide the
basis for arriving at a standardization of the steel fibres.
Firstly, various quality criteria were examined for various fibres with a
control concrete type. The influence of the concrete was then examined
for two different fibre types.
1. Test methods used
Two countries, the USA and Japan, have specific standards in respect
of steel fibre concrete. In order to measure the influence of the fibres
on the flexural strength and the toughness, both countries prescribed
very similar bending tests in which the load was to be recorded according
to an applied deflection of the sample.
However, the values obtained from these standards do differ considera

bly. Without going into details at this point, a short comparison will
now be made, plus an indication as to which of the two we may best base
our "identity charts" on.
1.1. USA Standard C 1018-85
According to this standard, flexural strength fc is defined at the first

crack and subsequently the various toughness indices Ij. The first
crack is defined as the point at which the load deflection curve deviates
from the straight line (fig. la). A toughness index is the ratio of the
absorbed energy up to a given deflection to the absorbed energy up to the
first crack. The area below the load deflection curve is a measure of
the absorbed energy. In the standard, toughness indices I5 , Ijq and
I3 Q are represented for a deflection up to 36, 5.56 and 15.56, where 6
is the deflection to the first crack. The terms I5 , Ijq and I3 Q
are used in order that, with corresponding deflections and given a
perfectly elastic plastic material, the toughness indices would be
precisely 5, 10 and 30.
fig. 1 (a)
P‘ th*
where 1 , b, h are
the length (span)
width and height
of sample.
403
f i g . 1 (b)
A C E G
H
---------- V
0 6 36 5.56 15.56
DEFLECTION
This standard is very much dependent upon the accurate registration of 6 .

This value is very small, in the order of 0.05 mm to 0.1 mm in the sample
dimensions normally used. Apart from possible measuring errors, the crack
that appears could already be greater than 26 to 36, and the curve traced
in this area is therefore highly dubious and very dependent upon the
machine. There is thus a case for dropping I5 and replacing it with,
e.g. I20 (a* a distance of 10.56).
A design value for toughness may be defined as :
r20/ io = ioc^ o " h o) or r30/ io = 5^30 ~ *io)

If the material concerned were perfectly elastic-plastic, the value obtai
ned would be 100. For a real material, the figureexpresses the ratio of
the average load the material can absorb in thisdeflection area against
the load at the first crack.
It is also a good measure of toughness (energy absorption capability) and

can also be used as a design value. In most cases, a distortion of up to
15.56 (I 30) W1*ii still produce a deflection of only + 1 mm and, for
certain types of fibres, maximum load will still not have been reached.
In this case, the criterion is no longer an accurate gauge of the
toughness. An additional value, 5(I5 Q- 130) , a 9°°^ indication for
use in those cases in which toughness is of especial importance.
1.2. Japanese Standard JCI - SF4
According to this standard, flexural strength is defined with reference to

maximum load, hence the so-called "Modulus of Rupture". As a measure of
toughness, an "equivalent flexural strength" is defined, matching a
flexural strength derived from an average load value over a given
deflection area (fig. 2). The present version of the Standard sets
deflection as equal to 1/150 of the span, being - normally -3 mm for a
450 mm span and, thus, a much greater deflection than laid down in the
ASTM standard.
404
fia. 2
Pi
Q
<
O
DEFLECTION &tb r I
f u - Pu .
bh2
Neither value - fu or fe - have any direct physical significance, but

they serve as handy reference points for comparison purposes.
The value 100 fe/fc (fc = flexural strength at first crack) is directly
comparable with the R values as defined in 1.1. above. While the
deflection area observed here is actually greater, fe values can equally
well be calculated to a span of, e.g., 1/225 I or 1/300 i (2 mm and
1.5 mm respectively).
In order to measure the actual influence of the steel fibres on the

concrete, we take fo to represent the flexural strength value of a type
of concrete having the same composition (as the sample) but without added
steel fibres. The value Ru = 100 fu/fo then provides a direct indication
of the influence of the steel fibres on actual flexural strength. The
value Re = 100 fe/fo gives the toughness quotient of the concrete. Since
the first crack in the concrete is hardly influenced by the presence of
the steel fibres (fe^fo), the possibility remains for comparison with
the R values as defined in 1.1. above.
2. Identity chart for steel fibres using a control concrete
2.1. Test results
As the basis for the tests, a reference concrete type - the

"control" - was selected, having the following composition :
P40 Portland cement : 350 kg/m3
sand (0 mm to 5 mm; F.M. = 3.22) : 822 kg/m3

405
crushed stone (4 mm to 7 mm; F.M. = 5.93) 456 kg/m3
crushed stone (7 mm to 14 mm; F.M. = 6.81) 547 kg/m3
water 185 kg/m3
Flexural strength, fo, of the concrete without added steel fibres was 6
N/mm2 after 28 days. The compression strength, after 28 days, was 45
N/mm2.
Taking "A Standard Test for Flexural Strength using Simple Beams with
Third Point Loading (dimensions 150 x 150 x 600 -span width 450 mm)" as
the point of departure, the following values were established for a
number of steel fibres :
fc = flexural strength at first crack (see 2 .1 .)
fu = modulus of rupture (see 2 .2 .)
fe = equivalent flexural strength (see 2 .2 .);

this value is defined for deflection up to 1/300 2 (fe,
1.5), 1/225 2 (fe, 2) and 1/150 2 (fe, 3) of the span.
Ic, Ijq, I2 Q, I3 Q and Icq = toughness indices (see 2 .1 .) for de

flections of up to 36, 5.56, 10.56, 15.56 and 25.56 respective
ly.
The steel fibre types tested were :
A :fibres of steel wire with hooklets at their extremities

(length 50 mm, diameter 0.50 mm)
B :fibres of steel wire with hooklets at their extremities

C :fibres of steel wire with hooklets at their extremities

D :straight fibres of steel wire

E : fibres milled from steel blocks

(length 32 mm, equival. diam. 0.80 mm)
F : fibres cut from plates

(length 18 mm)
Table 1 sets out the following derived values for the various types of
fibres, each present in a quantity of 40 kg/m3. All values are averaged
out from 3 tests.
Ru = 1 0 0 (fu/fo)
Re,1.5 = 100 (fe,1.5/fo)
Re,2 = 100 (fe,2/fo)

406
Re,3 100' (fe,3/fo)
R20,10 = 10
(ô'ho)
»—1
R30,10 = 5
1—*
GO
0
0
R50,30 = 5
Table 1
Fibre type Ru Re,1.5 Re,2 Re,3 R2 0 , 10 R30,10 R50,30

A 115 96 94 85 83 92 104
B 99 79 77 69 77 81 82
C 103 89 95 89 68 79 76
D 106 58 55 50 50 49 45
H 107 33 27 21 34 28 13
F 99 39 34 28 44 41 29
It can be seen from this table that :
1. Max. flexural strength of plain concrete rose by more

than 10% in one isolated case only (A fibres).
2. The different toughness values are mutually comparable per fibre type.
3. The Re,3 values and, to a lesser extent, R5 0 3 0 also,

indicate residual resistance at large deflections.
2.2. Identity chart for steel fibres
Using this reference of control concrete, tests can nowbe run for the
purposes of characterizing a given steel fibre type whereby the per
centages of added steel fibre vary. The influence of the fibres on the
increased flexural strength can be characterized as Ru = 100 (fu/fo).
The influence of the fibres on the toughness can be characterized by one
or more of the Re or R values. The following examples willcontinue to
use the Re 1.5 and R 30,10 values.
407
By way of an example, the identity charts are shown here for the A, C, E
and F fibres (fig. 3). Only two or three fibre percentages are exami
ned. These identity charts can thus be further extended to take in other
fibre percentages.
IDENTITY CHART
figure 3 : Identity charts for different fibre types
Although the Re, 1.5 and R30,10 values are mutually quite comparable,
they also accentuate the difference between the various fibre types.
408
3. The influence of the concrete
In order to examine the influence of the concrete type, the tests

were re-run using three different kinds of concrete.
Two fibre types were tested in the process :
C : fibres of wire with hooklets at the extremities

G : fibres milled from steel blocks, comparable with E

(length 32 mm, equivalent diameter 1.0 mm, having distorsions at
the extremities)
Two reinforcement percentages were tested : 30 and 40 kg/m3
The composition of the concrete types is shown in table 2 :
Table 2
Comp. 1 Comp. 2 Comp. 3
P40 Portland Cement 350 350 400
Sand (o-5 mm F.M. = 3.23) 822 822 725
gravel (5-15 mm F.M. = 6.82) 1003
crushed stone (4-7 mm F.M. = 5.93) 456 300
crushed stone (7-14 mm F.M. = 6.81) 547
crushed stone (7-20 mm F.M. = 7.28) 735
water 193 183 160
superplasticizer - - 1
409
The flexural strength of the concrete without added steel fibres after 28
days was 4.8 N/mm2, 6.0 N/mm2 and 7.5 mm2 for compositions 1, 2 and 3
respectively.
Compression strength after 35 days was 44 N/mm2, 53 N/mm2 and 68 N/mm2

respectively.
Table 3 shows the values Ru, Re^ 5 and R3 o,io :
Table 3
30 kg/m3 40 kg/m3
Ru Re’1 .5 R30,10 Ru Re 1.5 R30,10

fibre C
comp,. 1 109 75 61 105 84 79
comp,. 2 99 68 63 105 84 76
comp,. 3 101 48 55 96 75 75
fibre G
comp., 1 103 22 19 102 25 24
comp.. 2 96 21 23 94 34 37
comp,, 3 93 10 6 100 10 9
It can be seen from this table that :
1 ) the max. flexural strength depends on the composition of the

concrete and does not increase as a result of the addition of
small steel fibre percentages (up to 40 kg/m3).
2 ) the toughness factor is relatively independent of the concrete type

up to a certain concrete strength (50 N/mm2 to 60 N/mm2).
The downgrade in the toughness is appreciable for very strong
concrete and especially in conjunction with fibres that are already
less tough in themselves.
4. Considerations in connection with design
Given the brittle nature of the material, it is not normally

permitted for plain concrete to take tensile stresses. It would seem
most advisable to derive a design value based on an R toughness number.
The greater the observed deformation area, the smaller the safety that
can be accepted.
410
By means of an "identity chart" for a given type of steel fibre, the

design value of the flexural strength for a given concrete can then be
established as a function of fibre content.
The same identity charts also permit a justified choice of steel fibre
type and quantity in case a given deformation energy or a given resis
tance to an applied deformation are required.
5. Conclusions
- The bending tests conducted according to current ASTM C1018-85 and

JCI-SF4 standards relating to steel fibre reinforced concrete permit to
determine the influence of the steel fibres on flexural strength and
toughness. From the diagrammes, several thoughness numbers can be
derived.
- Various fibre types can be characterized on the basis of the toughness

numbers. Their influence on the concrete properties can be recorded in
so-called "identity charts" for fibre types. The identity charts gauge
the increase in flexural strength as a function of the quantity of
steel, fibres present in the concrete and also provide an indication of
the toughness.
- The strength of the concrete has an influence upon the toughness

imparted by the steel fibres. Any standard intending to lay down the
value of the steel fibres must therefore depart from a concrete having
"hard and fast" known properties.
- The identity charts are a useful tool for anyone having to derive
design values for use in design formulas for a given fibre-concrete
composition.
References
- ASTM C1018-85 : Standard Test Method for flexural toughness and

first-crack strength of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (using beam with
third-point loading).
- JSCE-SF4 : Method of tests for flexural strength and flexural toughness

of steel fiber reinforced concrete.
411
FRACTURE CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE AND FRC MATERIALS
F. BENAICHE and B. BARR

University of Wales, College of Cardiff,
Cardiff, UK
ABSTRACT
The main objective of the work reported was to investigate the fracture
characteristics of high strength fibre reinforced concrete. The various
fracture parameters studied were the modulus-of-rupture and fracture
toughness (in Mode I loading), the shear strength (in Mode II loading),
the tensile strength and their respective toughness indices. The high
strength was provided by reducing the water-cement ratio, by the use of
admixtures and by the use of microsilica. Two types of fibres were used
in the study - steel and polypropylene fibres.
Increasing the compressive strength resulted in increased modulus-of-
rupture and fracture toughness together with a significant enhancement of
the shear strength. Increased compressive strength due to a reduced
water-cement ratio had only a marginal effect on the tensile strength,
whereas much larger increases in tensile strength was observed by the use
of admixtures and, in particular, by the use of microsilica.
The post-cracking toughness (measured by means of a toughness index)
increased with increasing fibre concentrations. The greatest enhancement
of toughness was observed in the Mode I tests. The post-cracking
toughness in shear and tension are significantly less than that observed
in the Mode I tests.
INTRODUCTION
In many practical situations concrete is merely required to fill large

voids or to provide mass. For such applications there is little incentive
to use concrete with a high compressive strength. However, for
applications in which weight reduction is important or where architectural
considerations require more slender vertical load carrying members,
concrete with higher compressive strength has been used. The trend for a
number of years (for a wide variety of reasons) has been towards the use
of higher grade concrete. This trend is partly due to the changes which
have taken place in cements available. High strength concrete has been
used for columns and shear walls of high-rise buildings, precast and
412
prestressed products and any construction where durability is important.

It has been shown that the manufacture of high strength concrete is
technically and economically feasible using conventional materials with
careful quality control. High strength can be achieved with normal curing
procedures by adopting low values of water-cement ratios, by using high
cement contents and by the addition of mineral and chemical products such
as admixtures and silica fume. Using modern cements and techniques of mix
design, it is possible to achieve cube strengths in the region of 100N/mm2
without recourse to unusual materials or manufacturing/curing methods.
The main purpose of the work reported here was to investigate the
fracture properties of high strength concrete materials. In particular,
the fracture characteristics of plain and fibre reinforced concrete mixes
was studied. The fracture characteristics have been evaluated by the use
of two parameters - fracture toughness which gives an indication of the
resistance to cracking and toughness index which gives an indication of
the post-first-crack toughness. These two parameters were used to
evaluate the fracture characteristics when specimens were subjected to
flexure, shear and tensile loading conditions. In this study, the high
strength was achieved by suitable proportioning and not by steam curing or
application of pressure. An interesting part of the study was evaluating
the optimum fibre concentration to be added for enhancing the toughness of
mixes which already had potential workability difficulty.
All the results reported here were obtained from one basic mix with
proportions of 1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 representing cement:fine aggregate:coarse
aggregate. The cement used was Ordinary Portland Cement, the fine
aggregate was sea-dredged sand obtained locally and the coarse aggregate
was crushed limestone from Newport (10mm maximum size). The above mix
with a water-cement ratio of 0.5 has been used extensively in the same
laboratory and results in a concrete with a compressive strength in the
range 50-55N/mm2 . In this study the water-cement ratio was reduced to 0.4
and 0.35.
Admixtures and microsilica were also used in this study. Four types
of water-reducing admixtures were initially studied (1 ) and the one used
for the work reported here was "Cormix 211" at a dosage of 210ml/50kg of
cement with a water-cement ratio of 0.33. The microsilica used in the
study was "EMSAC", a commercially available microsilica admixture.
Following the production of trial mixes it was decided to add "EMSAC" at
the rate of 1 0 % microsilica liquid by weight of the cement content.
Two types of fibres were used in the study - polypropylene fibres and
steel fibres. The polypropylene fibres were of the fibrillated type and
were single size (50mm). The steel fibres were straight, 30mm long and
with a diameter of 0.3mm i.e. aspect ratio of 100. Initial tests showed
that it was not possible to add high fibre concentrations to the above
mixes. Thus the two polypropylene fibre concentrations used were 0.15 and
0.30% by weight and the two steel fibre concentrations were 1 and 2% by
weight of the total mix.
All the mixes were prepared in a 2 cubic foot pan mixer. The basic
mix (cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate) was initially mixed and
the water added. When fibres were used, the mixing procedure was the same
as above and then the fibres were incorporated in small amounts by hand in
order to distribute them into the wet mix in a random but uniform manner,
413
avoiding the "balling" of the fibres. The admixture was added to the mix
at the same time as the water. However, in the case of the microsilica it
was added after adding the water to the mix. The samples were compacted
by means of a vibrating table.
Forty mixes giving a total of 240 beams were prepared in this study.
For each mix, three control specimens of 100mm cubes in plain concrete and
three with fibre reinforcement were cast and tested at 28 days. Curing
was carried out under water in the usual manner for 28 days. In the case
of specimens which were notched, the notches were introduced by means of a
masonry saw at 2 1 days.
Two types of test specimens and three loading arrangements were used
to determine the fracture toughness, shear strengths, tensile strengths
and toughness index values. The first type of test specimens were
standard 500x100x100mm beams, where some of them were loaded using the
modulus-of-rupture testing arrangement (Fig. 1(a)) and the remaining were
notched centrally and tested as shown in Fig. 1(b). For the notched
specimens, two ratios of notch depth to overall size of the specimen (0 . 2 0
and 0.30) were used (1). However, only the results for the notch depth
ratio of 0 . 2 0 are reported here.
The second type of test specimens used in this study were
2 0 0 x1 0 0 x1 0 0 mm prisms prepared by cutting 200mm long specimens from the
already tested and broken beams. The prisms were modified by the
introduction of two opposite but displaced 50mm deep notches as
illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. The notch separation distance between the
roots of the two opposite notches were 20mm and 30mm (1) but only the
results for a slot separation distance of 20mm are reported here. Half
the prisms were loaded as shown in Fig. 2 to give a shear stress
distribution along the plane joining the roots of the two notches. The
other half were loaded as shown in Fig. 3 to determine the tensile
strength of the specimens.
All tests were carried out at nominal room temperature under
deflection control by means of a 45kN capacity Instron machine. The
cross-head of the machine was driven at 0.5mm/min inall experiments. The
load-deflection graphs were produced autographically by the machine - a
typical load-deflection curve is illustrated in Fig. 4. Loading was
continued until a deflection of three times the deflection at first-crack
was achieved. The load-deflection curve was used to determine the
cracking load and also the post-cracking toughness. Toughness was
evaluated by means of toughness indices. Two types of toughness indices
were used in the study (1 ) but only one toughness index is reported here.
(Toughness indices are reported separately in another paper at this
Conference (2)). The toughness index used here is expressed as follows
(see Fig. 4):
Area A + Area B + Area C

Toughness Index = -------------------------
Area A
This definition is the same as that given by Johnston (3) for the I^
toughness index.
RESULTS
A summary of the compressive strength and workability results are given in

Table 1. These results show the ineffectiveness of the slump test to show
414
■flL
L_
L_
T 3 3
(a) Loading arrangem ent fo r M .O .R .te s t.
p a = Notch depth
.1
f
(b) Notched beam loaded as shown in (a).
Fig. 1 Flexure test specimens
L oa d
(b) distribution of stresses between

the roots of the two notches in
(a)
(a) short beam shear specimen
Fig. 2 Shear test specimen

415
P
Fig 3. Tensile test specimen
A+B+C
A
416
the workability of FRC mixes. However, the Ve Be results show the

relative workability of the mixes and give a good indication of the
problems encountered with increasing fibre concentration. The compressive
strength decreases with increasing polypropylene fibre concentration and
increases with increasing steel fibre concentration. However, the effect
of fibre concentration on the compressive strength is only marginal.
Simply reducing the water-cement ratio from 0.40 to 0.35 has a marked
effect on the workability of the mix. Much improved compaction can be
achieved by the use of admixtures and microsilica as shown by the results
in Table 1.
Table 2 gives the fracture characteristics in flexure in terms of
modulus-of-rupture, fracture toughness and toughness index for the range
of variables studied. Two general trends can be observed from the results
- the effect of type and concentration of fibre is only marginal for any
given basic type of mix and the greatest variation is observed by changing
the basic mix by water content reduction or by the use of
admixture/microsilica. Reducing the water-cement ratio from 0.40 to 0.35
has a significant effect on the enhancement of the modulus-of-rupture and
fracture toughness results. Further small improvements are observed by
the addition of admixtures and microsilica.
The addition of fibres appears to have very little effect on the
modulus-of-rupture and fracture toughness results for the four basic mixes
studied. However, the effect of fibre type and concentration is clearly
observed from the toughness index results given in Table 2. The toughness
is enhanced by increasing fibre concentration with the greater enhancement
being observed by the steel FRC mixes (on the basis of volume
concentration). Some tests were also carried out with greater fibre
concentrations, but it is found that the poor workability of these mixes
made them impractical for useful study (1 ).
The fracture characteristics of the various mixes in the shear
failure mode are presented in Table 3. These tests were carried out on
the broken half-beams obtained from the notched beams tested in flexure.
The method of loading in shear is illustrated in Fig. 2 which shows that
the applied loads were provided by uniform compression at the top and
bottom faces of the test specimens. Although a range of notch separation
distances were used in the full study (1 ), only the results for a notch
separation distance of 20mm are given here. Some care is required in the
interpretation of the shear strength results since the coefficients of
variation were relatively large (1 ).
The results presented in Table 3 show that the shear strength
increased with the addition of fibre and the greatest values were obtained
by adding steel fibres. Table 3 also shows that the use of admixtures and
microsilica have a significant effect in improving the shear strength.
The most important conclusion to be drawn from the toughness index results
in the shear mode is that the toughness is significantly less than that
observed in the flexure mode. This observation confirms earlier work in
the same laboratory.
Tension tests were also carried out using the loading arrangement
shown in Fig. 4 which is described elsewhere (4). The tensile strength
results together with their corresponding toughness indices are reported
in Table 4. The tensile strength results reported in Table 4 are well
within the range of values obtained from the indirect tensile strength
test.
It is difficult to draw firm conclusions from the results given in
Table 4. The effect of the type and concentration of fibre on tensile
strength is indeterminate. However, the addition of microsilica appears
417
TABLE 1
Compressive strength and Workability results
Concrete Fibre Compressive Workability

Mix Content Strength Slump Ve Be
Details (%wt.) (N/mm2 ) (mm) (sec)
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 78.0 4 6
w/c = 0.40 0.15% Poly. 73.5 0 28
0.30% Poly. 69.3 0 44
1.00% Steel 81.1 0 23
2.00% Steel 84.1 0 38
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 82.8 1 23
w/c = 0.35 0.15% Poly. 77.3 0 35
0.30% Poly. 69.8 0 49
1.00% Steel 83.9 0 34
2.00% Steel 91.2 0 45
Admixture Plain 84.0 16 11
w/c = 0.33 0.15% Poly 79.8 7 20
0.30% Poly. 73.0 2 45
1.00% Steel 86.7 0 16
2.00% Steel 93.0 0 25
Microsilica Plain 90.0 7 17
w/c = 0.33 0.15% Poly. 86.3 2 18
0.13% Poly. 80.0 0 32
1.00% Steel 91.8 0 17
2.00% Steel 93.8 0 29
TABLE 2
Fracture characteristics in Flexure
Concrete Fibre Modulus Fracture Toughness

Mix Content of Rupture Toughness Index
Details (%wt.) (N/mm2 ) (N/mm3/2) (A+B+C)/A
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 6.21 28.66
w/c = 0.40 0.15% Poly. 5.89 30.00 2.62
0.30% Poly 5.77 29.07 3.29
1.00% Steel 6.74 28.61 2.57
2.00% Steel 8.10 35.20 3.73
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 8.99 38.54
w/c = 0.35 0.15% Poly. 8.02 34.07 2.38
0.30% Poly. 8.33 35.14 3.50
1.00% Steel 8.07 34.85 2.73
2.00% Steel 8.43 38.45 3.82
Admixture Plain 8.78 37.37
w/c = 0.33 0.15% Poly. 8.64 39.10 2.74
0.30% Poly. 8.50 36.80 2.75
1.00% Steel 9.02 39.19 2.20
2.00% Steel 8.60 42.31 2.97
Microsilica Plain 9.41 39.12
w/c = 0.33 0.15% Poly. 9.05 41.05 1.91
0.30% Poly. 8.75 40.05 2.39
1.00% Steel 9.31 37.89 2.97
2.00% Steel 9.21 39.56 4.49
418
TABLE 3
Fracture characteristics in Shear
Concrete Fibre Shear Toughness

Mix Content Stress Index
Details (%wt.) (N/mm2) (A+B+C)/A
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 8.41
w/c - 0.40 0.15% Poly. 9.13 2.06
0.30% Poly. 9.58 2.43
1.00% Steel 10.65 1.80
2.00% Steel 12.21 1.81
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 6.14
w/c = 0.35 0.15% Poly. 6.95 1.60
0.30% Poly. 9.42 1.69
1.00% Steel 14.66 2.25
2.00% Steel 12.88 1.86
Admixture Plain 10.31
w/c - 0.33 0.15% Poly 9.73 1.47
0.30% Poly. 10.8 6 1.85
1.00% Steel 12.77 1.66
2.00% Steel 12.08 1.82
Microsilica Plain 11.78
w/c = 0.33 0.15% Poly. 9.81 1.36
0.13% Poly. 11.95 1.47
1.00% Steel 11.88 1.74
2.00% Steel 14.09 2.24
TABLE 4
Fracture characteristics in Tension
Concrete Fibre Tensile Toughness

Mix Content Strength Index
Details (%wt.) (N/mm2 ) (A+B+C)/A
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 3.10
w/c = 0.40 0.15% Poly. 3.04 1.99
0.30% Poly 2.84 2.37
1.00% Steel 2.35 2.83
2.00% Steel 2.75 3.07
1 :1 .8 :2 . 8 Plain 2.07
w/c = 0.35 0.15% Poly. 4.08 2.25
0.30% Poly. 4.27 2.25
1.00% Steel 4.04 1.94
2.00% Steel 4.46 3.26
Admixture Plain 3.07
w/c * 0.33 0.15% Poly. 3.03 1.91
0.30% Poly. 3.81 1.33
1.00% Steel 4.64 1.56
2.00% Steel 4.14 2.32
Microsilica Plain 4.74
w/c = 0.33 0.15% Poly. 3.80 1.05
0.30% Poly. 4.48 1.40
1.00% Steel 4.42 2.23
2.00% Steel 4.04 3.27
419
to show the greatest enhancement in the tensile strength. Increasing

fibre content results in improved toughness but the enhancement in the
toughness is significantly less than that observed in the flexure tests.
Further work is required on tensile testing before drawing firm
conclusions.
CONCLUSIONS
The main objective of the work reported here was to study various fracture
parameters of high strength plain and fibre reinforced concrete. The high
strength was provided by reducing the water-cement ratio, by the use of
admixtures and by the use of microsilica. The various fracture parameters
studied included the resistance to crack initiation in various fracture
modes and their respective toughness indices. The resistance to cracking
was investigated in flexure, shear and tension.
The main conclusions are as follows:
i) Increasing the compressive strength results in increased modulus-of-
rupture and fracture toughness values. However, the addition of
fibres had little effect on these results. On the other hand, the
toughness indices increased with increasing fibre concentrations.
ii) As the compressive strength increased, significant enhancement of the
shear strength was observed. However, the post-cracking toughness in
shear is much less than that obtained from Mode I tests.
iii) Increased compressive strength due to a reduced water-cement ratio
had only a marginal effect on the tensile strength. Much larger
increases in tensile strength were observed, by the use of admixtures
and, in particular, by the use of microsilica. As in the case of
shear failure, the post-cracking toughness was considerably less than
the corresponding values obtained in the flexure tests.
iv) In general, it was observed that increasing the compressive strength
resulted in an increase in brittleness of the plain concrete mixes.
However, enhanced toughness was achieved in the case of the FRC mixes
by means of the fibres.
REFERENCES
1. Benaiche, F., Fracture characteristics of high strength concrete.

M.Phil. Thesis, University of Wales College of Cardiff, 1988, pp. 214.
2. Weiss, V.J., Barr, B. and Ali, I.A.I., Fracture performance of FRC

materials under various curing conditions. Proceedings Int. Conf. on
Recent Developments in Fibre Reinforced Cements and Concrete, Cardiff,
September 1989.
3. Johnston, C.D., Definitions and measurement of flexural toughness

parameters for fibre reinforced concrete. Cement, Concrete and
Aggregate, Vol. 4, No. 2, Winter 1982, pp. 53-60.
4. Barr, B., Asghari, A. and Hughes, T.G., Tensile strength and toughness
of FRC materials. The Int. Journal of Cement Composites and
Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 10, No. 2, May 1988, pp. 101-107.
420
TOUGHENED BEHAVIOR AND MECHANISMS OF SYNTHETIC FIBER REINFORCED

NORMAL STRENGTH AND HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
V.C. LI*, S. BACKER**, Y. WANG**, R. WARD* AND E.GREEN*

*Advanced Construction Materials Research Laboratory
**Fibers and Polymer Laboratory
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
ABSTRACT
This paper broadly reviews some of the improvements in toughness and

ductility of normal and high strength concrete due to synthetic fiber
reinforcement. Examples of improvements in the ultimate shear strength of
longitudinally reinforced beams without shear stirrups and the flexural
strength and energy capacity of unreinforced beams, which are a direct
result of synthetic fiber reinforcement are mentioned. Some preliminary
results relating to the ability of synthetic fibers to reduce the
brittleness of high strength mortar and concrete are presented. Finally
some of the mechanisms which lead to the improved performance of synthetic
FRC are reviewed.
INTRODUCTION
Plain concrete is a brittle material with low tensile strength and

resistance to fracture. Research over the last number of years has
demonstrated that fiber reinforcement can provide significant improvements
to the tensile behavior of concrete. Many research programs have focussed
exclusively on steel fibers. This paper takes a general look at various
experimental results which show that for comparable volume fractions,
certain synthetic fibers can promote toughness and ductility exceeding even
that provided by steel fibers, despite the commonly held notion that
synthetic fibers are less effective due to poor bonding between fiber and
matrix.
An ongoing synthetic FRC research program conducted at the Advanced

Construction Materials Research Laboratory and the Fibers and Polymer
Laboratory at MIT has generated a set of fundamental material and structural
experimental data. To date, selected mechanisms of tensile failure in
various synthetic fiber types have been investigated. A brief discussion of
these mechanisms is here presented in relation to their observed
contributions to FRC material toughness. Some preliminary experimental
421
observations in fiber reinforced high strength concrete (f'c * 90 MPa) are

also reported.
STRUCTURAL AND MATERIAL PERFORMANCE OF TOUGHENED SYNTHETIC FRC
Shear Beam Tests
A large experimental program involving center-point bending tests on beams

reinforced only with longitudinal steel, has showed the effectiveness of
including synthetic fibers for shear reinforcement. Details of the test
program are given by Ward and Li [1] . A mortar matrix with fiber volume
fractions of 1 and 2% was employed. The measured increases in diagonal
shear failure strength were found dependent on the longitudinal steel
reinforcement ratio p, the shear span/effective depth ratio a/d, the beam
depth, the particular fiber type and the fiber volume fraction. A 1%
volume fraction of 12.7 mm long Spectra 900 (ultrastrength polyethylene)
fibers increased the ultimate shear strength by 134% above that of a plain
mortar beam, with p = 3.3% and a/d = 3 . 0 . A similar volume fraction of 50
mm crimped steel fibers increased the ultimate shear strength of the same
beam by 142%. Reinforcement of a slightly lower strength mortar with a 2%
volume fraction of 6.4 mm Kevlar 49 (aramid) fibers increased the ultimate
shear strength by 184%, with p = 2.2% and a/d = 3.0. The general range of
strength increase was 50-150%, depending on the beam parameters.
The shear strength increase can be related directly to an increase in

the material fracture resistance due to fiber reinforcement. In beams
with a/d > 2 . 5 , failure did not follow immediately after diagonal cracking
as for the plain mortar beams, but rather there was continued increase in
the load capacity due to ability of the fibers to transfer tensile
stresses across the diagonal crack and also to resist the propagation of
dowel cracks along the reinforcement towards the support. Fig. 1 shows
the crack failure pattern in a plain mortar beam with a/d = 3.0 and p =
1.1%. A similar cracking pattern occurred in beams with p = 2.2 and 3.3%.
In fiber reinforced beams a number of diagonal shear cracks usually formed
throughout the beam before a critical crack opened up and caused failure
at the ultimate load. Fig. 2 shows the critical crack shape at failure in
a beam reinforced with a 2% volume fraction of Kevlar fibers and with p =
2.2% and a/d = 3.0. Of particular significance is the ability of the
materials to resist the propagation of a dowel crack. The ultimate shear
strength of the beam in Fig. 2 was 2.68 MPa compared to 1.02 MPa for an
exactly similar beam without fibers. The same beam reinforced with a 2%
volume fraction of 25 mm crimped steel fibers had a strength of 2.56 MPa.
In many cases fiber reinforcement increased the shear strength
sufficiently so that ultimate beam failure was in flexure with tensile
yielding of the primary reinforcing steel. Fig. 3 shows a flexural failure
in a beam with a 1% volume fraction of Kevlar fibers and with p = 1.1% and
a/d = 3.0. The shear stress at flexural failure was 2.48 MPa compared to
a shear failure strength of 1.32 MPa for the same beam without fibers,
which was shown in Fig. 1. In shorter beams with a/d < 2.5, fiber
reinforcement prevented the arch-splitting like failure which occurred in
the plain mortar beams and instead a shear-compressionlike failure
occurred. Fig. 4 shows a splitting failure in a plain mortar beam with p
=2.2% and a/d = 1.5. Fig. 5 shows the crack shape in a similar beam
reinforced with a 2% volume fraction of Kevlar fibers. The fiber
reinforced beam had an ultimate shear strength of 3.63 MPa compared to
1.72 MPa for the plain mortar beam. These experiments clearly demonstrate
422
Fig. 1 Shear crack in plain mortar beam. a/d=3.0 p=1.1%
Fig. 2 Critical shear crack in beam with 2% Kevlar fibers. a/d=3.0

p =2.2%
Fig. 3 Flexural failure in beam with 1% Kevlar fibers. a/d=3.0

p =1.1%
Fig. 4 Shear crack in plain mortar beam. a/d=1.5 p=2.2%

423
Fig. 5 Critical shear crack in beam with 2% Kevlar fibers. a/d=1.5

p = 2 .2 %
the ability of fibers to promote a tortuous crack path and to transfer

stresses across that crack.
Flexural and Direct Tensile Behavior
Four-point bending tests have also been conducted on normal strength

mortar, high strength mortar and high strength concrete beams, with and
without synthetic fiber reinforcement and without any longitudinal steel
reinforcement. In each such test the load-deflection curve was recorded.
Fiber reinforcement led to very significant increases in both the ultimate
strength and the energy absorption capacity of the beams, especially for
the mortar beams. Reinforcement of normal strength mortar with a 1%
volume fraction of 12.7 m m Spectra fibers gave a flexural strength
increase from 2.6 to 8.9 MPa and the total energy capacity (area under the
complete load-deflection curve) was increased about 150 times. A similar
volume fraction of 50 m m crimped steel fibers increased the flexural
strength to 7.4 MPa and the energy capacity was increased about 165 times.
Complete details of the entire flexural testing program on fiber
reinforced normal strength mortar are given by Ward and Li [2]. The
tremendous ability of Spectra fiber reinforced beams to absorb energy
stems from the multiple cracking which occurs before the ultimate load.
Fig. 6 shows some cracks which formed away from the critical cracking
plane in a flexure specimen. The extreme right hand side of the beam is
where the critical crack formed and where the beam eventually broke into
two parts. A 1% volume fraction of the shorter Kevlar fibers increased
the flexural strength to 5.1. MPa but did not give rise to multiple
cracking. A typical failure pattern is shown in Fig. 7.
The effect of Spectra fiber reinforcement on the tensile behavior of

high strength mortar (f*c = 94 MPa) and concrete (f*c = 91 MPa)was
examined by both direct tension and flexural tests. In the direct tension
tests, some instability occurred after the matrix cracked and a sudden
load drop from the composite tensile strength was observed. This
particular testing instrument had been successfully used to measure the
softening curve of normal strength fiber reinforced mortar but it has been
found to be not stiff enough for the high strength material. Because of
this initial unstable behavior, along with dynamic energy absorption, the
recorded softening curves are considered to underestimate the true
material fracture energy. Fig. 8 shows recorded softening curves for both
normal strength and high strength mortar. In the high strength mortar
test a sudden drop in load down to zero was recorded when the matrix
cracked and then the load increased back up to the level shown and later
424
Fig. 6 Multiple flexural cracks in beam with 1% Spectra fibers
Fig. 7 Single flexural crack in beam with 1% Kevlar fibers
Crack opening (mm)

Fig. 8 Tension softening curves
gradually decreased as the fibers pulled out. The exact explanation for
this behavior is unknown. There may be some rate effects due to the
higher matrix cracking stress in the high strength material with a
subsequent more sudden stress transfer to the f i b e r s . This may even cause
some fibers to break or to "jerk" slightly out of the matrix. The
measured critical crack opening 8C , is smaller in the tests on the high
strength material. Again, the reason for this is not fully understood.
The larger amount of bumpiness in the softening curve for the normal
strength mortar is likely related to the spalling effect associated with
snubbing frictional force due to fiber pull-out at an angle to the
fracture plane. In contrast, mortar spalling is reduced in the higher
strength mortar.
425
The tensile strength (direct) of high strength plain mortar was 3.33
MPa compared to a tensile strength of 5.26 MPa for the plain concrete.
Thus the aggregates significantly increased (58%) the tensile strength.
From this observation we believe that microcracking commences in the
mortar and propagates towards the aggregate-mortar interface. Bedause of
the high interfacial bond strength in high strength concrete (due to the
dense packing of mortar around the aggregate with the use of
superplasticizer and condensed silica fume) the cracks do not propagate
around the interface as is the case in normal strength concrete. As the
stress continues to increase, the cracks eventually cut through the
aggregate, giving rise to a smooth fracture plane. It may be expected
that the tension softening curve for high strength concrete has a very
high peak tensile strength, but'shows a very sudden drop due to the
absence of gradual aggregate pull-out as occurs in normal strength
concrete.
Hillerborg [3] defined the material characteristic length, lQj1 =

GpE/f^t , as a measure of the upward slope of the stress-strain curve
relative to the downward slope of the softening curve, and as such a
measure of material brittleness. A low 1 ^ signifies a brittle material.
Petersson [4] found lchto decrease from 500 to 87 mm when the plain
concrete cube strength increased from 29.8 to 59.8 MPa, thus illustrating
the greater brittleness of higher strength concrete. The aim of part of
this experimental program was to show that synthetic fiber reinforcement
could significantly increase the 1 ^ value of high strength material and
thus eliminate the disadvantages of a more brittle material. However,
because of our inability to measure a stable softening curve immediately
after the tensile strength, it was not possible to calculate accurate lch
values from the direct tension test results. In order to qualitatively
estimate the effects of fibers on material brittleness a simple procedure
was used, which only involves measuring the tensile and flexural strengths
and calculating the ff/ff ratio. Application of this ranking procedure is
more fully described by Ward and Li [2].
The simple basis for this method is that a lower ff/ff ratio
signifies a more brittle material. Petersson [4] used the fictitious
crack model [5] and finite element analysis, with an assumed linear
elastic stress-strain curve and a linear softening curve, to show the
ff/f^ ratio as a continuously increasing function of the material
characteristic length. Experimentally, he found an increase in ff/ff from
1.73 to 2.29 when 1 ^ increased from 87 to 500 mm. Neville [6] found the
ff/ft ratio for plain concrete to decrease from 1.78 to 1.57 when concrete
compressive strength increased from 20 to 65 MPa, and the material became
more brittle.
In this experimental program, when high strength mortar was

reinforced with a 1% volume fraction of 12.7 mm Spectra fibers the tensile
strength dropped from 3.33 MPa to 2.77 MPa and the flexural strength
increased from 3.02 MPa to 6.21 MPa. The tensile strength reduction may
be related to an increase in the critical flaw size, due to less material
compaction when fibers are present. When high strength concrete
(compressive strength = 91 MPa) was reinforced with a 1% volume fraction
of 12.7 mm Spectra fibers the tensile strength dropped from 5.26 MPa to
4.18 MPa and the flexural strength decreased from 7.68 MPa to 7.46 MPa.
Fibers increased the ff/ft ratio of the mortar from 0.91 to 2.24 but only
increased the ff/ft ratio of the concrete from 1.46 to 1.78. These
results indicate that fibers reduce the brittleness of both the mortar and
426
the concrete, but they appear to work much more effectively in the mortar,
in absence of aggregates. This may be explained as follows. It may be
expected that the fiber matrix bond strength is similar in the mortar and
the concrete and thus the total fiber contribution in each material should
be similar. Direct tension tests by Wang [7] with Spectra fiber
reinforced normal strength mortar indicated that after matrix cracking
there was a gradual reduction in stress from about 2.3 MPa as the fibers
pulled ou t . The maximum stress capacity of the fibres in the high
strength mortar is probably not very much higher than that in normal
strength mortar. Preliminary direct pull-out tests on a single nylon
monofilament showed no significant difference between the bond strengths
achieved in ordinary and high strength mortar. If we assume that the
maximum fiber contribution in the high strength mortar is about 2.5 MPa,
then when the fiber reinforced high strength mortar specimen cracks the
stress drops quickly from 2.77 MPa to 2.5 MPa whereas the corresponding
stress drop in the fiber reinforced high strength concrete specimen is
from 4.18 MPa to 2.5 MPa. This behavior is reflected by the much greater
influence of fibers on the ff/f^ ratio of mortar than of concrete.
However, there is another reason why the fiber mortar has such a high
ff/ft ratio.
Fig. 9 shows measured flexural load-deflection curves for both high

strength fiber reinforced mortar and concrete. The curves for the plain
mortar and plain concrete (i.e. without fibers) essentially overlap the
initial linear part of these curves and then drop suddenly to zero when
the flexural strength is reached. A first visible crack appeared in the
bottom of the fiber mortar beam at about 9.8 kN. However, because of the
ability of the fibers to still transfer stresses which are a high
proportion of the composite tensile strength (2.5 MPa compared to 2.77
MPa) the load on the beam continues to increase. Subsequently cracks
usually formed at two other sections within the high moment region. This
multiple cracking before ultimate load is responsible for the relatively
high deflections in the fiber mortar beams. Also, multiple cracking in a
flexure specimen allows deformations to exist within the beam which are
compatible with developing relatively high tensile stresses over a large
proportion of the beam depth. The theoretical limit of the ff/f^ ratio is
3.0 if the tensile strength is developed over the full beam depth and an
infinitesimal compression zone exists at the top of the beam. The load-
defection curve of the high strength fiber reinforced concrete has a very
different shape, with reduction in load capacity occurring after the first
T3
cd
o
hJ
Mid-span deflection (mm)
Fig. 9. Flexural load-deflection curves

427
visible crack appears at the maximum load. Because of the relatively high
material tensile strength, a crack does not appear in the fiber concrete
beam until a flexural stress of 7.46 MPa is reached. After the crack
forms there is a sudden drop in load capacity across the crack from 4.18
MPa to about 2.5 M P a . This sharp drop causes the applied load on the beam
to decrease also.
Comparison of these two materials shows clearly that fiber

reinforcement is proportionally more beneficial in a lower strength
material. This finding is consistent with results from flexural,
splitting tensile and shear beam tests on two concrete qualities, reported
by Niyogi et al [8]. It clearly shows that it is essential to use very
high performance fibers in order to effectively reinforce high strength
concrete. High performance means high tensile strength, high modulus and
high bond strength. Crimping of fibers or using fibers with variable
cross-sections throughout their length should lead to significant
increases in bond strength, with subsequent improvements in the ability of
the fibers immediately to pick up the full composite tensile stress after
the matrix cracks.
Compression Tests
In compression cylinder tests both high strength plain mortar and

plain concrete failed by a smooth cone splitting of the specimen.
Presumably the cone failure would be replaced by an axial splitting
failure if there were no friction between the loading platen and the
specimen. When high strength mortar was reinforced with a 1% volume
fraction of 12.7 mm Spectra fibers the compressive strength dropped from
94 to 79 MPa. When high strength concrete was similarly reinforced the
strength dropped from 91 to 83 MPa. When the same material was reinforced
with a 0.6% volume fraction of 6.4 mm Spectra fibers there was no strength
decrease. The compressive strength reductions due to fibers may be
related to the porosity increase resulting from compaction difficulties.
There is much less of a compaction problem with lower volume fractions of
shorter fibers and thus the 6.4 mm fibers gave no strength decrease. Many
investigators have found steel fibers to generally increase the
compressive strength by about 5-10%. This may be due to the dowel-like
resistance of stiff steel fibers which bridge crack-like defects where
compressive failure initiates. In line with this observation, the
possibility of using larger diameter stiffer synthetic fibers as
reinforcement is now being investigated.
Plain mortar and concrete specimens usually failed in a violent

explosive manner with disintegration of the specimen into many small
pieces. With synthetic fiber reinforcement, there was still some sudden
load drop after the ultimate load was reached but the specimen remained
in one piece, illustrating a more ductile response and a measure of self
confinement.
Double Cantilever Beam
In synthetic FRC, as in steel FRC, the major contributor to composite

toughness appears to be fiber bridging action across a tensile opening
crack. The bridging action provides a cohesive force on the macro-crack,
as a result of fiber resistance to pull-out. Fig. 10 is a photograph of
such fiber actions in a Spectra FRC DCB after loading to failure. Near
the crack tip region, a process zone of fiber bridging can be seen.
428
Fig. 10 Crack profile in double cantilever beam with 1% Spectra fibers
Beyond this process zone, the fibers have been either pulled out or
ruptured. The toughness of synthetic FRC arises from such a fracture
process zone. The amount of energy sunk into this process zone can be one
to two orders of magnitude higher than that of the cement or mortar
matrix.
Fracture Energy of Some Synthetic FRC
The fracture energy of synthetic FRC depends on the fiber type,

volume fraction and fiber lengths, and on the particular fiber finish and
pre-treatment. Figure 11 shows the range of fracture energy obtained for
a variety of synthetic FRCs (fibers used as is from manufacturer), based
on uniaxial tensile test results by Wang [7]. The data for concrete,
cement and high strength aluminum alloy is added for reference. It is
clear that the fracture energy of some synthetic FRC may reach that of
certain high strength metallic alloy. Further improvements may be
expected when fiber, matrix and interface parameters have been optimized
for the FRC composite. Interface properties can be altered by fiber p r e
treatment, such as fiber crimping (Li et al [9] ), texturing, etc. Plasma
treatment of ultra strength polyethylene has been performed for interface
b ond improvement (by Schwartz [10]). The data in Fig. 11 establishes a
base-line for future materials engineering research improvements.
FRACTURE TOUGHENING MECHANISMS
To derive high fracture toughness from fiber reinforcement, fibers

bridging a matrix crack in FRC should be pulled out against friction
rather than ruptured. Wang et al [11] studied fiber pull-out in detail by
testing specimens containing a nylon or polypropylene fiber across a
m atrix crack as shown in Fig. 12. As indicated by the test curves shown
in Fig. 13 , in most cases the pulling force continued to increase after
one or both sides of the filament in the matrix had begun to slip out,
even though one or both of the filament lengths remaining in the matrix
were decreasing. In addition, the final pull-out displacement was longer
than the embedded length of the shorter fiber segment. This indicated
that the fiber matrix shear stress became higher as the fiber slippage
distance increased with respect to the matrix. Examination of the
filaments pulled out from the matrix under a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) revealed that such increased shear resistance was the result of
fiber surface abrasion as illustrated in the SEM picture shown in Fig. 14.
429
HS Aluminum Alloy
Spectra 1 % (0.5")
Spectra 2 % (0.5")
Polypropelene 2 % (0.5")
Technora 2 % (0.5")
Spe.&Tech. 1% (0 .5 " )
Technora 1 % (0.5")
Technora 3 % (.25")
Polypropelene 2 % (.25")
Technora 1 % (.25")
Kevlar49 2 % (.25")
Technora 2 % (.25")
Acrylic 3 % (.25")
Carbon 1 % (.25")
Concrete
Cement
Fracture energy (kN/m)
Fig. 11 Fracture energy of synthetic FRC1s
Cement Matrix
matrix precrack
1— L,— - l , - 1
i 2
(50 mm) (70 mm)
178 mm
Fig. 12 Specimen for pull-out test
Crack separation (mm)

Fig. 13. Load vs. crack separation curves for pull-out tests
430
Fig. 14 Abrasion on synthetic fiber surface
The severity of abrasion was observed to increase with the fiber slippage
distance before complete pull-out. The additional energy absorption due
to fiber abrasion may be expected to improve the toughness of synthetic
FRC, although the toughening magnitude will vary according to, amongst
other parameters, fiber type and length.
To predict the response of fiber pull-out from a cement matrix, it

was found necessary to use a relationship of shear stress versus slippage
distance instead of a constant shear stress [12]. Such a relationship is
needed not only for synthetic fibers showing surface abrasion, but also
for steel fibers, both smooth and deformed, whose bond strengths generally
decrease with the slippage distance due to matrix breakdown during pull-
out .
In FRC containing randomly distributed fibers, few fibers are aligned

in the direction of the applied load, instead, almost all fibers are lying
at angles to the load direction. In experiments of nylon and
polypropylene angled fiber pull-out, it was generally observed that the
force and energy of fiber pull-out increase with the inclination angle,
but the increases were limited at high angles due to matrix spalling.
Test results for nylon fiber pull-out are shown in Fig. 15. Similar tests
have also been done on nylon monofilament pull-out from a high strength
matrix containing condensed silica fume. The results indicated that high
matrix strength reduced the amount of matrix spalling during high angle
pull-out. Thus the increase, both in load and energy absorption which
occurs in the high strength matrix at high angles is significantly greater
than that occurring in the normal strength matrix, this despite the fact
that the fiber/matrix bond strength (as measured at zero inclination
angle) was virtually the same for both cases.
The snubbing frictional force due to fiber pull-out at angles has an

important influence on the tensile behavior of FRC containing randomly
distributed fibers. It can be shown that for such composites the load
increase reported in Fig. 15 for pull-out would correspond to increases of
more than 200% in post cracking stress and fracture energy compared to the
case with the same reinforcement but without the snubbing friction effect.
This assumes that fibers are sufficiently strong to ensure pull-out, and
431
that the matrix does not spall. Clearly, increasing the strength of the
matrix is one of the important steps towards further improvement in
toughness for FRC showing fiber pull-out.
In certain FRC, fiber bundles were the dominant form of fiber

distribution. This is seen in aramid (Kevlar 49 and Technora) and in some
other fiber types when used with high fiber volume fractions. Fig. 16
illustrates some fiber bundling in a composite with a 2% volume fraction
of 12.7 mm Technora fibers. Often, the bundles appear to be infiltrated
by the cement slurry and form rod-like obstacles to crack formation. Due
to the high strength and stiffness of these bundles, crack deflection
around these fiber bundles in aramid FRC was often observed, resulting in
a relatively high tensile strength for the composite. However, the
formation of fiber bundles reduces the effective number of fibers in FRC
and can introduce weak spots in the bundle transverse direction. For
efficient use of the reinforcing fibers and for improvement of thecost-
effectiveness of FRC, the existence of fiber bundles should be minimized.
One possible way of doing this is to change the fiber surface finish so
that these fibers can disperse well in cement slurry. Development of an
opening device for the fiber stock would certainly be beneficial, one
functioning like the opening rolls of a modern rotor spinning machine.
Inclining angle (degrees)
0.4
+
•-i +
w 0.3
+ +
ff 0.2 +
d) + +
a fc fx ♦ +
w ♦ ♦ ♦ + X
+ i
0. 1 r
t
X = average value
i -------------- 1--------------,-------------- 1--------------r
20 40 60 80
Inclining angle (degrees)
Fig. 15 Effect of angle of inclination on fiber pull-out
432
Fig. 16 Fiber bundles in specimen with 2% volume fraction of 12.7 mm

Technora fibers
CONCLUSIONS
There is no doubt that synthetic fibers can be effective in providing

toughness to concrete, in a variety of mechanisms depending on the fiber
type. Improved material toughness in turn strongly influences structural
strength and ductility, as is reflected in the flexural, shear and
compressive behavior described. The influence of fiber length appears to
dominate composite toughness over other parameters, including fiber type.
Frictional pull-out is apparently the most important toughening mechanism.
Further improvement in toughness can be gained in fiber systems such as
with Spectra where fiber strength has not been exhausted. Further gain in
toughness can be achieved by means of fiber pretreatment to effect local
crimp or irregularities or to create controlled damage on the fiber during
the pull-out process. Success in toughening high strength concrete
depends critically on overcoming workability and compression strength
reduction problems, and also on using high performance fibers which have
high modulus, high tensile strength and a high bond strength with the
matrix.
Short of carrying out the J-based tension-softening curve test [13],

the ff/fj- ratio was found useful and convenient to characterize the
toughness improvement of high strength concrete and mortar by fiber
reinforcement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation

through a grant to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
433
REFERENCES
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Thesis, Dept, of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
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polyethylene using ammonia plasma. To appear in Composites Science
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out from a cement matrix. B o n d in g i n C e m e n t it io u s C o m p o s ite s / ed. s .
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Proceedings, 1 1 4 , 1988, pp. 159-165.
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cement matrix, International Journal of Cement Composites and
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13. Li, V.C., and Ward, R., A novel testing technique for post-peak
tensile behavior of cementitious materials, Proceedings, International
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Concrete and Rock, Ed. Mihashi, 1988, pp.139-156.
434
IMPROVEMENTS I N THE W ORK ABILITY AND HARDENED CEMENT P A ST E

Q U A L IT Y OF ST E E L F IB R E REINFORCED CONCRETE
JAKOB SUSTERSie, STANISLAV URBAN6 l £ , ANDREJ STEFANClS

AND PETER SHEPPARD
Institute f o r T e s t i n g a n d R e s e a r c h in M a t e r i a l s a n d S t r u c t u r e s ,
D i m i c e v a 12, 6 1 0 0 0 L j u b l j a n a , Y u g o s l a v i a
ABSTRACT
S o m e r e s u l t s of l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t o n f r e s h a n d
h a r d e n e d s p e c i m e n s of steel f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e w i t h
fibres from our own pilot p r o d u c t i o n are discussed. The
increased workability and p l a c e a b i l i t y of fresh fibre
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , a n d a c e m e n t p a s t e of i m p r o v e d q u a l i t y to
i n c r e a s e the b o n d b e t w e e n the fibres and the h a r d e n e d ceme n t
p a s t e , w e r e t h e m a i n g o a l of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
T h e r e s u l t s s h o w t h a t a d d i n g f i b r e s to th e m a t r i x in t h e l i q u i d
state imp r o v e s the w o r k a b i l i t y of s t e e l fibre reinforced
concrete. First crack strength, ultimate flexural strength,
i m p a c t t o u g h n e s s a n d c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h w e r e i m p r o v e d in th e
case of c o n c r e t e s w i t h a b e t t e r cem e n t paste. The t oughness
i n d i c e s o b t a i n e d b y t h e A S T M C 1018 m e t h o d ( ^ q )* a n d b y W a n g
a n d B a c k e r ’s m e t h o d ( D T I o q ), w e r e i m p r o v e d , too. O n th e o t h e r
ha n d , t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s a c h i e v e d in w o r k a b i l i t y a n d c e m e n t p a s t e
q u a l i t y d i d n o t r e s u l t in a n i n c r e a s e in B a r r ’s t o u g h n e s s i n d e x
(i B a r r ^ anc* A S T M C 1 0 1 8 i n d i c e s Ig a n d I j q »
INTRO DUCTIO N
T h e r e s u l t s of a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s of s t e e l
f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e (SFRC) s p e c i m e n s a r e d i s c u s s e d in t he
p a p e r . T h e w o r k a b i l i t y of t h i s k i n d of c o n c r e t e h a s to be s u c h
t h a t it c a n be e a s i l y p l a c e d in v e r t i c a l f o r m s o n site. The
a b r a s i o n - e r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e of th e S F R C in t h e h a r d e n e d s t a t e
s h o u l d , f o r c e r t a i n f r e q u e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s , be s u c h t h a t w a t e r
c o n t a i n i n g g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s c a n f l o w o v e r th e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e
w i t h o u t c a u s i n g d a m a g e to it.
T h e u s e of f l y a s h as a p a r t i a l replacement for cement,

t o g e t h e r w i t h the use of a w a t e r r e d u c i n g a g e n t , directly
enhances workability, so e a s i n g the inherent compaction
435
p r o b l e m s of f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . W i t h a d e q u a t e l y w o r k a b l e
mixes, the presence of fibres causes no reduction in
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h (1 ).
S u p e r p l a s t i c i z e r s a r e u s e d e i t h e r to i n c r e a s e s t r e n g t h , or to
i m p r o v e w o r k a b i l i t y w i t h o u t c a u s i n g a r e d u c t i o n in s t r e n g t h .
T h e a d d i n g of s u p e r p l a s t i c i z e r s i n c r e a s e s th e c o h e s i v e n e s s of
t h e m i x t u r e w h e n s u b j e c t e d to v i b r a t i o n . A h i g h c e m e n t c o n t e n t
is n e e d e d , a n d a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r h a s to be add e d , in o r d e r to
restore the workability, with a consequent increase in
s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n s . T h i s s h o r t c o m i n g c a n be e l i m i n a t e d b y th e
u s e o f s u p e r p l a s t i c i z e r s (2 ).
S o m e s t u d i e s (3)(4) h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t s i l i c a f u m e c a n be u s e d
to i m p r o v e t h e b o n d p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e t e , i n c l u d i n g t he b o n d
to t h e f i b r e s . B u t f u r t h e r a d d i t i o n o f f i b r e s to a c o n c r e t e
m a t r i x w i t h g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d b o n d p r o p e r t i e s d o e s n o t l e a d to
a n e q u i v a l e n t i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e c o m p o s i t e p r o p e r t i e s , since
the b o n d d e c r e a s e s d r a s t i c a l l y w h e n the n u m b e r of r a n d o m l y
o r i e n t e d f i bres b e ing p u l l e d out s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from the same
a r e a i n c r e a s e s (5).
M o s t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n in t h i s p a p e r is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
t o u g h n e s s of S F R C s p e c i m e n s , w h i c h is e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of
n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l quantities, s u c h as t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s . The
l a t t e r a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t he a r e a u n d e r l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s
o b t a i n e d f r o m static, f o u r - p o i n t f l e x u r a l t e n s i o n t e sts. The
m e t h o d s c u r r e n t l y u s e d to e v a l u a t e the t o u g h n e s s of S F R C
specimens (I B a r r ( 6 ) ’ I 5» I 10» I 30< 7 ) , ( 8 ) , ( 9 ) , (10 ) , D T I 2 0 ( U ) )
are reviewed.
The mix proportions used are presented in T a b l e 1.
TABLE 1
The mix proportions u s e d to m a k e th e SFRC specimens
MIX W/C STEEL SILICA CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES

DESIG RATIO FIBRES FUME Super- Air entrai-
NATION plasticizer ning agent
(v o l .%) ( as a % of th e c e m e n t c o n t e n t )
_ _
JO 0.40 — 3.0
J1 0.40 0.5 - 3.0 -
J2 0.40 1.0 - 3.0 -

J3 0.40 2.0 - 3.0 -
JMS1 0.42 0.5 10 2.0 0.050

JMS2 0.42 0.5 10 2 .0 -
H o o k e d s t e e l f i b r e s f r o m o u r o w n p i l o t p r o d u c t i o n w e r e used.
T h e l e n g t h of t h e f i b r e s w a s 1 = 32 mm, a n d t h e i r d i a m e t e r w a s
d = 0 . 3 2 mm. Thu s , t h e a s p e c t r a t i o of t h e f i b r e s w a s 1 / d = 100
436
480 k g / m of P o r t l a n d c e m e n t w i t h 15% B F S (PC 15z 4 5 S - P C S

A n h o v o ) w a s u s e d to p r e p a r e t h e S F R C m i x e s J O - J3 . Pure
P o r t l a n d c e m e n t (PC 4 5 B T r b o v l j e ) , p r e v i o u s l y t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d
w i t h 10 % of s i l i c a fume, w a s u s e d to p r e p a r e the S F R C m i x e s
w i t h d e s i g n a t i o n s JMS 1 a n d JMS2, th e t o t a l c o n t e n t o f c e m e n t
a n d s i l i c a f u m e a m o u n t i n g to 4 8 0 k g / m . G r a v e l aggregate
( H o t i c ) in g r a d i n g s of 0/4 m m (58%) a n d 4/8 m m (42%) w a s u s e d
f o r al l t h e m i x e s .
T h e f r e s h c o n c r e t e s w e r e t e s t e d f o r t h e i r w o r k a b i l i t y (slump,
Vebe index), air content and density. An estimate of
w o r k a b i l i t y , p l a c e a b i l i t y and c o m p a c t a b i l i t y was m ade for e ach
mixture.
C o m p a c t i o n w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y m e a n s of a v i b r a t i n g table. T h e
c u b e s a n d b e a m s w e r e c u r e d f o r 28 d a y s at 9 5 % r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y
a n d at a t e m p e r a t u r e of 2 0 ° C.
The c o m p r e s s i v e strength, first crack flexural tension

s t r e n g t h , a n d u l t i m a t e f l e x u r a l t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h , as w e l l as
t h e t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s at s t a t i c l o a d i n g , a n d i m p a c t t o u g h n e s s ,
w e r e d e t e r m i n e d from l a b o r a t o r y tests c a r r i e d out on spec i m e n s
of th e f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e s in t h e h a r d e n e d state.
M IX IN G , W O RKABILITY AND P L A C E A B IL IT Y OF FRESH SFRC M IXES
It is n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e a u n i f o r m d i s p e r s i o n of th e f i b r e s
a n d to p r e v e n t t h e i r s e g r e g a t i o n o r b a l l i n g . The fibrous
c o n c r e t e s w e r e p r e p a r e d in a 5 0 1 l a b o r a t o r y m i x e r w i t h a
v e r t i c a l s haft. T h e f i b r e s w e r e s h a k e n b y h a n d d i r e c t l y i n t o
th e m i x e r . In c o n c r e t e p l a n t s , o n site, h o w e v e r , vibrating-
s h a k i n g d e v i c e s a r e u s e d to i n t r o d u c e t h e f i b r e s i n t o t h e m i x e r
so t h a t t i g h t l y b o u n d f i b r e c l u m p s c a n be b r o k e n u p or
p r e v e n t e d f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e mix.
T h e a p p l i e d m i x i n g s e q u e n c e d e p e n d s o n t he c o m p o s i t e , t h e t y p e
of f i b r e s a n d the m i x e r used. T h e ACI C o m m i t t e e 544 has
r e c o m m e n d e d (1 2 ) t h a t f i b r e s a r e p l a c e d in th e m i x e r b e f o r e th e
m i x i n g w a t e r is adde d .
T h e f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e m i x e s d e s i g n a t e d J1 - J3 w e r e p r e p a r e d so
t h a t th e f i b r e s w e r e p u t i n t o t h e m i x e r a f t e r t h e a g g r e g a t e ,
f o l l o w e d b y d r y m i x i n g . A f t e r that, a l l t he o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s
w e r e a d d e d . U s i n g t h i s m i x i n g s e q u e n c e , u n i f o r m d i s p e r s i o n of
t h e f i b r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n c r e t e m a t r i x c o u l d n o t be
achieved. I m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e u n i f o r m i t y of f i b r e d i s p e r s i o n
w e r e a c h i e v e d in th e c a s e of c o n c r e t e m i x e s JMS 1 a n d JMS2. In
t h i s c ase, t h e f i b r e s w e r e a d d e d to t h e l i q u i d m a t r i x as th e
l a s t i n g r e d i e n t of t h e c o n c r e t e (the s l u m p of t h e c o n c r e t e mix
J M S 2 w a s 20 c m ) .
A d d i n g t h e f i b r e s to t h e f r e s h mix, w o r k a b i l i t y b e c a m e w o r s e .
T h i s c a n be s e e n f r o m t h e r e s u l t s of th e m e a s u r e m e n t s ( T a b l e 2,
F i g u r e 1). B o t h t h e p l a c e a b i l i t y a n d c o m p a c t a b i l i t y o f t h e
f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e m i x e s J1 - J3 w e r e p o o r , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e
h i g h e r p o r o s i t y of t h e s e c o n c r e t e s ( T a b l e 2). A d i r e c t
437
c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i m p r o v e d w o r k a b i l i t y of t h e c o n c r e t e m i x
J M S 2 w a s t h e l o w e r p o r o s i t y of t h i s c o n c r e t e . T h e p o r o s i t y of
t h e c o n c r e t e m i x J M S 1 w a s h i g h b e c a u s e of th e a d d i t i o n o f t h e
air e n t r a i n i n g agent.
TABLE 2
Results of tests c a r r i e d out on fresh concrete mixes
Mixture Slump Vebe Porosity Density

designation (cm) index (%) (k g / m )
JO 7 3.1 2.8 2415

J1 2 4.1 4.5 24 3 6
J2 3 3.8 4.5 -
J3 0 9.0 3.5 2467
JMS1 8 2 .1 6.0 23 3 0
JMS2 5 3.5 1.2 24 5 0
W o r k a b i l i t y w a s e s t i m a t e d o n t h e b a s i s of m e a s u r e d s l u m p a n d
t h e V e b e index. O n l y in t h e c a s e of th e f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e m i x J3
w a s it p o s s i b l e to u s e t h e i n v e r t e d c o n e t e s t ( A S T M C 995)
(11). All the other mixes were too plastic for their
w o r k a b i l i t y to be d e t e r m i n e d b y t h i s test.
vol.%
Figure 1: Influence of vol. % of steel fibres and of
i m p r o v e m e n t s in w o r k a b i l i t y a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f c e m e n t p a s t e on
the V e b e index
T h e m i x i n g t i m e s of t h e t e s t e d S F R C m i x e s w e r e a l i t t l e l o n g e r
than those for c o r r e s p o n d i n g p l a i n c o n c r e t e mixes. This
d e p e n d e d on the fibre content, the c o m p o s i t e and the mix i n g
m e t h o d use d .
438
TEST RESULTS OF HARDENED SFRC SPECIMENS AND DISCUSSION
The r e s u l t s of t e s t s c a r r i e d out on 2 8 - d a y - o l d c o n c r e t e
s p e c i m e n s a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 3. E a c h r e s u l t is t h e a v e r a g e of
the re s u l t s obtained from the tests of at l e a s t three
specimens.
TABLE 3
Average values of results of t e s t s c a r r i e d out on hardened SFRC
specimens
MIXTURE COMPRESSIVE FLEXURAL STRENGTH TOUGHNESS INDICES IMPACT

DESIG- STRENGTH lstcrack Ultimate TOUGH-
NATION f„ ffc fu ârr *5 l 10 *30 d ti 20 NESS
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (J/cm2)
JO 54.9 5.7 _
1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.13
J1 60.1 2.8 3.7 0.70 4.8 9.8 31.1 44.6 2.59
J2 60.8 6.8 9.5 0.73 5.0 11.1 38.2 45.6 6.73
J3 59.1 8.8 12.7 0.85 6.1 13.1 40.1 57.3 4.70
JMS1 48.7 5.9 7.0 0.60 3.9 8.2 31.4 41.1 -
JMS2 62.3 7.2 9.6 0.67 4.6 9.5 37.2 49.7 3.73
S tr e n g th s and im p a c t to u g h n e sse s
Compared with plain concrete specimens, the p o r o s i t y of

s p e c i m e n s o f f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e m i x e s J1 - J 3 w a s g r e a t e r ,
because their p l a c e a b i l i t y and c o m p actability was poor (see
T a b l e 2), r e s u l t i n g in a r e d u c t i o n in s t r e n g t h s . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h (fc ) w a s i n c r e a s e d b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 %
I m p r o v e m e n t s in w o r k a b i l i t y a n d c e m e n t p a s t e q u a l i t y ( c o n c r e t e
m i x J M S 2 ) r e s u l t e d in t he g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e in c o m p r e s s i v e
s t r e n g t h . T h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h of f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e m i x JMS1
w a s t h e l o w e s t b e c a u s e t h i s c o n c r e t e h a d th e h i g h e s t p o r o s i t y .
T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e v o l u m e t r i c p e r c e n t a g e of f i b r e s on th e
first c r a c k f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h (f^Q ) and on the u l t i m a t e
f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h (f ) is p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 2 a n d in T a b l e 3.
Both f f c a n d f ^ a r e i m p r o v e d (fy* e v e n m o r e so) b y an i n c r e a s e
in t h e v o l u m e t r i c p e r c e n t a g e o f f i b r e s . T h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e
i n c r e a s e in the v a l u e s of f ^ c a n d fu c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t he
t e s t e d s p e c i m e n s of f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e s JMS1 and JMS2, in
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h o s e of t h e c o n c r e t e m i x J 1 , w h i c h h a s t h e
s a m e c o n t e n t o f f i b r e s . T h e r e a s o n f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e is in the
i m p r o v e d q u a l i t y of the c e m e n t p a s t e a n d in t h e improved
w o r k a b i l i t y of the c o n c r e t e s J M S 1 and JMS2. The flexural
s t r e n g t h s o f h a r d e n e d s p e c i m e n s of t h e c o n c r e t e m i x J M S 2 w e r e
e v e n g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m i x J2, a l t h o u g h the
l a t t e r c o n t a i n e d t w i c e as m a n y f i b r e s p e r u n i t v o l u m e as th e
f o r m e r (JM S 2 - 0.5 v o l . % , J2 - 1.0 v o l . % ) .
I m p a c t t o u g h n e s s w a s m e a s u r e d b y C h a r p y ’s i m p a c t hammer.
P r i s m a t i c s p e c i m e n s (4 x 4 x 16 cm), p l a c e d o n tw o s u p p o r t s a n d
n o t c h e d o n o n e side, w e r e h i t b y t h e t e s t h a m m e r . T o u g h n e s s is
439
d e f i n e d as t h e w o r k p e r u n i t of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a w h i c h is
n e e d e d to b r e a k t h e p r i s m . I m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e i m p a c t t o u g h n e s s
of SFR C m i x specimens were a c h i e v e d by i n c r e a s i n g the
v o l u m e t r i c p e r c e n t a g e of t he f i b r e s a n d b y i m p r o v e m e n t s in
w o r k a b i l i t y a n d t he q u a l i t y of th e c e m e n t p a s t e ( F i g u r e 3 a n d
T a b l e 3).
v ol . %
i m p r o v e m e n t s in w o r k a b i l i t y a n d t h e q u a l i t y of c e m e n t p a s t e o n
the first c r a c k flexural s t r e n g t h f f c and on the u l t i m a t e
flexural strength f .

i m p r o v e m e n t s in w o r k a b i l i t y a n d th e q u a l i t y of c e m e n t p a s t e on
impact toughness.
440
F i g u r e 4: L o a d - d e f l e c t i o n ( F - 6 ) c u r v e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to tw o
S F R C m i x e s w i t h t h e s a m e vol. % of s t e e l f i b r e s (0.5 v o l . % ) but
d if f e r e n t w o r k a b i l i t y and cement paste quality.
Toughness in the c a s e of static flexural loading
M e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e f l e x u r a l b e h a v i o u r of S F R C b e a m s s h o w e d
that the t o u g h n e s s and d u c t i l i t y of all the tested SFRC
s p e c i m e n s w a s high. T h i s c a n be s e e n f r o m F i g u r e 4, w h e r e the
l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n (F - (5 ) c u r v e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to tw o d i f f e r e n t
f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e s w i t h t h e s a m e f i b r e c o n t e n t (0.5 v o l . % ) ar e
show n . T h e a r e a u n d e r t h e F - 6 c u r v e (i.e. t o u g h n e s s ) of th e
fibrous concrete J M S 2 , with improved w o r kability and cement
paste quality, is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e c u r v e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e m i x Jl.
F r o m a c o m p a r i s o n of the e x p e r i m e n t a l t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s
o b t a i n e d by u s i n g d i f f e r e n t methods, the f o l l owing results w ere
obtained:
T h e t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s o b t a i n e d b y B a r r ’s m e t h o d (Ifiarr*
F i g u r e 5) a n d b y t h e A S T M C 101 8 t e s t m e t h o d (Ig a n d
F i g u r e 6), i n c r e a s e w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g v o l u m e t r i c p e r c e n t a g e
of f i b r e s ( c o n c r e t e s m i x e s Jl a n d J3), b u t in t h e c a s e of
the fibrous c o n crete mixes JMS1, and even JMS2, these
in d i c e s are s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m i x J l ,
w h i c h has the same fibre content.
T h e t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s w h i c h w e r e o b t a i n e d b y th e A S T M C 1018
m e t h o d ( 1 3 0 * F i g u r e 7) a n d b y W a n g a n d B a c k e r ’s m e t h o d
( DTIoq, F i g u r e 7) t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a l a r g e r a r e a u n d e r th e
F - o c u r v e t h a n th e o t h e r m e t h o d s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , in th e
c a s e of t h e f i b r o u s c o n c r e t e J M S 2 th e i n d i c e s I^q a n d D T I 2 0
a r e l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to th e m i x Jl, a n d e v e n
to J2, w h i c h c o n t a i n s 1.0 v o l . % of f i bres.
441
vol.%
Figure 5: Influence of vol.% of steel fibres and of
t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s a c c o r d i n g to t h e B a r r m e t h o d .
vol.%
Figure 6 : Influence of vol.% of steel fibres and of
t h e t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s Ig a n d I ^ q j a c c o r d i n g to A S T M C 1018.
442
vol.%
Figure 7: Influence of vol.% of steel fibres and of
i m p r o v e m e n t s in w o r k a b i l i t y a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f c e m e n t p a s t e on
t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s 1 3 9 * a c c o r d i n g to A S T M C 1018, a n d D T I 2 q»
a c c o r d i n g to W a n g a n d B a c k e r .
CONCLUSIONS
The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s ults o b t a i n e d prove that the steel fibres

from our own pilot p r o d u c t i o n are ad e q u a t e for c e r t a i n
a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e m a i n c o n c l u s i o n s of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e as
follows:
(1) M i x i n g s e q u e n c e s s h o u l d be c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g to t h e t y p e of
f i b r e s , c o m p o s i t e a n d m i x e r . If t h e f i b r e s a r e a d d e d int o
t h e l i q u i d m a t r i x as t h e l a s t i n g r e d i e n t of t h e f i b r o u s
c o n c r e t e , i m p r o v e d w o r k a b i l i t y c a n be a c h i e v e d .
(2) The workability of SFRC mixes should be improved

s u f f i c i e n t l y to a c h i e v e u n i f o r m d i s p e r s i o n of th e f i b r e s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e mix, a n d to i m p r o v e p l a c e a b i l i t y .
(3) The compressive strength, impact toughness, first crack

f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h a n d u l t i m a t e f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h of S F R C
specimens, as w e l l as t h e i r t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s , increase
w i t h an increasing volumetric percentage of fibres,
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i m p r o v e m e n t s in w o r k a b i l i t y a n d c e m e n t
paste quality.
(4) T h e t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s Ioq ( A S T M C 1018) a n d D T I 2 0 (Wang

and B acker) p r o v i d e the best d e s c r i p t i o n of the to u g h n e s s
b e h a v i o u r of S F R C s p e c i m e n s , b e c a u s e t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e
F - d c u r v e w h i c h t h e s e t w o m e t h o d s t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t is
l a r g e r t h a n t h e a r e a s u s e d to c a l c u l a t e a n y of th e o t h e r
t o u g h n e s s i n d i c e s c o n s i d e r e d in t h i s p a p e r .
443
REFERENCES
(1) Swamy, R.N. and S t a v r i d e s H., S o m e p r o p e r t i e s of h i g h

w o r k a b i l i t y s t e e l f i b r e c o n c r e t e . In R i l e m S y m p o s i u m 1975:
F i b r e R e i n f o r c e d C e m e n t a n d C o n c r e t e , ed. A. N e v i l l e , T h e
C o n s t r u c t i o n P r e s s Ltd., L a n c a s t e r , 1975, pp. 197 -208.
(2) Ramakrishnan, V., M a t e r i a l s a n d p r o p e r t i e s of f i b r e

reinforced concrete. In P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
S y m p o s i u m o n F i b r e R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e . Vol. 1, O x f o r d a n d
I B H P u b l . Co. Pvt. Ltd., N e w D e l h i , 1987, pp. 2 . 3 - 2 . 2 3 .
(3) Ramakrishnan, V. and Srinivasan, V., Performance

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n d e n s e d s i l i c a f u m e
concretes. In ACI Special Publication S P - 7 9 . Vol.II,
A m e r i c a n C o n c r e t e I n s t i t u t e , D e t r o i t , 1983, pp. 7 9 7 - 8 1 2 .
(4) B a c h e , H. H . , D e n s i f i e d c e m e n t / u l t r a f i n e p a r t i c l e - b a s e d
materials. In P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e S e c o n d International
Conference on Superplasticizers in C o n c r e t e . Ottawa,
C a n a d a , 1981.
(5) N a a m a n A.E. a n d S h a h S.P., Bond studies on oriented and

aligned steel fibres. In R i l e m Symposium 1975: Fibre
R e inforced Cement and C o n c r e t e , ed. A.Neville, The
C o n s t r u c t i o n P r e s s Ltd, L a n c a s t e r , 1975, p p . 1 7 1 - 1 7 8 .
(6 ) B a r r , B.I.G. and Hasso, E.B.D., A s t u d y of t o u g h n e s s

i n d i c e s . M a g a z i n e o f C o n c r e t e R e s e a r c h . 1985, Vol. 37, No.
132, pp. 162 - 174.
(7) Johns t o n , C.D., D e f i n i t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t of f l e x u r a l

t o u g h n e s s p a r a m e t e r s fo r f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . C e m e n t .
C o n c r e t e a n d A g g r e g a t e s . 1982, Vol. 4, No. 2, p p . 53-60.
(8 ) J o h n s t o n , C.D., P r e c i s i o n of f l e x u r a l strength and

t ou g h n e s s p a r a m e t e r s for steel fibre reinf or c ed concrete.
C e m e n t . C o n c r e t e a n d A g g r e g a t e s . 1982, V o l . 4, No. 2, pp.
61-67.
(9) A C I C o m m i t t e e 544. M e a s u r e m e n t o f p r o p e r t i e s o f f i b e r
reinforced concrete. In A C I 544.2R-78. ACI Manual of
C o n c r e t e P r a c t i c e . P a r t 5, A m e r i c a n C o n c r e t e I n s t i t u t e ,
D e t r o i t , 1986.
(10) A S T M S t a n d a r d C 1018. T e s t m e t h o d fo r f l e x u r a l t o u g h n e s s
of f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e ( u s i n g b e a m w i t h t h i r d - p o i n t
l o a d i n g ) . A S T M , P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1986.
(11) W a n g , Y. a n d B a c k e r , S., T o u g h n e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r f i b r e
reinforced concrete. International Journal of C e m e n t
C o m p o s i t e s a n d L i g h t w e i g h t C o n c r e t e . 1989, V o l . 11, No. 1,
pp. 1 1-19.
(12) A C I C o m m i t t e e 544: State of the art r e p o r t on f i b e r

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . In A C I M a n u a l of C o n c r e t e P r a c t i c e .
P a r t 5 . A m e r i c a n C o n c r e t e I n s t i t u t e , D e t r o i t , 1986.
444
DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

BEAMS CONTAINING STEEL FIBERS
BYUNG HWAN OH, HYUNG JOON LEE, SEONG-LO LEE

Associate Professor and Graduate Research Assistant
Seoul National University
Shinlim-dong, Kwanak-ku, Seoul, Korea
ABSTRACT
The mechanical behavior of reinforced concrete beams with steel fibers is

investigated in the present study. An experimental program was set up and
several series of reinforced concrete beams have been tested, including
two series of singly-reinforced concrete beams and one series of doubly-
reinforced concrete beams. The fiber contents of reinforced-concrete beams
for each series were varied from 0% to 2% by volume. The load was applied
in four-point flexural loading condition. The deflections and the steel
and concrete strains were automatically measured at the various points.
The crack width and crack spacings at each loading step were observed
during the loading process. It was found from these measurements that the
crack widths increase almost linearly with the increase of steel stress
and that the crack widths at the same loading stages are greatly reduced
as the contents of steel fibers increase. The present study also indicates
that the ductility and the ultimate resistance are remarkably enhanced due
to the addition of steel fibers.
INTRODUCTION
Considerable efforts are still being made in the every part of the world
to develop new construction materials. The fiber-reinforced concrete
material is one of the most promising new construction materials. Many
studies have been carried out to explore the mechanical properties and
strength characteristics of fiber-reinforced concrete. Most studies,
however, have been so far confined to the investigation of plain fiber-
445
reinforced concrete beams without main steel reinforcements[1-9].
Since the application of fibers to reinforced-concrete structural

members is one of the major areas in structural engineering, it is neces
sary to investigate the effects of fiber-reinforcement on the conventional
reinforced-concrete members.
The purpose of the present study is, therefore, to expore the mechan
ical behavior of reinforced-concrete beams containing steel fibers. To
this end, an experimental program was set up and several series of fiber-
reinforced concrete beams have been tested. The test series include six
singly-reinforced concrete beams and three doubly reinforced concrete
beams. The fiber contents of reinforced concrete beams for each series
were varied from 0% to 2% by volume. The various properties were measured
during the tests in order to explore the mechanical characteristics of
fiber-reinforced concrete beams.
TESTS ON FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE BEMAS
Test Materials
Concrete: The water-cement ratio used for the present test concrete
was w/c = 0.40 and the value of slump was about 18 cm. The ordinary
type-1 portland cement was used and the finess modulus of fine aggregate
was about 2.3. The specific gravities of the fine and coarse aggregates
were 2.52 and 2.60, respectively. The maximum size of coarse aggregate
was about 15 mm. To improve the workability of the concrete a small
amount of superplasticizer was used.
Steel fibers: The steel fibers used in the present study were round
and straight fibers. The diameter and length of the fibers were d^ = 0.7
mm and 1^ = 40 mm, respectively, and thus the aspect ratio was 57. The
fiber contents were varied from 0% to 2% to explore the effect of fiber
addition in the reinforced concrete beams.
Steel reinforcments: The strengths of longitudinal reinforcements

were higher than those of stirrup reinforcements. The strength character
istics of main bars, stirrups, and steel fibers are summarized in Table 1.
446
TABLE 1
Strength characteristics of main bars, stirrups, and steel fibers
Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Elastic Modulus

Types
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Main Bars 420 545 2.0 x 10^

Stirrup 359 534 2.0 x 105
Steel Fiber 1303 1784 2.0 x 105
Design and Fabrication of Test Members
Rectangular reinforced concrete beams, including two series of singly-

reinforced concrete beams and one series of doubly reinforced concrete
beams were designed according to the appropriate design code. The overall
dimensions of the test beams were the same for all test members, i.e.,
beam width b = 12 cm, beam height h = 18 cm, effective depth d = 14 cm,
d’ = 4 cm and beam length 200 cm. The span length of beams was 180 cm.
The typical section properties of test beams are summarized in Table

2. The main test variables were the amount of longitudinal reinforcements
as well as the fiber contents in the beams. The ratio of tensile rein
forcements for the singly-reinforced concrete beams are O^P^ and 0.65P^,
respectively, where represents the balanced reinforcement ratio.
The tensile and compressive reinforcement ratio for the doubly-reinforced
beams are P = 0.90 p^ and p' = 0.0085, respectively. The reason of
different tensile reinforcements is to investigate the effect of fiber
reinforcements on the mechanical behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete
beams. To prevent the shear failure of the test beams the vertical stir
rups were installed in accordance with the designcode(see Figure 1).
Careful attention was paid during the mixing process to have the
fibers well-distributed. The test beams were cured in wet-condition. In
addition to the full-scale test beams as shown in Table 2, the small scale
standard test cylinders and beams made of plain fiber concrete were pre
pared to measure the compressive strengths, splitting tensile strengths,
and flexural strengths of fiber reinforced concrete.
447
TABLE 2
Section properties of test beams
Series
Test Series 1 Test Series 2 Test Series 3
Reinforced p = 0.4 P, P = 0.90 p,

b P = 0.65 Pu
Ratio b p' = 0.0085
•
A s'
• F
Cross
As AS As
Sections • • • • • •
A =5.73 cm2
Rebar A = 2.53 cm2 A =3.97 cm2 S (2D19)
s s
Area (2D13) (2D16) A1 = 1.43 cm2
S (2D10)
Test Beam S1V0 (Vf = 0%) S2V0 (Vf = 0%) D2V0 (Vf = 0%)
Number and S1V1 (Vf = 1%) S2V1 (Vf = 1%) D2V1 (Vf = 1%)
Fiber Contents S1V2 (Vf = 2%) S2V2 (Vf = 2%) D2V2 (Vf = 2%)
Test Methods
The test beams were loaded in four-point (or the third-point) loading
condition. The schematic diagram for the present test arrangement is
shown in Figure 1. The load was raised step-by-step up to failure. The
various quantities were measured at each loading step, including the
deflections, crack patterns, crack widths, crack spacings, and strains for
steel and concrete. Figure 1 also shows the arrangements for measurements
of various values.
The deflections at the mid-point, quarter-point, and loaded point

were measured at each loading step with precision dial gauges.
The steel strains for the tensile and compressive reinforcements were
448
1— i— I— i— i— i— i— i— i— r -
i i i i i i i
i 1 ! ! CJ I 13 ! ! !
- I ____I__fca~l— J 1 I I i___ I_
AT
1/41. 1/3L
1/2L 1/2L
i— i— i— i------------------E3---------------- 1 - , , , , ,
i; i : ; ; ! : q :0 ; : i
I 1 1 1-------------------- £ 3 ------------------ 1------1--- ----------1 1 I I I I
^ d a
I, 30cm .
u 1/4L
i ___________ k
>J
r I Steel Strain Gage

■■■ Concrete Strain Gage
® Dial Gage
Figure 1. Schematic diagram for test arrangements.
measured at the mid-and quater-points and the strains of stirrups at the

critical sections were also obtained. The concrete strains at the mid
span and at the supports were also measured.
The crack widths were measured at the tensile face with the precision
optical gauges. The crack spacings and crack patterns were also observed
during each loading step. All measurements were automatically measured
and stored in the data acquisition system.
STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE
Compressive Strength
The compressive strengths of test cylinders were measured for the

449
various cases of fiber contents. Fig. 2 shows the relative strength of

concrete in compression due to the addition of steel fibers. The strength
increase was about 17% when the fibers are introduced into concrete up to
2% by volume.
Flexural Strength
The present tests indicate that the flexural strength of fiber-

reinforced concrete is greatly enhanced due to the addition of steel
fibers. The rate of increase of flexural strength was about 60 percent
when the fiber content was increased to 2 percent (see Figure 3). One
more important feature in flexural behavior is that the fiber-reinforced
concrete shows remarkable ductility and energy absorption capacity.
Splitting Tensile Strength
Figure 4 shows the increase of tensile strengths due to steel fibers.

It can be seen that the splitting tensile strength may be increased more
than twice at the 2-percent fiber volume. Figure 5 shows a comparison of
various relative strengths for various fiber contents. It is seen from
this figure that the rate of strength increase due to fiber addition is
greatest in splitting tensile strength. This means that the steel fibers
greatly enhance the tensile properties of concrete and improve the
resistance to cracking.
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF STEEL-FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
Load-Deflection Behavior
The load-deflection curves were automatically generated during the

tests. Figure 6 shows the load deflection curves for Series-1 singly-
reinforced concrete beams. Figure 6 indicates that the ultimate resistance
of fiber-reinforced concrete beams is remarkably increased with an increase
of fiber contents. The rate of increase of maximum load capacity reaches
up to 50 percent for the fiber content of 2 percent. The ductility and
energy absorption capacity are also considerably enhanced with the addition
of steel fibers. This salient feature is the main advantage of fiber-
450
F IB E R CONTENTS, Vf , ( %) F IB E R CONTENTS, Vf , (%)
Figure 2. Increase of compressive Figure 3. Increase of flexural

strength due to fiber addition. strength due to fiber addition.
F IB E R CONTENTS,Vf , ( .)7 F IB E R CONTENTS,Vf , (X)
Figure 4. Increase of Figure 5. Comparison of the rate of

Splitting tensile strength due to increase of various strengths due to
fiber addition. fiber addition.
451
Figure 6. Load-deflection curves for Series-1 singly-reinforced

concrete beams.
Figure 7. Load-deflection curves for Series-2 singly-reinforced

concrete beams.
Figure 8. Load-deflection curves for Series-3 doubly-reinforced

concrete beams.
452
reinforced concrete and can be efficiently applied to the earthquake-
resistant structures.
Figure 7 depicts the load-deflection behavior for the Series-2
singly-reinforced concrete beams which have slightly higher reinforcement
ratios, i.e., p = 0.65P^. Figure 8 again shows the load-deflection curves
obtained from the doubly-reinforced concrete beams. It can be seen from
these figures that the effect of steel fibers is more pronounced for the
case of lightly-reinforced concrete beams. This may be due to the fact
that the fibers play an important role to curb the crack occurrence and
exhibit considerable resistance to tensile cracking.
CONCLUSION
Considerable efforts are being made in the every part of the world to
develop new construction materials. The fiber reinforced concrete mater
ial is one of the most promising new construction materials. The mechan
ical behavior of conventional reinforced concrete beams with steel fibers
is investigated in the present study. An experimental program was set up
and several series of reinforced concrete beams have been tested. The
fiber contents of reinforced-concrete beams for each series were varied
from 0 to 2 percent by volume. The deflections and the steel and concrete
strains were automatically measured and stored in the computer through the
data acquisition system. It is found from this study that the ultimate
resistance of fiber-reinforced concrete beams is remarkably increased with
an increase of fiber contents. The present study also indicates that the
ductility and energy absorption capacity are considerably enhanced with
the addition of steel fibers. The effect of steel fibers is more pronoun
ced for lightly-reinforced concrete beams.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The partial financial supports from the Korea Science and Engineering
Foundation and the Ministry of Science and Technology are gratefully
acknowledged. The experiment was conducted at the Concrete Laboratory of
the Civil Engineering Department of Seoul National University.

453
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 544, Design considerations for steel fiber reinforced

concrete, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 85, No. 5, Sept.-Oct., 1988,
pp. 563-580.
2. Craig, R., Flexural behavior and design of reinforced fiber concrete

members, ACI, SP105, 1987, pp. 517-563.
3. Henager, C.H., and Doherty, T.J., Analysis of reinforced fibrous

concrete beams, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 102,
No. ST1, 1976, pp. 178-188.
4. Kormeling, H. A., Reinhardt, H.W., and Shah, S.P., Static and fatigue
properties of concrete beams reinforced with continuous bars and with
fibers, ACI Journal, Vol. 77, No. 6, Jan.-Feb., 1980, pp. 36-43.
5. Niyogi, S.K., and Dwarakanathan, G.I., Fiber reinforced beams under

moment and shear, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. Ill,
No. 3, March, 1985, pp. 516-527.
6. Ramakrishnan, V., Coyle, W. V., Kulandaisamy, V., and Schrader, E.K.,

Performance characteristics of fiber reinforced concretes with low
fiber contents, ACI Journal, Vol. 78, No. 5, Sept.-Oct., 1981,
pp. 388-394.
7. Romualdi, J.P., and Mandel, J.A., Tensile strength of concrete affected

by uniformly distributed and closely spaced short lengths of wire
reinforcement, ACI Journal, Vol. 61, No. 6, June, 1964, pp. 657-670.
8. Shah, S.P., and Rangan, B.V., Fiber reinforced concrete properties,

ACI Journal, Vol. 68, No. 2, Feb., 1971, pp. 126-135.
9. Sood, V., and Gupta, S., Behavior of steel fibrous concrete beam-column
connections, ACI Journal, SP105, 1987, pp. 437-474.
10. Swamy, R.N.,and Al-Ta’an, Sa’ad A., Deformation and ultimatestrength

in flexure of reinforced concrete beams made with steel fiber concrete,
ACI Journal, Vol. 78, No. 5, Sept.-Oct., 1981, pp. 395-405.
11. Swamy, R.N.,and Bahia, H.M., The effectiveness of steel fibers as

shear reinforcement, Concrete International: Design & Construction,
Vol. 7, No. 3, March, 1985, pp. 35-40.
454
FLEXURAL D E S IG N OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS INCORPORATING

STE EL F IB E R S
Parviz Soroushian
Asst. P r o f e s s o r
East L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n 4 8 8 2 4 - 12 1 2 USA
P h o n e : (517) 3 5 5 - 2 2 1 6
and
Abdeslam Reklaoui
Graduate Student
East L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n 4 8 8 2 4 - 1212 USA
P hon e : (517) 3 5 5 - 8 0 4 5
ABSTRACT
A r e f i n e d f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e w a s d e v e l o p e d for
conc r e t e b e ams r e inforced wit h both steel fibers and
l o n g i t u d i n a l s t e e l bar s . This analysis procedure was verified
u s i n g t h e a v a i l a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s , a n d it w a s u s e d t o p e r f o r m an
a n a l y t i c a l p a r a m e t r i c study on the flexural p e r f o r m a n c e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of fibrous r e i n fo r ce d c o n cr e te beams. The
r e s u l t s w e r e i n d i c a t i v e of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s t e e l f i b e r s in
f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e u s e o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h m a t e r i a l s a n d in r e l a x i n g
t he c o n s t r a i n t s on m a x i m u m te n s i o n steel ratio and m i n i m u m
c o m p r e s s i o n s t e e l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e n s u r i n g t h e d u c t i l i t y of
f l e x u r a l f a i l u r e in r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b e a m s .
A s i m p l i f i e d m e t h o d of flexural de s i g n w as d e v e l o p e d based
on the r e f i n e d flexural a n a l ys i s results. This design method
c onsists of idealized flexural strain and stress distributions
a t f a i l u r e , a n d it a c c o u n t s f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f f i b e r
r e i n f o r c e m e n t s o n t h e d u c t i l i t y of f l e x u r a l f a i l u r e . T h e
developed flexural design guidelines were verified using a
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e n u m b e r of t e s t r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d in t h e
l i t e r a t u r e for f i b rous r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e beams.
K ey w ord s: Beams, Design, Ductility, Fi b e r Re i n f o r c e m e n t ,

Flexure, R e i n f o r c e d Concrete, Steel Fibers, Strength,
Structures.
GENERAL
S t e e l f i b e r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e is n o w a s t a n d a r d c o n s t r u c t i o n
m at e r i a l for some ma j o r secondary structures, including
455
o v e r l a y s o n i n d u s t r i a l flo o r s , b r i d g e d e c k s a n d p a r k i n g
structures, m i n e t u n n e l l i n i n g , s l o p e s t a b i l i z a t i o n a n d dams.
T h e r e a r e a l s o m a j o r p o t e n t i a l s f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of s t e e l
fiber r e i n f o r c e d concr e t e to pr i m a r y structural elements
s u b j e c t e d t o f l e x u r a l , s h e a r a n d t o r s i o n a l fo r c e s . Steel
fibers can improve the ductility, strength and serviceability
of s t r u c t u r a l elements. T h e r e is h o w e v e r , a s t r o n g d e m a n d for
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s a n d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s in
o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e c om m er c ia l a pp l ic a t i o n s of steel fiber
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e in p r i m a r y l o a d - b e a r i n g s t r u c t u r a l
elements. D e v e l o p m e n t of s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s a n d d e s i g n
g u i d e l i n e s for flexural fibrous reinforced concrete elements
h a s b e e n t h e m a i n t h r u s t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e p o r t e d h e r e i n .
ST E E L F IB E R S IN FLEXURAL REINFORCED CONCRETE ELEMENTS
T h e c r a c k - a r e s t i n g a c t i o n of s t e e l f i b e r s in c o n c r e t e r e s u l t s
in i m p r o v e d p e r f o r m a n c e of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e f l e x u r a l
elements und e r service conditions. Elements incorporating
steel fibers have hig h e r flexural stiffnesses (reduced
d e f l e c t i o n s ) an d s m a l l e r c r a c k w i d t h s w h e n s u b j e c t e d to s e r vice
l o a d s [4, 6 ]. Steel fibers also improve the strength and
e s p e c i a l l y p o s t - p e a k d u c t i l i t y and t o u g h n e s s of r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e f l e x u r a l e l e m e n t s [6 ].
T h e i m p r o v e m e n t s in f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h r e s u l t i n g f r o m s t e e l
fiber r e i n f o r c e m e n t are not large enough to give steel fibers
the p o t ential to fully substitute continuous reinforcing bars
in f l e x u r a l r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e e l e m e n t s [7]. Optimum
c o n d i t i o n s in f l e x u r a l e l e m e n t s m a y b e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e
of s t e e l f i b e r s t o g e t h e r w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l s t e e l bars.
In t h e s t u d y r e p o r t e d h e r e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s t e e l f i b e r s
on t he s t r e n g t h an d d u c t i l i t y of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e m e m b e r s
su b j e c t e d to flexural loads wer e analyzed u s ing a refined
flexural analysis technique, and design techniques were
de v e l o p e d for reinforced concrete flexural members
i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t e e l fi b e r s .
R E F IN E D FLEXURAL A N A L Y S IS
A r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s t e c h n i q u e was d e v e l o p e d for p r e d i c t i n g the

c o m p l e t e m o m e n t - c u r v a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
s e c t i o n s in t h e p r e s e n c e of s t e e l f i bers. This analysis
p r o c e d u r e a c c o u n t s for t he p o s t - c r a c k i n g t e n s i l e r e s i s t a n c e and
i m p r o v e d d u c t i l i t y of s t e e l f i b e r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e u n d e r
t e n s i l e a n d c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s [2 ].
The developed flexural analysis procedure has been based
on the a s s u m p t i o n that p lane sections normal to the beam
l o ngitudinal axis remain plane after bending. This assumption
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e f l e x u r a l s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n is l i n e a r
a c r o s s t h e s e c t i o n as s h o w n in F i g u r e 1. The tensile and
c o m p r e s s i v e c o n s t i t u t i v e m o d e l s of steel fiber r e in f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e a r e a s s u m e d t o b e k n o w n (the c o n s t i t u t i v e m o d e l s u s e d
in t h i s s t u d y w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d l a t e r ) .
In t h e d e v e l o p e d f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e t h e c o m p l e t e
m o m e n t - c u r v a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p is c o n s t r u c t e d b y f i n d i n g t h e
v a l u e of m o m e n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g to d i f f e r e n t input c u r v at u re
values. For each curvature, through a trial and adjustment
technique, the neutral axis position which satisfies the
e q u i l i b r i u m o f c o m p r e s s i v e a n d t e n s i l e f o r c e s is d e c i d e d . With
t h e n e u t r a l axis l o c a t i o n and v a l u e of c u r v a t u r e known, the
456
a) Cross Section b) Strain c) Stress Distribution

Distribution
Figure 1 Refined Flexural Analysis Procedure.
s t r a i n s a n d s t r e s s e s at t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d ,
a n d t h e m o m e n t of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e s e c t i o n ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g
to t h e i n p u t v a l u e of c u r v a t u r e ) c a n b e c o m p u t e d . A computer
p r o g r a m was d e v e l o p e d to p e r f o r m the ab o v e flexural analysis
procedure.
Constitutive Models
The c o m p r e s s i v e and t e n s i l e c o n s t i t u t i v e m o d e l s of steel fiber

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e u s e d in r e f i n e d f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s of
f i b r o u s r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d below.
T h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p p r e s e n t e d in
R e f e r e n c e s 8 and 9 for steel fiber r e i n f o r c e d c o n crete was
s e l e c t e d f o r u s e in t h i s study. T he e q u a t i o n s for this model
a r e g i v e n in F i g u r e 2a [10]. In t h e s e e g u a t i o n s :
f ' c = c o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h (psi)
e = c o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n ; e p = s t r a i n at p e a k s t r e s s
f ' c £= c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t e e l f i b e r R e i n f o r c e d
Concrete.
df =fiber diameter; Vf = fiber volume content
If =fiber length
z , f ' r = C o e f f i c i e n t to b e d e r i v e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h f'c f a n d ep,
e m p i r i c a l l y in t e r m s of t h e m a t r i x c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h
a n d th e f i b e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t index.
T h e t e n s i l e c o n s t i t u t i v e m o d e l of s t e e l f i b e r r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e u s e d in t h i s s t u d y is t h e o n e p r o p o s e d in R e f e r e n c e s
10 a n d 11. T h i s m o d e l is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2b a n d i n v o l v e s t h e
following variables:
ft f = t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h ; E f = m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y
fpf = p o s t - c r a c k i n g t e n s i l e r e s i s t a n c e p r o v i d e d b y t h e p u l l - o u t
r e s i s t a n c e of f ibers.
t = a v e r a g e i n t e r f a c i a l (bond s t r e s s a t p e a k t e n s i l e s t r e s s
COMPARISON WITH TEST RESULTS
T h e d e v e l o p e d r e f i n e d f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e is o b s e r v e d
in F i g u r e 3 to p r e d i c t t e s t r e s u l t s ( r e p o r t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e
for d i f f e r e n t f i b r o u s r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e beams) w i t h
r e a so n ab l e accuracy. A m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o m p a r i s o n of
theor et i ca l p r e d ic t io n w i th flexural stren g th test results will
b e m a d e l a t e r in t h i s pap e r .
457
STRESS
STRESS
STRAIN
a) Compressive Model b) Tensile Model
Figure 2 G e n e r a l F o r m of t h e C o m p r e s s i v e a n d t e n s i l e
C o n s t i t u t i v e M o d e l for Steel F i b e r R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
M
0
M
E
N
T
K
i d •5.6 In ' dp -.4 in
P .030 ln2 asp • 037 In2
S
fy • 104 ksl Vf • 1.27 %
I
n df • 010 In if • .85 In
ftf • 37 ksl Sralgnt Fiber
fcf • 7 34 ksl fpf • .45 ksi
Mmax • 25 3 k.ln FI . 8 0 E -04
___ i
____ L
2 4 6 0 10 2 4 6 0 10 12
C U R V A T U R E (1/IN) ( 1 E - 4 ) C U R V A T U R E (1 / I N ) ( 1 E - 4 )
(a) Reference [12] (b) Reference [12]
Figure 3 Comparison of A na l y t i c a l and E x p e ri m en t al Moment-

Curvature Relationships.
458
PARAMETRIC STUDIES
T h e f l e x u r a l p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
s e c t i o n s i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t e e l f i b e r s a r e m a i n l y d e p e n d e n t on th e
steel fiber and c onventional r e i n f o r c em e nt conditions, and also
on t h e c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h . The developed analytical techniques
w e r e u s e d in t h i s p a r t of t h e s t u d y to a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t s of
t h e s e f a c t o r s o n f l e x u r a l p e r f o r m a n c e of t y p i c a l f i b r o u s
r ei n f o r c e d c on c r e t e sections.
T h e v a r i a b l e s u s e d in t h i s p a r a m e t r i c s t u d y are: a) f i b e r
v o l u m e f r a c t i o n (Vf ) ; b) t e n s i l e s t e e l a r e a (As ) ; c)
c o m p r e s s i o n s t e e l a r e a (A's ) ; d) y i e l d s t r e n g t h of r e i n f o r c i n g
b a r s (fy ) ; a n d e) c o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h (f'c ) .
The typical rectangular reinforced concrete beam section
u s e d in t h i s s t u d y as t h e b a s i c s e c t i o n f o r p a r a m e t r i c s t u d i e s
on f l e x u r a l b e h a v i o r is s h o w n in F i g u r e 4. The parametric
study was p e r formed by analytically d eriving the moment-
c u r v a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s for c r o s s s e c t i o n s w i t h o n e of t h e
v ariables changing the others were kept constant. The effects
of e a c h v a r i a b l e on m o m e n t - c u r v a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d t h u s be
i n v e s t i g a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . T h e r a n g e of v a r i a b l e s c o n s i d e r e d in
t h e p a r a m e t r i c s t u d y a r e a l s o s h o w n in F i g u r e 4.
Rectangular cross s e c t i o n (20 in h e i g h t * 10 in w i d t h )

As = 2 . 3 7 in2 ( r a n g e d f r o m .79 i n 2 t o 6. 3 2 i n 2 )
A = 0 . 2 4 in2 (ranged from 0 i n 2 to 2.74 i n 2 )
fv = 60 k s i (ranged f r o m 40 k s i t o 140 ksi)
Vi = 1.5 % (ranged f r o m 0 % t o 1.5 %)
f*c = 4 ksi (ranged f r o m 3k s i t o 6 ksi)
B d' = 2 in
----- i d" = 2 in
/ - 1 dD = 18 in
la
If = 1 in
1 df = 0.0 1 3 in
t — v Fiber type = Straight
\ v
dp 1 " N
t v 7 /
A« _ /
.. JT__i____ t____ id* .
Figure 4 The Basic Rectangular Section in P a r a m e t r i c S t u d i e s .
F i g u r e s 5a a n d 5b s h o w t h e e f f e c t s of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l
s t e e l y i e l d s t r e n g t h on f l e x u r a l p e r f o r m a n c e f or c o n d i t i o n s
w i t h V f = 0 % a n d V f = 1.5 %, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The ultimate
m o m e n t c a p a c i t y is o b s e r v e d to i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e in
y i e l d s t r e n g t h o f l o n g i t u d i n a l steel. At zero fiber volume
f r a c t i o n in F i g u r e 5a, t h e i n c r e a s e in r e i n f o r c i n g b a r y i e l d
s t r e n g t h t e n d s t o d a m a g e t h e d u c t i l i t y o f f l e x u r a l b e h a v i o r (by
limit in g p o s t - p e a k d e f o r m at i on s p r i or to f a i l u r e ) . At a fiber
v o l u m e f r a c t i o n o f 1.5 % in F i g u r e 5b, h o w e v e r , t h e s e c t i o n
r e m a i n s d u c t i l e in s p i t e of m a j o r i n c r e a s e s in t h e r e i n f o r c i n g
b a r y i e l d s t r e n g t h (up to t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h v a l u e of 140 ksi)
F i g u r e s 6 a a n d 6 b s h o w t h e e f f e c t s of c o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i v e
s t r e n g t h on f l e x u r a l b e h a v i o r of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s
w i t h 0 % a n d 1.5 % f i b e r v o l u m e f r a c t i o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
i n c r e a s e in f i b e r v o l u m e f r a c t i o n is o b s e r v e d to p r o v i d e the
s e c t i o n w i t h a h i g h e r f l e x u r a l d u c t i l i t y e v e n in c o n d i t i o n s
with relat i v e l y high concrete compressive strengths.
A c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the e f fects of c o m p r e s s i o n steel area
on f l e x u r a l b e h a v i o r of s e c t i o n s w i t h 0 % a n d 1.5 % f i b e r
459
v o l u m e fr a ct i o n s i n di c at e d that at h i g h e r fiber v o l u m e
f r a c t i o n s t h e r e is a l e s s e r n e e d f o r c o m p r e s s i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t
for i m p r o v i n g t he flexural s t re n g t h and d u c t i l i t y of r e i n fo r ce d
c o n crete sections.
F i g u r e s 7a a n d 7b s h o w t h e e f f e c t s o f t e n s i o n s t e e l a r e a
on t h e f l e x u r a l b e h a v i o r of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s at 0 %
a n d 1.5 % f i b e r v o l u m e f r a c t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The increase
in f i b e r v o l u m e f r a c t i o n is o b s e r v e d t o p r o v i d e t h e s e c t i o n
with desirable ductility characteristics, even at hi g h t en sion
steel areas w h i c h tend to encourage b rittle failure modes prior
to t he y i e l d i n g of t e n s i o n steel m reinforced concrete
se c tions w i t h zero fiber content.
In general, one may conclude from the above discussion
t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n o f s t e e l f i b e r s is e f f e c t i v e in i m p r o v i n g t h e
d u c t i l i t y of rei n f o r c e d concrete sections. Hence, the limits
o n m a x i m u m t e n s i o n s t e e l a r e a c a n b e r e l a x e d ( l e a d i n g t o an
i n c r e a s e in t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h w h i c h c a n b e
achieved using sections with specific d i mensions). The need
for c o m p r e s s i o n steel can als o be reduced, and h i g h - s t r e n g t h
c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l c a n b e u s e d w i t h o u t m e a s u r e l o s s of
ductility. Be si d es i m pr o vi n g the flexural ductility, steel
fibers also provide reinforced concrete sections with a slight
i n c r e a s e in f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h .
S IM P L IF IE D FLEXURAL A N A L Y S IS AND D E S IG N G U ID E L IN E S
A s i m p l i f i e d m e t h o d f o r f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s a n d d e s i g n of
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t e e l f i b e r s is
i n t r o d u c e d in t h i s s e c t i o n . This method follows the
conventional reinforced concrete flexural analysis procedure
[14, 15], w i t h s o m e r e f i n e m e n t s w h i c h r e f l e c t t h e e f f e c t s of
steel fiber reinforcement. The m a x i m u m str a in at ext r em e
c o m p r e s s i o n l a y e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e p e a k b e n d i n g m o m e n t is
a s s u m e d t o b e 0 . 0 0 3 as s h o w n in F i g u r e 8 b f o r t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n
p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 8 a. T h e s t r a i n distribution is a s s u m e d to
be linear. The simplified compressive stress distribution
( w h i c h a s s u m e s a u n i f o r m c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s ) is s h o w n in
F i g u r e 8 d. T h e s t e p s f o l l o w e d in d e c i d i n g t h e n e u t r a l a x i s
d e p t h and c a l c u l a t i n g the ben d i n g m o m e n t at p e a k flexural load
are g i v e n below:
1 - G u e s s a v a l u e f o r t h e n e u t r a l a x i s d e p t h , c.
2 - C o m p u t e t h e d e p t h o f t h e s t r e s s b l o c k : a = 13 * c,
a n d c o m p u t e t h e s t e e l s t r a i n s e~ a n d e ' s u s i n g t h e s t r a i n
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f F i g u r e 10b, ana then find the steel
stresses fs and f's ; compute the total c o m pression and
t e n s i o n f o r c e s (C a n d T r e s p e c t i v e l y ) :
C = Cc + Cs = 0.85 f'cf 0 . 85cb + A ' s f's (lb)
T = Tc + Ts =fr (h-c) b + A s fs (2b)
3 - If C a n d T b a l a n c e e a c h o t h e r (within t he a c c e p t a b l e
error) t h e n go to t h e n e x t ste p a nd find t he flexural
strength; otherwise adjust c and repeat from step 2 .
4 - O n c e the l o c a t i o n of the neutral axis h as b e e n established,
t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t c a p a c i t y of s e c t i o n c an be o b t a i n e d by
t a k i n g t h e m o m e n t of all the forces a p p l i e d on t he s e c t i o n
a b o u t t h e t e n s i o n s t e e l axis. (See F i g u r e 8 b ) :
Mn = Cc (d -a ) + cs (d -d ') - f r (h -c ) b ( h^c ) (3b)

n C 2 S r 2 -d '
460
M
0
M
E
N
T
K
i
P
s
I
n
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
C U R V A T U R E (1 / I N ) ( I E - 4 )
C U R V A T U R E (1/IN) ( 1 E - 4 )
(a) V f= 0 % (b) V f= 1.5 %
Figure 5 C a l c u l a t e d M o m e n t - C u r v a t u r e R e l a t i o n s h i p s for
V f= 0 a n d V f= 1.5 % ( v a r i a b l e = f y ) .
C U R V A T U R E (1 / I N ) ( 1 E - 4 ) C U R V A T U R E (1 /I N ) ( 1 E - 4 )
(a ) V f= 0 % (b) Vf = 1.5 %
Figure 6 C a l c u l a t e d M o m e n t - C u r v a t u r e R e l a t i o n s h i p for
V f= 0 % a n d V f= 1.5 % ( v a r i a b l e = f 'c ) .
461
C U R V A T U R E (1/IN) ( I E - 4 ) C U R V A T U R E (1 /I N ) ( 1 E - 4 )
(a) V f= 0 % (b) V f= 1.5 %
Figure 7 Calculated Moment-Curvature Relationship for

Vf= 0 % V f= 1.5 % ( v a r i a b l e = A s ) .
Cs
Cc
TC
TS
a) Cross b) Strain c) Actual d) Idealized e) Resultant

Section Stress Stress
Figure 8 Simplified Flexural Analysis.
COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL PREDICTIONS WITH TEST RESULTS
T h e f l e x u r a l t e s t d a t a p r e s e n t e d in R e f e r e n c e s [12, 13 a n d 14]
w e re used to v e r i f y the d e v el o pe d m e t h o d s for p r e d ic t in g the
flexural strength of reinforced concrete elements incorporating
s t e e l fib e r s . T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s of test e d
e l e m e n t s a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 1 (for t h e n o t a t i o n s s e e F i g u r e 4)
F i g u r e 9 c o m p a r e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h s as
p redicted by the refined computer analysis, and the simplified
method, w i t h the f l e xural s t r e n g t h tes t results. Wh i l e the
refined flexural analysis shows the best comparison with test
r e s u l t s ( a v e r a g e e r r o r o n l y 2 %), t h e s i m p l i f i e d p r o c e d u r e a l s o
462
predicts test results wit h a reasonable accuracy (average

e r r o r l e s s t h a n 1 0 %).
TABLE 1
Cross-Sectional P r o p e r t i e s of T e s t e d E l e m e n t s
Reference |3
! |3
I |3 13
! |1 |1
1 1
|1 1
|1 120 |20
B in 4 4 4 4 5.122 5.122 5.122 5.122 5.98 5.98
Section H in 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 12.2 12.2
d in 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 6.934 6.934 6.934 6.934 11.58 11.58
dp in .4 .4 .4 .4 1.131 1.131 1.131 1.131 .6 .6
Vf % 1.27 .89 1.27 1.27 .5 1 .5 1 .5 1
Fiber If in .95 1.2 .95 .95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1 1
Propreties df in .016 .016 .016 .016 .0195 .0195 .0195 .0195 .016 .016
TF* Strt Hook Strt Hook Crim Crim Crim Crim Strt Strt
Rebar As in2 .036 .036 .47 .47 .352 .352 .334 .334 .365 .365
Steel Asp in2 .036 .036 .036 .036 .24 .24 .24 .24 .24 .24
Properties fy ksi 104 104 66.7 66.7 67 67 90 90 67 67
Concrete Iftf ksi I
1.37 1.36 .4 .37 *31 .34 1
1*31 1.34
1 1
I.3 1
I.33
Properties |fcf ksi j7.3 6.67 7.8 6.7 5.6 6.1 5.6 6.1 5.3 6.0
note :
1 m = 25.4 mm Crim = Crimped Fiber
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa Hook = Hooked Fiber
1 kip.in = 0.113 KN.m Strt = Straigth Fiber
TF* * Fiber Type
350
300
M
m 250
a
x
K
200
i L
II
i
p 150
S
i to o
n
50
3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 20 20
R efe re n ce Number
Hi Test Simplified Method

I I R e f i n e d An al ys is
J
Figure 9 Comparison of T h e o retical Predictions W ith Test
Results.
463
MAXIMUM STE EL RA TIO I N F IB R O U S REINFORCED CONCRETE

FLEXURAL ELEMENTS
A n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n of fiber r e i n f o r c e m e n t to the
f l e x u r a l b e h a v i o r of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e e l e m e n t s is r e l a t e d to
t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s in d u c t i l i t y a t f a i l u r e . There are important
p o t e n t i a l s for t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of this ef f ec t of fiber
r e i n f o r c e m e n t on flexural performance. This section explores a
l i m i t e d a s p e c t of t h e s e p o t e n t i a l s r e l a t e d to t he m a x i m u m limit
o n t e n s i o n s t e e l a r e a in f l e x u r a l e l e m e n t s .
A n i m p o r t a n t r e s t r i c t i o n in f l e x u r a l d e s i g n of
c o n v e n t i o n a l r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b e a m s is t h e m a x i m u m l i m i t
s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e t e n s i o n s t e e l a r e a t o e n s u r e y i e l d i n g of
s t e e l p r i o r t o c o m p r e s s i o n c r u s h i n g o f c o n c r e t e (for a c h i e v i n g
a du c t i l e f a i l u r e ) . Fiber reinforced concrete has a desirable
d u c t i l i t y in c o m p r e s s i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s t r a i n
c a p a c i t i e s b e y o n d the p e a k c o m p r e s s i v e stress. Hence, m o re
t e n s i o n s t e e l c a n b e u s e d in r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s
inc o r p o r a t i n g steel fibers without reducing ductility below
d e s i r a b l e levels.
T h e m a x i m u m l i m i t o n t e n s i o n s t e e l r a t i o in c o n v e n t i o n a l
s i n g l y r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s is 0 . 7 5 t i m e s t h e b a l a n c e d
steel ratio. T h e b a l a n c e d s t e e l r a t i o ( p O is t h e o n e for
w h i c h y i e l d i n g of s t e e l t a k e s p l a c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e
c r u s h i n g o f c o n c r e t e in c o m p r e s s i o n .
T h e o b j e c t i v e of t h i s p a r t o f t h e s t u d y w a s t o d e c i d e t h e
m a x i m u m l i m i t o n t e n s i o n s t e e l r a t i o in f i b r o u s s e c t i o n s , at
w h i c h t h e f l e x u r a l d u c t i l i t y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h a t of
c o n v e n t i o n a l r e i n f o r c e d c o n c re t e s ec tions w i t h p = 0.75 p b .
F o r t h i s p u r p o s e a c u r v a t u r e d u c t i l i t y w a s d e f i n e d as t h e
m a x i m u m c u r v a t u r e at f a i l u r e (where the r e f i n e d f lexural
a n a l y s i s b y c o m p u t e r s h o w s a m a j o r d r o p in f l e x u r a l r e s i s t a n c e
in t h e p o s t - p e a k r e g i o n ) d i v i d e d b y t h e c u r v a t u r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
to flexural yielding. F i g u r e 10 p r e s e n t s t h e f l e x u r a l
d u c t i l i t y o f s e c t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e s h o w n in F i g u r e 4, b u t
w i t h d i f f e r e n t t e n s i o n steel ratios and fiber v o l u m e fractions.
T h i s figure, w h i c h h as b e e n g e n e r a t e d u s i n g r e s u l t s of ref i n e d
f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s , c l e a r l y s h o w s t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s in f l e x u r a l
d u c t i l i t y resul t i n g from steel fiber reinforcement.
T h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 10 i n d i c a t e s t h a t a d u c t i l i t y of
a b o u t 1.2 is a c h i e v e d a t p / P h = 0 . 7 5 in b e a m s w i t h no f i b e r
reinforcement. T h i s l e v e l of d u c t i l i t y c a n b e a c h i e v e d f o r 1 %
s t e e l f i b e r v o l u m e f r a c t i o n ( V f l f / d f = 70) a t p / p u = 0.9, a n d
f o r 1.5 % f i b e r v o l u m e f r a c t i o n (Vf l f / d f = 105) a t p / p ^ = 1.05.
Hence, in t h e p r e s e n c e o f s t e e l f i b e r s t h e l i m i t on
m a x i m u m t e n s i o n steel for e n s u r i n g flexural d u c t i l i t y can be
r e l a x e d , a n d s m a l l e r c r o s s s e c t i o n s c a n b e u s e d in f l e x u r a l
ele m e n t s to g e n e r a t e the reguired load capacity. The
c o r r e s p o n d i n g w e i g h t r e d u c t i o n s a n d i n c r e a s e in u s e f u l h e i g h t
of t h e b u i l d i n g s a n d o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e i m p o r t a n t e c o n o m i c
a d v a n t a g e s e n c o u r a g i n g s t r u c t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of s t e e l f i b e r
re i nforced concrete.
464
P/Pb Ratio
■V f- 1.5 % ■V f - 1 % ■V f - .3 5 %
i
Figure 10 R e l a t i o n B t w e e n C u r v a t u r e Ductility and Tension

S t e e l R a t i o n (P/Pb ) .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A r e f i n e d f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e w a s d e v e l o p e d fo r
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t e e l fibe r s . The
a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e w a s v e r i f i e d u s i n g t e s t r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d in
the literature, a n d it w a s u s e d f o r a n a n a l y t i c a l p a r a m e t r i c
s tudy on the effects of d ifferent design variables on flexural
s tre n g t h and ductility of fibrous reinforced concrete sections.
B a s e d on the re s u l t s of t h i s p a r a m e t r i c s t u d y s i m p l i f i e d
f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d for
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e e l e m e n t s i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t e e l fib e r s .
From the analytical studies performed on the flexural
b e h a v i o r o f f i b r o u s r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s it w a s
c o n c l u d e d that:
1 - S t e e l f i b e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t r e s u l t s in i m p r o v e m e n t s in
t h e f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h a n d e s p e c i a l l y d u c t i l i t y of r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e sections.
2 - High strength steel and concrete can be efficiently
u s e d in f l e x u r a l e l e m e n t s i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t e e l f i b e r s w i t h n o
s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o n t h e d u c t i l i t y of b e h a v i o r .
3 - S t e e l f i b e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t r e d u c e s t h e n e e d fo r
c o m p r e s s i o n s t e e l f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e d u c t i l i t y o f b e h a v i o r in
flexural elements. H i g h te n s i o n steel ratios can be also used
in f l e x u r a l r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e e l e m e n t s i n c o r p o r a t i n g s t e e l
fibers, r e s u l t i n g in h i g h e r f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h s , while the
d u c t i l i t y is m a i n t a i n e d a t d e s i r a b l e l e vels.
465
A s i m p l i f i e d f l e x u r a l a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e w a s d e v e l o p e d for
f ibrous rei n f o r c e d concrete sections. T h i s m e t h o d is
c o n v e n i e n t to use and conforms to the de s i g n g u i d e l i n e s of the
A m e r i c a n C o n c r e t e I n s t i t u t e (ACI 318 -83) .
T h e d e v e l o p e d f l e x u r a l d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s a l s o a c c o u n t fo r
t h e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o f f i b e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t o n t h e d u c t i l i t y of
flexural b e h a v i o r by increasing the maxi m u m limit on tension
s t e e l a r e a in t h e p r e s e n c e o f f i b e r s . Results of the pro p o s e d
simpli f i e d flexural analysis procedure compare reasonably well
w i t h tes t results.
REFERENCES
1. S h a h , S.P . , " A p p l i c a t i o n of F r a c t u r e M e c h a n i c s to
C e m e ntitions Composites," Martinus Publishers, 1985.
2. S o r o u s h i a n , P. a n d B y a s i , Z. " P r e d i c t i o n of t he T e n s i l e
S t r e n g t h of F i ber R e i n f o r c e d Concrete Acrit i q u e of the
Composite Material Concept," A C I P u b l i c a t i o n S P 1 0 5 , 1987,
pp 71-84.
3. S o r o u s h i a n , P , a n d B a y a s i , Z. ( e d i t o r s ) " F i b e r r e i n f o r c e d
Concrete Design and Application" Composite M aterials and
S t r u c t u r e s C e n t e r , M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , F e b 1987.
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D u c t i l i t y of C o n c r e t e " J o u r n a l of T h e S t r u c t . D i v A S C E
V O L , 9 6 , N . .S t 6 , J u n e 1 9 7 0 p p 1 1 6 7 - 1 1 8 4 .
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o f S t e e l F i b e r R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e " P h . D T h e s i s , V o l u m e 2,
M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1989.
6 . Hannant, D . J . , "Fiber Cements and Fiber Concretes"; John

W i l e y a n d S o n s Ltd, 1978, p p 219.
7. S w a m y , R.N. a n d A l - N o o r i , K.A. " F l e x u r a l B e h a v i o r o f F i b e r

C o n c r e t e W i t h C o n v e n t i o n a l S t e e l R e i n f o r c e m e n t " , Proc, R I L E M
Symp. on Fiber R e i n f o r c e d Cement And Concrete, Conctruction
P r e s s Ltd, L a n c a s t e r , 1975, p p 1 8 7 - 1 9 5 .
8 . F a n e l l a , D .A . a n d N a a m a n , A.E . , " S t r e s s - s t r a i n P r o p e r t i e s
o f F i b e r R e i n f o r c e d M o r t a r In C o m p r e s s i o n " A C I J o u r n a l , vol,
N o 4 J u l y - A u g u s t , 1985. p p 4 7 5 - 4 8 5 .
9. S o u r o u s h i a n , P. a n d Lee, C . , " C o n s t i t u t i v e M o d e l i n g of S t e e l
Fiber R e i n f o r c e d Concrete U nder Direct Tension and
C o m p r e s s i o n , " R e p o r t No M S U - E N G R - 8 9 - 0 0 2 , C o ll e g e of
E n g i n e e r i n g , M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , MI, F e b . 1 9 8 9 , p p 44.
10. Shah,S.P. Stroven, D.Dalhuison, and p .Steke Lenburg, in

T e s t i n g a n d T e s t M e t h o d of F i b e r C e m e n t C o m p o s i t e s ,
c o n s t r u c t i o n Press, l a n c a s t e r 1978, p p 3 9 9 - 4 0 8 .
11. F a n e l l a , D.A. a n d N a a m a n , A . E . " S t r e s s - S t r a i n P r o p e r t i e s of

R e i n f o r c e d M o r t e r in C o m p r e s s i o n " A C I J o u r n a l Proceedings,
v o l 82, N o . 4, J u l y - A u g u s t 1985, p p 4 7 5 - 4 8 3 .
12. Kormeling, H . A . , R e i n h a r d t , H . W . , a n d S hah, S.P. "Static

a n d F a t i g u e P r o p e r t i e s of C o n c r e t e B e a m s R e i n f o r c e d w i t h
C o n t i n u e s B a r s a n d w i t h F i b e r s " A C I J o u r n a l P r o c e d i n g , Vol.
N o .1, J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1980. pp 36-42
13. Swamy, R.N. and Sa'ad A - Al-Ta'an "Deformation and

466
U l t i m a t e S t r e n g t h in F l e x u r e o f R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e B e a m s
made wi t h Steel Fiber Concrete" ACI Journal Proceding
S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r 1981. pp 335-405
14. A b d u l - w a h a d H.,M,S. and A L-Ausi and SH TH T a w f i q "Steel

F iber R e i n f o r c e d C oncrete M e m b e r U n d e r Combined, Shear and
T o r s i o n 11 U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y , Baghdad, Iraq R ILEM
1 9 8 6 V O L 1.
15. Batson, G . , "Use of Steel Fiber for Shear R e i n f o r c e m e n t and

D u c t i l i t y " U S A - S w e d e n j o i n t s e m i n a r (NSF - S T U ) , S. Shah
and A . S K a r e n d a h i l , editors, Swedish cement and Concrete
R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , S t o c k h o l m , 1985.
467
ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF REINFORCED

LIGHTWEIGHT FIBROUS CONCRETE BEAMS
M.N. HASSCUN, Ph.D., FASCE, PE, FICE, CE

Professor, South Dakota State University
Civil Engr. Dept., Brookings, SD 57007
H. BEHDAD, A. SAWAIMA
Graduate Students
ABSTRACT
A research program was conducted with the aim of studying the

flexural behavior and ultimate strength of reinforced structural
lightweight concrete beams containing a combination of steel reinforcing
bars and a specific type of fibers, steel or polypropylene fibers. For
this purpose, sixteen beams were cast and tested up to failure under two
concentrated loads placed at the third points of spans. All beams were
made of cellular lightweight concrete using preformed foam. The densities
of the lightweight concrete varied between 80 and 110 lb per cubic foot
(1280 and 1760 Kg/m3). All beams were of the same size and reinforced with
the same number and size of deformed steel bars. The main variables were
the densities and the type of fibers used in the concrete mix.
From test results, a procedure is developed to determine the ultimate

strength of reinforced lightweight fibrous concrete. The procedure is
based on the ACI Code taking into consideration the increase in the
ultimate strength of the concrete section due to the presence of fibers.
The analysis of the concrete beams shows good correlation between
predicted ultimate strength and experimental results.
INTRODUCTION
Cellular Concrete
Cellular concrete is one type of lightweight concrete which has a

density less than that of normal weight concrete. In cellular concrete,
the reduction in density is achieved by creating uniform air cells in the
concrete mix. This can be possible by adding a calculated amount of a
proper stable pre-formed foam. The air cells may also be formed
mechanically by entrapping air during high speed mixing of the concrete
materials containing a foaming agent.
468
Reducing the density of concrete is accompanied by a reduction in all

of the strength properties. In spite of this reduction, since density,
strength and cross section of a structural member are variable, it is
possible to select a lightweight concrete member with a proper density and
size in order to satisfy strength within a required range. The density
of structural lightweight concrete may vary between 80 and 120 pcf (1280
and 1920 Kg/m3).
Cellular concrete may be classified as Neat Cement, Sanded,

Lightweight Aggregate or Modified cellular concrete depending in the
constituents of the concrete mix and their proportions [1,2]. Cellular
concrete, like normal weight, can receive any type of additive, cement or
fibers.
Fibrous Concrete
The lew tensile and flexural strength of concrete as well as its

brittle nature are major factors for the growing interest in the
performance of fibers in concrete technology. In recent years, various
types of fibers have been used in fibrous concrete. However, the majority
of experience has been in the use of steel and polypropylene fibers with
normal weight concrete. The use of these fibers in lightweight concrete
is still in the research phase. In this research work, an attempt has
been made to investigate the behavior and ultimate strength of cellular
concrete beams containing steel and polypropylene fibers. The scope of
research extends to the study of physical and mechanical properties of
both cellular concrete and fibrous-cellular concrete.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF FIBROUS CONCRETE BEAMS
Several methods have been developed to predict the flexural strength

of normal weight reinforced concrete beams containing different types of
fibers with major emphasis on steel fibers. Recently, the ACI Committee
on Fibrous Concrete has reported its findings on the design considerations
for steel fiber reinforced concrete [3]. The report indicates that the
presence of fibers in a reinforced concrete member will produce tensile
strength in the tension zone of a cracked section. The tensile strength
can be computed and added to that contributed by thereinforcing bars to
obtain the ultimate moment capacity of the beam.
The contribution of fibers, however, has been taken into account by

different investigators [4,5,6,7,8]. Consequently, several approaches
have been presented for the analysis of flexural members made of normal
weight fibrous concrete. These approaches modify the internal forces in
the member to include the tensile strength of fibrous concrete.
Williamson [4] indicated that the developed force across the crack
in the tension zone due to the fibers is equal to the number of effective
fibers in that zone multiplied by the average pullout forcedeveloped in
a single fiber. The ultimate moment is the combination of the moment due
to the steel reinforcement plus the moment due to the fibers. He assumed
that the strain in concrete at failure is equal to 0.0033, while other
investigators used 0.0035 [6,9,10].
469
Henegar and Doherty [5] considered that the contribution of fibers

depends on the fiber stress, bond stress, fiber aspect ratio and volume
fraction of the fiber. The fraction of fibers effective in random
distribution is considered to be 0.41, as suggested by Romualdi [11] while
the bond efficiency factor is considered to be 0.82. Hie stress and
strain distribution assumed in this method is shown in figure 1.
The method developed by Swamy and Al-Ta'an [6] to calculate the
ultimate flexural strength is based on compatibility and equilibrium
conditions used for normal reinforced concrete taking into account the
contribution of the steel fibers in the tension zone. The actual and
assumed stress and strain distributions at failure are shewn in figure 2.
Jindal [7] proposed a modified approach to calculate the ultimate

moment capacity of reinforced concrete beams containing fibers. He
considered that the ultimate flexural due to the contribution of fibers
is equal to a stress of 495 psi times the aspect ratio multiplied by the
volume fraction of the fibers.
The method presented by Craig [8], is similar to that developed by

Williamson considering a maximum strain of 0.003 in fibrous concrete at
failure.
Test Specimens
In order to study the effect of steel and polypropylene fibers on the

ultimate strength of lightweight cellular concrete and also to study the
properties of this type of concrete, sixteen different mixes of varying
fiber type and density were produced. Four groups of densities were
considered; 80, 90, 100 and 110 lb/ft3 (1280, 1440, 1600 and 1760 Kg/m2).
Each group consisted of four types of specimens, the first did not contain
any fibers, the second and third contained two different types of
polypropylene fibers, while the fourth type contained steel fibers.
The number and type of specimens prepared for this research program
consisted of sixteen main beams with identical dimensions. The beams
represented the sixteen different mixes mentioned above. Each beam had
a total depth of 8 in. (203 mm), a width of 5 in. (127 mm) and a total
length of 66 in. (1676 mm). All beams had an identical percentage of main
steel reinforcement and also the same percent of fibers by volumes.
Figure 3 shows longitudinal and transverse sections of a typical beam.
Each beam was reinforced with 2 #3 bars (9.5 mm) and contained either 0.50
percent fibers by volume or no fibers. All beams had adequate shear
reinforcement.
A total number of 178 standard size cylinders, 6 x 12 in. (152 x 305

mm) were made to measure the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity
and also to be used for the split test. Moreover, thirty-two small beams
6x6x22 in. (152x152x559 mm) were prepared to determine the modulus of
rupture of cellular concrete.
470
0.85 fc '
I 1
1 1 Ec = 0.003
h d
ii
a/ 2
c
J-a;
V N .A .
fc es (FIBERS)
£g (BARS)
Stress Distribution
Strain Distribution
Figure 1. Basic design assumption in the Henager and Doherty

Method (5).
e. = 0.0035 0.67 fc
i— —— i I 1
;sc
Figure 2. Actual and assumed stress and strain distribution at

failure in the Swamy and Al-Ta1 an Method (6 )
#2 @ 2.5" 4 #2 2 #3
1" 3 1"
H 1 H H
66" 5"
I— rL- 1
Figure 3. Typical reinforcement details of beams.

471
Materials
All concrete mixes for both the plain and fibrous concrete were
identical except for the presence of fibers. The cement used was Type 1
normal Portland Cement satisfying ASTM 150. Fly ash, Class C, according
to ASTM C618 was used to substitute 35 percent by weight of the cement
content. The fly ash had a specific gravity of 2.58 and a unit weight of
290 lb/yd5 (172 Kg/m3). Natural normal weight sand was used for the lower
densities, while a combination of natural sand and pea aggregates with
size of 1/4 in. (6 mm) was used for the higher densities. A water
reducing agent was used according to the manufacturer's description. The
agent was formulated to comply with ASTM specifications for chemical
admixtures for concrete C-494.
Foam weighing 1.75 lb/ft3 (44 Kg/m3) was added to the concrete mix
to produce the designed densities. Elastizell foaming agent was used and
the foam was produced by a special tank and foam gun that produces foam
at the rate of 16 ft3/min. (0.45 m3/min).
The steel fibers used had a diameter of 0.02 in. (0.5 mm), a length
of 2 in. (50.8 mm) and an aspect ratio of 100. The fibers were of the
hooked-end type to provide anchorage between the fibers and the concrete.
The fibers were in the form of small tape-like units held together by an
adhesive that permitted them to separate and disperse throughout the
concrete mix.
Two types of polypropylene fibers were used, one in the form of

separated fibers, while the other was in the form of fibermesh. Both
types of fibers had a length of 3/4 in. (19 mm), a density of 56 lb/ft3
(897 Kg/m3) and a specific gravity of 0.91.
The design of all mixes to produce the specific densities was made
using the absolute volumetric method taking into consideration all the
specifications of the materials used in each mix. Normal mixes were
produced and no attempt was made to produce a relatively high strength
cellular concrete.
Compressive strength
In this research program, the compressive strength of cellular

concrete was determined by testing the standard cylinders at the age of
28 days. The compressive strength varies with its density. It is
expected that concrete of lower density will produce lower compressive
strength. Depending on the density, the compressive strength of cellular
concrete might vary between 400 to 3500 psi (2.8 to 24.5 MPa) for
densities that range between 50 and 120 pcf (800-1920 Kg/m3) [12] using a
water-cement ratio of 0.50. A higher strength may be obtained if the
water-cement ratio is reduced with a proper mix design and a proper water
reducing agent.
In this research program, the compressive strength of plain (NF) and

fibrous cellular concretes containing polypropylene fibers either
472
separated fibers (FF) or fibermesh (FM) or steel fibers (SF) and having
different densities were determined and compared. The volume percentages
of all types of fibers used were 0.5. Regression analysis was performed
using the results of the compression test to obtain expressions that
predict the compressive strength of plain and fibrous cellular concrete.
Fewer, exponential, quadratic and linear functions were tried to represent
the relation between the compressive strength fc' and the wet density Ww
of cellular concrete. The best practical fitting function was the power
function as shewn in table 1. An expression was also derived using the
combination of data for mixes containing the separated fibers and
fibermesh fibers as they seemed to give very close results. The
coefficient of determination R2 for the power function varied between 0.86
and 0.98. Moreover, the overall utility of models (equations) were tested
using the statistical "F Test". The values of the "F's" were calculated
and their values greatly exceeded the minimum values [13].
TABLE 1
Suggested Equations for Ultimate Compressive Strength fc*
Sample calculation of fc1 (PSI)

for different wet densities Wu
Type of Fiber Equation 90 100 110 115 120
None Fiber (NF) fc ' = 0.71 X 10'5 w - 5 915 1417 2104 2530 3019
Fibermesh (FM) fc ' = 1.65 X 10'5 1082 1650 2416 2886 3421
increase % 18 16 15 14 13
Sep. Fibers (FF) fc ' = 1.10 X 10'5 W w4'10 1132 1743 2577 3092 3682
increase % 24 23 23 22 22
Combination of
(FM) and (FF) fc' = 1.7 X 10'5 Wh4-°° 1115 1700 2489 2973 3525
increase % 22 20 18 18 17
Steel Fiber (SF) fc' = 0.38 X 10‘5 962 1513 2279 2759 3313
increase % 5 7 8 9 10
Test results [14] indicated that cellular concrete containing

polypropylene fibers shews higher increase in compressive strength fc1 than
those containing steel fibers when compared to non-fibers concrete. The
increase exceeded 20 percent. However, when polypropylene fibers are
used, the percentage of increase in fc* is slightly reduced when the
density changes from 90 pcf to 120 pcf. In contrast with that, mixes
containing steel fibers showed a positive rate of change in fc' with an
increase in density.
Tensile Strength (Split Test)
Standard size cylinders were cast and tested, according to ASTM C78,
to evaluate the tensile strength obtained from split test of the plain and
473
fibrous cellular concrete. From regression analysis it was found that the
tensile strength, fct, could be presented as a linear function of the
square root of the compressive strength, fc' as follows:
fct = 3.5 /fc' (psi) (1)
for plain cellular concrete
and __
fct = 4.5 /f,' (psi) (2)
for fibrous cellular concrete
Test results [14] indicated that an increase of about 40 and 33

percent were obtained in fqt when polypropylene and steel fibers were used
in the cellular concrete mixes respectively. Moreover, a ductile mode of
failure was observed when testing cylinders made of fibrous cellular
concrete, figure 4, while plain cellular concrete had a suddenly brittle
failure mode, figure 5. The tensile strength was almost uniform along the
depth of the tested cylinders.
Ultimate Moment Capacity
Several methods were discussed earlier for the analysis of reinforced

fibrous concrete beams made of normal weight concrete containing steel
fibers. In these methods, the contribution of steel fibers to the tensile
strength of concrete has been taken into account by considering the
pullout force of fibers determined by experiment. Moreover, the tensile
strength was assumed to depend on the percentage of volume of fibers,
their bond efficiency, the fraction of fibers effective in random
distribution, the length and diameter of fibers and the distribution of
the tensile stress along the tension zone in a cracked section. Similar
information, however, is not available for fibrous-cellular concrete.
To evaluate the tensile strength of fibrous cellular concrete that

can be used to calculate the ultimate moment capacity of beams, a
different approach has been considered. In this approach, the contribu
tion of fibers to the tensile strength of cellular concrete, having a
particular density containing a particular type of fibers, has been
considered to be related to the difference between the tensile strength
of the plain and the fibrous cellular concrete resulting from the split
of the standard-size cylinders having identical density. Figure 5 shows
the split test of a plain non-fibrous cellular concrete cylinder with 110
pcf density. Figure 4 shows the split test of 80 pcf cellular concrete
containing polypropylene fibers. From test results the tensile strength
of the cylinders containing fibers was greater than those of identical
plain concrete cylinders. This increase depends mainly on the type and
volume of fibers, the aspect ratio of fibers and the density of the
cellular concrete used which affects the bond efficiency. These factors
can be represented by the tensile strength of a split cylinder on a
tensile surface of 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm). Also, the tensile strength
reflects the fraction of fibers effective in random distribution along the
split surface of the cylinder.
Figure 4. Split test of 80 pcf cellular concrete Figure 5. Split test of plain cellular concrete
cylinder containing polypropylene fibers. cylinder.
475
To evaluate the ultimate moment capacity of cellular concrete beams

containing polypropylene or steel fibers, the following assumptions are
made:
1. The strain diagram is linear with a maximum usable strain at the

extreme concrete compression fiber of 0.003.
2. The compression stress is presented by a rectangular stress block as
used in the ACI Code strength method, figure 6.
3. The increase in the tensile stress of concrete due to the fibers act
which is developed across the tension zone is represented by a
rectangular tensile stress block across the entire tensile zone.
This tensile stress is related to the difference between he tensile
strength of the plain and fibrous cellular concrete from the split
test of the standard-size cylinders having identical density, Afct.
The increase in tensile stress of concrete due to the presence of

fibers is then equal to:
act = K (Afct) (3)
where K = coefficient to be determined from test.
The ultimate moment capacity of a rectangular section can be calculated

as follows, refer to figure 6:
The compressive force C is equal to:
C = 0.85 fc' a b (4)
The value of a is equal ^c and 0, = 0.85 for fcf <: 4000 psi (27.6
MPa) and is reduced linearly as specified by the ACI Code (318-83).
For a singly reinforced section, the tensile force T is:
T = Ajfy + <?ct bCh-a/^) (5)

And since C = T, then:
a = [(Asfy)/b+t7cth]/(0.85 fc«Ht/î) (6)

The ultimate moment capacity of thecellular reinforced fibrous
concrete beam can be calculated as follows:
M, = A5fy(d-a/2)4t7ctb(h-a/^1)(h/2+a/2^-a/2) (7)
The test results for the ultimate moment capacity of the beams as
well as the calculated ultimate moments when neglecting the effect of
fibers and those calculated considering the effect of fibers are presented
in Table 2. From test results, it was found that the value of K in
equation 3 is equal to 1.3 for the polypropylene fibers and 1.5 for the
steel fibers. Moments using these factors are given in Column 5, table
2. It can be seen that the suggested approach correlates very well with
test results as indicated in column 8. The actual moments shown in column
6 were higher than the moments in column 5, calculated by the suggested
476
method by an average of 3 percent for the polypropylene fibers and 2

percent for the steel fibers.
0.003
0.8 5f c 1
b
I 1
0.85 fc ' ba
N.A.
h d
ct
s
A sfy
Section Strain Stress
Figure 6. Assumed stress and strain diagrams for fibrous cellular

reinforced concrete beams.
TABLE 2
Ultimate Moment Capacity (lb.in)
Calculated Ultimate Moment

Effect of Fibers Test Results
Type Actual Nealected Considered Actual increase change
of Beam Density Moment Moment Moment from NF from (5)
Fiber No. (pcf) CTct=K (Afct) % %
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
None B1 83.3 47231 _

58986 _
Fiber B2 93.0 62700 - 66555 - -
(NF) B3 102.8 68498 - 75474 - -

B4 113.3 72204 - 76644 - -
Fiber-- B5 83.3 55540 60279 67527 14 +10.7

mesh B6 94.8 66579 72306 72774 9 + 0.6
(PM) B7 104.4 70809 79123 79407 5 + 0.4
B8 114.0 73440 84464 83322 9 - 1.4
Fibers B9 83.7 57995 61494 69480 18 +11.5
(FF) BIO 94.9 67139 72726 74340 12 + 2.2
Bll 105.0 71400 79972 81450 8 + 1.8
B12 114.6 73872 85284 84060 10 - 1.5
Steel B13 83.6 48702 55636 60318 2 + 7.8
Fiber B14 94.4 64440 68583 70479 6 + 2.7
(SF) B15 105.1 70149 77434 77346 2 - 0.1
B16 114.2 73025 82977 81252 6 - 2.1
477
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this experimental investigations, the

following conclusions may be drawn:
1. The overall percentage of increase in compressive strength in fibrous

cellular concrete containing polypropylene and steel fibers was
substantial. Simple equations are presented to evaluatethe
compressive strength of plain and fibrous cellular concrete based on
wet density.
2. A simple procedure is presented in order to calculate the ultimate
moment capacity of fibrous concrete beams, taking into account the
effect of fibers. The calculated ultimate moments for fibrous
concrete beams using the method presented are higher than those
calculated neglecting the effect of fibers and are lower than those
resulting from testing.
REFERENCES
1. Legatski, L.M., "Cellular Concrete", Publication of University of

Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1984.
2. Valore, R.C., Jr., "Cellular Concretes— Part 2, Physical Properties",

Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Proceeding V. 50, No. 10,
June 1954, pp. 817-836.
3. ACI Committee 544, "Design Considerations for Steel Fiber Reinforced

Concrete", Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Proceedings,
Vol. 85, No. 5, September-October 1988, pp. 563-580.
4. Williamson, G.R., "Compression Characteristics and Structural Beam

Design Analysis of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete", Technical Report
M-62, Construction Engineering Research laboratory, Champaign,
Illinois, December 1973.
5. Henager, C.H., and Doherty, T.J., "Analysis of Reinforced Fibrous

Concrete Beams", Journal of Structural Division, of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 103, No. ST1, Proceeding Paper
11847, January 1976, pp. 177-188.
6 . Swamy, R.N. and Al-Tafan S.A., "Deformation and Ultimate Strength in

Flexure of Reinforced Concrete Beams Made with Steel Fiber Concrete",
Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Proceeding V. 78, No. 5,
September-October 1981.
7. Jindal, R.L., "Shear and Moment Capacities of Steel Fiber Reinforced

Concrete Beams", Fiber Reinforced Concrete— International Symposium,
ACI Publication SP-81, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Michiqan, 1984.
8 . Craig, R., "Flexural Behavior and Design of Reinforced Fiber Concrete

Members", Fiber Reinforced Concrete Properties and Applications, ACI
Publication SP-105, Detroit, Michigan, 1987, pp. 517-563.
478
9. Hassoun, M.N. and Sahebjam K., "Plastic Hinging in Two-Span

Reinforced Concrete Beams Containing Steel Fibers", Proceedings of
the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, May 1985, pp 119-139.
10. Hassoun, M.N., "Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures" PWS

Publishing, Boston, 1985, pp 521-528.
11. Romualdi, J.P. and Mandel, J.A., "Tensile Strength of Concrete

Affected by Uniformly Distributed and Closely Spaced Short Lengths
of Wire Reinforcement", Journal of the American Concrete Institute,
Proceedings V. 61, No. 6 , June 1964, pp. 657-670.
12. ACI Committee 523, "Guide for Cellular Concrete Above 50 pcf, and for
Aggregate Concretes Above 50 pef with Compressive Strengths Less Than
2500 PSI", Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Proceedings
V. 72, No. 2, Fdsruary 1975, pp. 50-66.
13. Mendenhall, W. and Sincich, T., "Statistics for the Engineering and
Computer Sciences", Dellen Publishing Company, Santa Clara,
California, 1984.
14. Behdad, H., "Effect of Fibers on the Physical Properties,

Serviceability and Ultimate Load Capacity of Cellular Concrete
Beams", M.S. Thesis, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD,
April 1989.
479
BEHAVIOUR OF FIBRE—REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS CONTAINING OPENINGS
N E SHANMUGAM and S SWADDIWUDHIPONG

National University of Singapore
ABSTRACT
An approximate strength formula proposed earlier, to predict the load-

carrying capacity of fibre-reinforced concrete deep beams containing
openings is reviewed. The accuracy of the formula is established by
comparing the theoretically predicted ultimate strength with the
corresponding experimental values. Additional tests which have been
carried out to supplement those available in the published literature are
described; comparisons are also made with those predicted by the other
analytical methods.
INTRODUCTION
Addition of steel fibres has been shown to increase, significantly, the
ultimate strength of reinforced concrete deep beam (1,2). Openings are
often provided in deep beams and they to a great or less extent, affect the
behaviour of such beams. Studies on reinforced concrete deep beams

containing openings (3,4) have shown that their ultimate load behaviour
depends upon the location of the openings. These studies were extended by
the authors (5,6) to investigate the effect of openings on the load-
carrying capacity of fibre-reinforced concrete deep beams. The effect of
fibre content, position of openings and different types of loadings on the
first crack and ultimate loads was studied by carrying out experiments on a
number of deep beams containing openings. A modified empirical formula,
based on Kong and Sharp's formula (4) and experimental observations, was
proposed (6). The effect of using web reinforcement in conjunction with
steel fibres in the concrete mix on the shear strength of deep beams
containing openings was studied by Mansur and Alwis recently (7).
480
This paper is concerned with the experiments that have been carried
out to supplement those presented in reference (5). Also, the modified
empirical formula to predict the ultimate strengths of fibre-reinforced
concrete deep beams with openings proposed earlier (6) is reviewed.
Failure loads from many tests published earlier are compared with those
obtained by making use of the new formula and the formulae proposed for
reinforced concrete deep beams by other researchers.
Test specimens
A total of nine fibre reinforced concrete deep beams were tested to failure
in this series. The beams were selected to supplement those reported in
the reference (5). All the beams were of the same length 1500 mm and of
the same cross-sectional dimensions 80 mm x 650 mm. Steel fibre content in
all the beams was kept at 1 percent by volume. The beams were provided
with two openings, one in each shear span placed symmetrically about the
vertical axis and they were simply supported on a clear span of 1300 mm.
The reinforcement details of a beam are shown in Figure 1.
7 55 x 80 red.
1 ->j i stirrups
0 = 650
anchorage
plate
Figure 1. Dimensions and reinforcement of test beams
The test specimens were all made of concrete prepared by mixing

ordinary portland cement, natural sand and crushed granite of 10 mm maximum
481
size. The mix ratio was 1 : 2 : 0.67 by weight of cement, fine aggregate
and coarse aggregate, respectively and the water-cement ratio was kept at
0.48. An admixture trade named "Rapidard" was added into the mix to
achieve a 28-day strength in 7 days. Steel fibres ("Dramix" ZP 30/0.5)
were used and "balling-up" of fibre, during mixing, due tohigh aspect
ratio was overcome by feeding the fibres into the mix in small quantities
at a time. Two 16 mm diameter deformed bars were used as tensile
reinforcement in all the beams. These bars were anchored by means of 10 mm
thick steel plates welded at both ends.
The specimens were cast flatwise with the reinforcement fixed in pre
determined positions. The fresh concrete mix was then poured into the
moulds and compacted on a vibration table, compaction being done in three
layers. Control, specimens viz. cubes (100 x 100 x 100 mm), cylinders (150
mm dia, x 300 mm) and rectangular prisms (100 x 100 x 500 mm) were also
made along with test beams. The beams and the control specimens were then
kept under room temperature for about 24 hours before demoulding and then
cured under wet gunny bags for about 6 days.
Each of the beams was chosen to represent different locations of

openings and the position of the applied load as shown in Figure 2 • All
the beams tested are listed in Table 1 • The coefficients k 1 and k2 define
the opening location whilst a-j and a2 indicate the size of openings. The
x/0=
Figure 2. Various positions of openings and loads

482
TABLE 1
Details of beams tested in the present series
Beam Beam x/D k 2x k2D a^x a2D

number reference (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 B0B1/0.3 0.3 40 455 175 125

2 B0B1/0.3 0.3 220 455 175 125
3 BOC1/0.3 0.3 40 195 175 125
4 B0B2/0.5 0.5 220 455 175 125
5 B0C1/0.5 0.5 40 195 175 125
6 B0C2/0.5 0.5 220 195 175 125
7 B0A1/0.4 0.4 85 325 265 125
8 B0A2/0.4 0.4 130 325 265 125
9 BOA3/0.4 0.4 175 325 265 125
loading points are defined by the shear-span to depth ratio x/D. The beams
are identified by five characters as shown in Table 1• The first two
characters viz "BO" stand for beams containing web openings; the third and
fourth characters together define the location of openings and the last
character after the stroke denotes the x/D ratio which gives the position
of loading.
Testing
The beams were tested in an Avery 1000 kN Universal Testing Machine under
two point loading. Each of the beams was simply supported at the ends to
allow for free rotation and horizontal movement. Three dial gauges were
mounted at the bottom face at midspan and under the loading points to
measure deflections. To prevent total collapse of the beam, two guard
rails were fixed at both ends of the beams. The test set up is shown in
Figure 3•
Figure 3. Details of test set-up

483
At the end of the curing period, the specimens were allowed to dry and
painted white with lime on both faces to facilitate crack observation.
Load was applied in increments of 20 kN. At the end of each load
increment, deflections at the mid-span and under the loading points were
recorded. The load at which the first crack occurred was observed and the
propagation of cracks were marked. The beams were loaded gradually until
failure. In each beam, reinforcement cages were used at the support and
loading points to distribute the concentrated loads, thus preventing
premature crushing of the concrete.
THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH EQUATIONS
Based on the semi-empirical formula proposed by Kong and Sharp (4) for
reinforced concrete deep beams, a modified strength equations using the
structural configuration shown in Figure 4 was proposed for fibre
Figure 4. Structural configuration for modified formula
reinforced concrete deep beams containing openings (6). The ultimate load
Pu is given by the equation
T- = C 1 f 1 f 2 (1 - °-35 f t" b D + E x C 2A # Sin2 «l
in which
n = 1.1
484
f1 = reduction factor to account for the size of openings, given

by (1 - a1 )(1 - 1.67 a2 )
f2 = reduction factor to account for the degree of interruption of
the opening, given as
/ (k - k )2
l h + 214 ^ -------- 1 i :l
((a^) + (a2°) )
h = 0.6 - 2k \ 0.2
k = the distance of the centre of opening from the beam axis
(Figure 4).
r = factor depending on the location of the centre of opening.
= 1 for the centre of opening located in unloaded quadrant
(Figure 4)
= 2 for the centre of opening located in the loaded quadrants
(Figure 4).
Pu = ultimate load
b = width (thickness) of the beam

D = overall depth of the beam
c.j = 1.0 when ft is determined in accordance with BS 1881
x = clean shear-span length
X = 1.5 for web bars
= 1.0 for main bars
= angle of intersection between typical bar and a potential
critical diagonal crack
A = area of one main reinforcing bar
The modified equation accounts, adequately, for the enhanced flexural
strength and fracture toughness and reduction in crack propogation in the
case of fibre reinforced concrete deep beams.
Behaviour of beams
Views after failure of typical beams are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen
from the figures that all the beams except the beam BOB2/0.3 failed in
direct tension. During loading, the first crack originated from the two
corners of the openings and propagated with increasing load. The first
crack load was generally found to depend upon the position of openings, the
load being higher for the beams in which openings were placed close to the
485
top face of the beams. Beam BOB2/0.3 failed by punching shear since the
loading block was located directly above the openings. Load-deflection
plots for all the beams shown in Figure 6 indicate clearly, at the initial
stages of loading, the elastic behaviour of the beams prior to the
/
I m -
6 0 C2 / 0 S
356kN ■
M ■ 1
Figure 5. Views after failure of typical beams
too-
360-
320-
280
* B0B1/0 3
210 -
a B0B2/0 3
. 200 ■ B0C1 / 0 3
; 160 ♦ BOB 2/0 5

o B0C1/0 5
1 120
r t V x / o =0 3 j ^ x / 0 =0 t /fry*1o-.o 5 0 B0C2/0 5
60 • BOA 1/0 • t
* BOA2/0 t
to
D B0A3/0 t x/0 =
0 I f l i p i l l l vvv I f f I I I M 0 3
0 1 2 3 t 5 6 7 8 9 l
5 6 ) 8
0t
0 1 2 3 t
05
0 1 2 3 t 5 6
Deflection (mm)
Figure 6. Load-central deflection plot

486
occurrence of cracks. As more cracks are formed at the later stages of

loading deflection increases at higher rate. The figure also shows the
effect of the degree of interruption of openings by the load path on the
stiffness of deep beams. Lesser the opening interrupts the natural load
path, the higher the stiffness of the beam is.
Ultimate load
The experimental failure loads of the nine beams tested are summarized
under the heading "present series" in Table 2. The values varied from 170
kN to 350 kN depending on the location of openings and the extent to which
the openings interrupted the load path. In those beams where the openings
interrupted the natural load path, the ultimated strength dropped
significantly, the drop depending upon the degree of interruption. A lower
strength of 191 kN was observed for beam B0B2/0.5 where the opening
interrupted the natural load path completely than for beam BOB2/0.3 with
ultimate load of 232 kN where the opening interrupted the natural load path
partially. Similar observations can be made in the case of beams BOA1/0.4,
BOA2/04 and BOA3/0.4. The degree of interruption may be measured as the
distance by which the centre of opening is away from the natural load
path. The test results also show that the effect of x/D ratio on the
ultimate strength is not significant.
Comparison of theoretical and experimental failure loads
All the beams tested in the "present series" along with those given in
references (5) and (7) were analysed by using the modified ultimate
strength equation presented earlier. Also, they were analysed by Kong and
Sharp formula (4) and the results are summarised in Table 2. All the beams
from references (5) and (7) are identified by the same notations given in
the respective references. It should be noted that the beams in reference
(7) contained web reinforcement whilst those in (5) did not.
Comparison of the experimental failure loads with the theoretical

results in Table 2 shows that the modified Kong and Sharp's formula (6), in
general, provides the most accurate prediction. Linear regression analyses
with intercepts of experimental and mathematical models show that the
slopes of the two regressions are very close to one while the standard
errors of the results from Kong and Sharp formula and modified Kong and
487
TABLE 2
Comparison of experimental and theoretical failure loads
Ultimate strength
Reference Beam Kong and Sharp Modified Kong and

Designation Observed Formula (4) Sharp Formula (6)
pexp kN
pth kN pth/pexp p th kN pth/pexp
w B0B1/0.3 345 348 1 .01 327 0.95

0) B0B2/0.3 232+ - - - -
•iH
U B0C1/0.3 170 170 1 .0 160 0.94
Q)
W B0B2/0.5 191 299 1 .56 196 1 .03
-P B0C1/0.5 180 164 0.91 175 0.97
£
QJ BOC2/0.5 356 494 1 .39 330 0.93
W
<D BOA1/0.4 234 238 1 .02 233 0.99
u
a* B0A2/0.4 184 210 1.14 202 1 .10
BOA3/0.4 212 185 0.87 198 0.93
OBOA 180 211 1.17 223 1 .24

tn 10 0.5BOA 212 215 1 .01 229 1 .08
£
8, i 1 .OBOA 305 256 0.84 281 0.92
2 I 1 •5BOA 360 288 0.80 325 0.90
1 •0BOB1 460 585 1 .27 448 0.97
"3 I
•2 <8 1•0BOC1 175 172 0.98 178 1 .02
1•OBOC2 540 579 1 .07 433 0.82
rd 1 .0BOA/0.3 380 264 0.69 305 0.80
* e
02 § 1 .OBOA/O.5 328 258 0.79 350 1 .07
OCO/2 306 291 0.95 305 1 .00

OCO.5/3 342 292 0.85 307 0.90
OC1.0/4 430 360 0.84 392 0.91
rd OC1.5/5 484 452 0.93 512 1 .06
rj W OA1.0/6 576 481 0.84 635 1 .10
to OD1/8 310 286 0.92 294 1 .07
Sd r
f H
rj
s c OE1/9 650 866* 1 .33 576 0.89
OG1 /*l 1 436 394 0.90 395 0.91
OH1/12 468 369 0.79 458 0.98
Linear regression Standard error 0.0405 0.0203

analysis Slope 0.96 1 .04
+ The beam failed by punching shear

* Value calculated by Kong and Sharp formula (4) for beams
without opening
Sharp formula are 0,0405 and 0.0203, respectively (Table 2) implying that
the values from the second model are the least scattered and hence the most
suitable analytical model for predicting the load carrying capacity of
fibre reinforced concrete deep beams with or without openings. It should
488
be appreciated that Kong and Sharp formula was proposed for reinforced
concrete deep beams.
CONCLUSIONS
Results presented herein show that the effect of an opening on the ultimate
strength of deep beams depends on the extent to which it interrupts the
"natural load path" and the location at which this interruption occurs.
The modified strength formula gives reasonably good prediction of load-
carrying capacity of fibre reinforced concrete deep beams with or without
openings.
REFERENCES
1. Roberts, T.M. and Ho, N.L., Shear failure of deep fibre reinforced
concrete beams, The International Journal of Cement Composites and
Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 4, No. 3, August 1982, pp 145-52.
2. Shanmugam, N.E. and Swaddiwudhipong, S. The ultimate load behaviour of

fibre reinforced concrete deep beams", The Indian Concrete Journal,
Vol. 58, No. 8, August, 1984, pp. 207-211.
3. Kong, F.K., Robins, P.J., Singh, A. and Sharp, G.R. Shear analysis and
design of reinforced concrete deep beams, The Structural Engineer,
Vol. 50, No. 10, October 1972, pp. 405-409.
4. Kong, F.K. and Sharp, G.R. Structural idealization for deep beams with
web openings, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 29, No. 99, June,
1977, pp. 81-91.
5. Swaddiwudhipong, S. and Shanmugam, N.E. Fibre-reinforced concrete deep

beams with openings, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol.
111, No. 8, August 1985, pp. 1679-1690.
6. Shanmugam, N.E. and Swaddiwudhipong, S., Strength of fibre-reinforced

concrete deep beams containing openings", The International Journal of
Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 10, No. 1, February,
1988, pp. 53-60.
7. Mansur, M.A. and Alwis, W.A.M., "Reinforced fibre concrete deep beams
with web-openings", The International Journal of Cement Composites and
Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 6, No. 4, November 1984, pp. 263-270.
489
STUDY ON SHEAR FAILURE OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE SHORT COLUMNS

IN CONSIDERATION OF ARRANGEMENT OF TIES
HARUMI YASHIRO
Research Associate,
Dept, of Architecture, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
YASUO TANAKA
Professor, Dept, of Architecture, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
YOUNGGON RO
Graduate Student of Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
KEIICHI HIROSE
Graduate Student of Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Experimental and analytical study on the shear failure of reinforced and

steel fibre reinforced concrete short columns of shear span ratio of 1.5
w a s c a r r i e d out. Fo r e x p e r i m e n t a l study, 33 s p e c i m e n s w e r e used. To
investigate the effect of tie ratio and mixture volume of steel fibre on
shear failure, specimens with different tie ratios and mixture volume of
s t e e l f i b r e s w e r e used. Also, the e f f e c t s of c h a n g e of tie r a t i o s or
mixture volume of steel fibres at the middle and end portions of members
were studied. For analytical study, finite element analysis was applied. As
the result of this study, it is concluded that mixing of steel fibre is
very effective to secure the ductility of the member in the final state.
INTRODUCTION
For aseismic design of reinforced concrete structures, beams and columns

are necessary to be shear failure proof to make sure the structures can
m a i n t a i n d u c t i l i t y u n d e r e a r t h q u a k e l oading. But, for the r e i n f o r c e d
concrete columns with shear span ratio of about 1.5, it can not be said
that the member would keep ductile behaviour under cyclic shear loading for
large deformation.
In this study, experimental study using 30 specimens of ordinary re
inforced concrete and steel fibre reinforced concrete short columns of
s h e a r s p a n r a t i o of 1.5 and a n a l y t i c a l s t udy u s i n g the f i n i t e e l e m e n t
method were carried out to discuss the shear failure processes and effect
of tie reinforcement and steel fibres against shear failure.
490
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Experimental Programme
For all the column specimens, the cross section is 25cm x 25cm, the length
is 75cm, the ratio of shear span to depth is 1.5 and tensile steel ratio
(Pt) is 0.96%. The configuration of the specimens is shown in Fig.l.
The variables which are considered to affect the behaviour of re
inforced concrete short columns subjected to axial load (N) and shear load
(Q) are as follows;
(1) axial loa d ( N ) : 15t(24kg/cm2 :1/10F ), 30t(48kg/cm2 :2/10F ),
45t(72kg/cm :3/10Fc ) ,
(2) tie ratio: Pw=0.56% - @90mm(2-9^), Pw=0.85% - @60mm(2-9^),
Pw=1.28% - @60mm(3-9^),
(3) mixture volume of steel fibres: 0%, 1%, 2%,
(4) change of the tie ratios or the mixture volumes of steel fibre at
middle and end portions of the member
where ,fF c (=240kg/cm2 )" is the compression strength of concrete, and "Pw " is
tie ratio. The region of end portions is 25cm length from the member end
and the middle portion is central 25cm length region as shown in Fig.l.
Table 1 shows the list of test specimens. Specimen names are given in
the order of [axial load (t)]-[range of tie reinforcement (none: throughout
the member, END: end portions, MID: middle portion),tie ratio (%), tie
TABLE 1
List of specimens
15-0.56090-0 15-0.85060-0 15-1.28060-0 15-0.85060-2M 15-MID1.28040-0

15-0.56090-1 15-0.85060-1 15-1.28060-1 END0.85060
15-0.56090-2 15-0.85060-2 15-1.28060-2 15-O.8506O-2E 15-MIDO.85060-0
30-0.56090-0 END1.28040
30-0.56090-1 30-0.85060-2M 30-MIDI.28040-0
30-0.56090-2 END0.85060
45-0.56090-0 45-0.85060-0 45-1.28060-0 3O-O.8506O-2E 30-MID0.85060-0
45-0.56090-1 45-0.85@60-l 45-1.28060-1 END1.28040
45-0.56090-2 45-0.85@60-2 45-1.28060-2 45-O.8506O-2M 45-MIDI.28040-0
END0.85060
45-O.8506O-2E 45-MIDO.85060-0
END1.28040
491
axial loading
I
r:!?’ shear reversals
dial gauges
strain gauges
for reinfocing steel
Figure 2. Loading way and place of

dial gauges and strain gauges. Figure 3. Loading process.
pitch @ (mm)]-[mixture volume of steel fibre (%), range of mixed steel

fibre ( n o n e :throughout the member, E: end portions, M: middle portion)].
The loading way and the place of dial gauges and strain gauges are
shown in F ig.2. The loading process is as follows: (a) to apply constant
axial load, (b) to apply horizontal shear loads of 3t and 6t, (c) to apply
horizontal shear loads to cause first visible bending crack, (d) to apply
horizontal shear loads to cause first visible shear crack and (e) to apply
3 cycles of shear load for relative horizontal displacements of ±7.5mm
(deflection angle of 1/100), ±15.0mm (2/100) and ±22.5mm (3/100) as shown
in Fig.3.
Horizontal and vertical displacements were measured by dial gauges.
Strains in tensile steel and tie were measured by wire strain gauges.
The shape of steel fibre is 0.5mm x 0.5mm x 30mm and tensile strength
is 32kg/cm^.
Result of Experiment
Table 2 shows experimental result.
The effects of mixture volume of steel fib r e s : Typical shear loading

and d e f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s are s h o w n in F i g . 4. Som e t y p i c a l c r a c k
patterns for three deflection angles are shown in Fig.5. From this figure,
crack patterns show that initial bending cracks occur near the end portions
of the member for all specimens and following bending shear cracks occur at
further portions from the end. At the ultimate state, specimens with more
m i x t u r e v o l u m e of s t e e l f i b r e s t end to be d a m a g e d in bond s p l i t t i n g
failure. For example, for the specimen of 30-0.56 @ 9 0 - l , crack length is
Figure 4. Typical shear loading and deformation relationships.

TABLE 2
Experimental result
Strength Of Shear Load (t)

Concrete (kg/cm2)
Initial Initial Displacement / Length
Compression Tension Bending Shear
Specimen Cracking Cracking Maximum at 1/100 at 2/100 at 3/100 at 4/100 at 5/100
15-0. 56090-0 288.4 29.4 7.0 -6.1 11.9 -13.0 -15.8 13.1 -12.4 15.8 -12.4 9.1 - 7.7 5.2 - 5.1 ---- __
15-0. 56090-1 327.7 30.6 7.9 -7.1 20.0 -20.4 22.4 16.1 -17.3 22.4 -21.8 20.0 -17.6 12.5 -11.5 7.9 -7.2
15-0. 56090-2 266.6 28.0 6.0 -7.8 19.0 -20.7 -20.9 11.1 -14.7 19.2 -20.2 20.0 -20.8 17.9 -16.7 11.6 -10.4
15-0.85060-0 380.3 30.8 5.2 -3.1 13.7 -14.7 19.8 13.7 -14.7 19.8 -16.0 11.9 -10.8 6.9 - 6.6 ---- ----
15-0.85060-1 312.9 30.3 10.6 -5.8 15.0 -14.8 -21.4 14.5 -14.6 19.0 -21.4 20.7 -20.2 16.8 -13.5 11.2 -8.7
15-0. 85060-2 274.8 30.2 8.8 -6.9 15.7 -18.9 22.0 14.4 -14.3 21.6 -21.1 22.0 -21.8 20.8 -20.6 16.0 -14.8
15-1.28060-0 313. 9 25.2 5.7 -6.0 13.5 -14. 7 18. 5 13.6 -12.5 18.5 -17.2 18.3 -17.1 15.4 -16. 2 ---- ----
15-1. 28060-1 310.8 25.3 9.8 -9.4 18.6 -16.7 22.9 13.7 -12.4 20.6 -20.0 19.5 -21.4 22.9 -21.8 22.7 -21.9
15-1. 28060-2 332.6 36.3 8.7 -6.9 17.0 -18. 1 -28.3 16.5 -17.7 24.6 -24.9 25.9 -28.1 26.4 -28.3 25.6 -27.0
30-0. 56090-0 401.5 30.5 13.0 - 9.5 20.3 -16.0 24.7 19.0 -18.2 22.4 -17.1 13.4 -10.3 7.0 - 5.7 ---- ----
30-0. 56090-1 297.9 37.4 10.0 -11.0 25.0 -24.0 26.0 23.0 -23.0 26.0 -25.0 22.0 -19.5 15.0 -12.5 ---- ----
30-0. 56090-2 289.7 40.4 12.0 -12.0 19.0 -21.0 25.0 22.0 -22.0 25.0 -24.0 24.0 -23.0 17.0 -16.0 ---- ----
45-0. 56090-0 401.5 30.5 15.0 -13.0 20.0 -18.0 -26.0 20.0 -20.0 24.3 -19.0 9.5 - 8.8 3.5 ---- ---- ----
45-0. 56090-1 224.8 27.4 11.9 -10.9 23.3 -24.2 -25. 3 18.1 -19.8 23.4 -25.3 21.5 -20.1 15.5 -12.5 11.5 ----
45-0. 56090-2 288. 9 37.2 16.2 -15.5 23.0 -24.2 -27. 2 19.7 -19.5 26.0 -27.2 25.9 -26. 7 26.0 -25. 7 23.5 -22.3
45-0. 85060-0 401.5 30.5 16.0 -16.0 23.5 -20.9 28.2 24.0 -20.9 24.0 -21.1 15.8 -12.8 8.8 - 7.8 ---- ---- to
45-0. 85060-1 189.7 28.6 19.0 -17.0 23.0 -23.0 26.0 19.0 -17.0 25.0 -25.0 26.0 -25.0 21.0 -19.0 ---- ----
45-0.85060-2 306.9 35.7 10.0 -10.0 26.0 ---- 26. 5 18.0 -18.0 26.0 -25.5 26.5 -24. 5 18.0 -17.5 ---- ----
45-1. 28060-0 323. 5 33.5 18.0 -12.0 22.0 -21.0 -26. 5 20.0 -26.5 25.0 -26.5 26.0 -25.0 ---- ---- ---- ----
45-1. 28060-1 260.7 33.8 11.9 -9.5 21.2 -19.8 -22. 7 15.8 -16.8 22.0 -22.7 21.2 -20.9 17.6 -16.1 11.3 -9.4
45-1. 28060-2 274.2 39.2 12.7 -13.3 20.6 -21.2 22.9 18.2 -14.4 22.8 -21.1 22.3 -21.4 21.1 -20.9 20.0 -20.7
15—MIDO. 85060-0 289.7 24.4 5.0 - 4.0 10.9 -11.0 15.6 14.1 -12.2 14.5 -12.5 9.2 - 7.8 5.7 - 5.2 ---- ----
END1. 28040
15-0. 85060— 2E 227.9 38.6 8.8 -7.9 17.0 -16.1 -20.11 13.7 -14.3 18.2 -19.6 18.1 -20.3 18.6 -19.6 16.7 -17.0
15—MIDl. 28040-0 313.5 27.1 8.0 - 6.0 13.5 -10.0 22.8 15.2 -14.2 22.8 -21.0 20.5 -17.2 14.4 -12.1 ---- ----
END0. 85060
15-0. 85060— 2M 262.2 37.8 6.9 -6.0 14.0 -14.0 20.71 15.2 -15.0 20.7 -20.6 20.0 -20.2 15.3 -14.4 9.8 -9.9
30-MIDO. 85060-0 328.5 33.5 11.0 -11.0 16.0 -18.0 26.0 20.0 -22.0 26.0 -24.0 22.0 -20.0 ---- ---- ---- ----
END1. 28040
30-0. 8506O-2E 262.2 37.8 12.2 -11.4 22.7 -20.1 22. 14 16.7 -16.1 22.1 -21.4 21.4 -20.9 19.9 -18.4 16.3 -16.1
30—MIDI. 28040-0 319.5 27.1 11.9 - 9.5 16.5 -15.5 23.2 18.4 -17.5 23.2 -18.0 16.9 -15.4 11.7 -10.2 ---- ----
END0. 85060
30-0. 85060— 2M 262.2 37.8 10.8 -10.5 16.0 -17.0 23. 36 17.7 -17.0 23.4 -22.8 21.8 -22.4 17.7 -17.5 12.7 -10.9
45—MIDO. 85060-0 267.1 28.6 11.0 - 9.0 17.7 -10.3 20.2 19.2 -16.8 18.0 -12.3 6.2 - 2.8 ---- ---- ---- ----
END1.28040
45-0. 85060— 2E 253.7 34.9 14.7 -12.8 21.0 -20.6 -22.26 16.3 17.3 20.9 -22.3 20.4 -20. 1 9.4 -11. 9 6.6 -5.7
45—MIDl. 28040-0 305.0 27.1 13.0 - 8.5 17.0 -15.0 24. 6 20.7 -18.8 21.0 -18.0 12.4 -11.6 6.5 - 6.3 ---- ----
END0.85060
45-0. 8506O-2M 253. 7 34 . 9 10.9 -7. 7 17.4 -20.0 - 2 1 . 59 13.5 -18.4 20.0 -20. 9 18.9 -8. 7 4.1 -1.5 ---- ----
1/100 2/100 3/100 1/100 2/100 3/100 1/100 2/100 3/100
30-0.56090-0 30-0.56090-1 30-0.56090-2
Figure 5. Typical crack patterns for 3 deflection angles.
rather short, cracks occur in scattering state and after the deformation of
deflection angle of 2/100 the declination of the stiffness of the member
b e c o m e s lar g e r . F or the s p e c i m e n of 3 0 - 0 . 5 6 @ 9 0 - 2 c r a c k s o c c u r r a t h e r
concentrically and after the deformation of the deflection angle of 4/100
the declination of the stiffness of the member becomes larger, but cracks
do not develop to the middle portion of the member.
Relationships between the ratio "QpM of shear loading and the shear
loading for the first deflection angle of 1/100 ,2/100 and 3/100 and load
cycles for the deflection angles of 1/100, 2/100 and 3/100 are shown in
F i g . 6. F r o m this figure, it is seen that, for the d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e of
1/100, t h e r e is no c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the o r d i n a r y r e i n f o r c e d
concrete specimens and steel fibre reinforced concrete specimens, but, for
the deflection angle of 2/100 for which the shear is near the maximum value
and for the deflection angle of 3/100, the declination of the stiffness of
the ordinary reinforced concrete specimens are larger than that of the
steel fibre reinforced concrete specimens.
( 1/ 100) (2/100)
30 -0 .5 6 0 9 0 -0 -------- 3 0 -0 .5 6 0 9 0 -1 3 0 -0 .5 6 0 9 0 -2 )
Figure 6. Typical decay of shear resistance.
One example of relationships between the ratio "Qp" of shear loading

and the shear loading for the first deflection angle of 2/100 and load
cycles for three deflection angles of 1/100, 2/100 and 3/100 are shown in
F i g . 7. F r o m this figure, it is c l e a r that the st e e l f i bre r e i n f o r c e d
concrete specimens are more ductile than the ordinary reinforced concrete
specimens for the state after the maximum shear.
494
Figure 7. Typical decay of shear resistance.
The effects of the change of the tie ratios or the mixture volume of
s t e e l f i b r e s at the m i d d l e and end p o r t i o n s of the m e m b e r : F r o m the
preceding results and the table 2, it is considered that the steel fibre
reinforced concrete is effective for the ductile behaviour after bending
yielding and this tendency is more conspicuous for the case with enough tie
reinforcement.
Comparing the result for the specimens of 45-0.85@60-2 and 45-1.28060-
0 in F i g . 8 w h i c h s h o w s the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s h ear l o a d i n g and
d e f l e c t i o n , it is s e e n that t h e r e is not m u c h d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n two
figures.
Typical shear loading and deformation relations and some typical crack
patterns for the specimens for which partial central and end reinforcement
by tie s and s t e e l f i b r e s is p e r f o r m e d are s h o w n in Figs. 9 and 10,
respectively, and distributions of tie stresses in the states of deflection
angles of 1/100, 2/100 and the ultimate state are shown in F ig.11.
For the specimen of 45-O.8506O-2E, after the deformation of 14mm the
declination of the stiffness of the member becomes larger, shear failure is
occurred throughout the member and tie stresses become larger and yield
throughout the member. For the specimen of 45-<MID0.85060-END1.2804O>-O,
a f t e r the d e f o r m a t i o n of 9mm, the d e c l i n a t i o n of the s t i f f n e s s of the
member becomes larger, shear failure is occurred in the middle portion of
the member and brittle behaviour is seen. For the specimen of 45-0.85@60-
495
END1.28040
V
\ (
L
1 /1 0 0 2 /1 0 0 A /100 1/100 2/100 A/100 1 /1 0 0 2 /1 0 0 A /100 1/100 2 /1 0 0 3 /1 0 0
45-0.85@ 60-2M A5-M ID1. 28@40-0 45-0.85@ 60-2E 45-MIDO. 85@60-0
ENDO. 85@60 END1.28@40
Figure 10. Typical crack patterns for deflection angles.
\\
)>
4 i
i
\\ •
,\
\i
S'
i i.
-2000 0 - 6000 -2000 0 6000 -2000 0 ’ 6000 -2000 0 . 6000
Corap. STRESS (kg/cm2) Tens. Comp. STRESS (kg/cm2) Tens. Comp. STRESS (kg/cm2) Tens. Corap. STRESS (kg/cm2) Tens.
45-0.85060-2M 45-MIDI.28040-0 45-0.85060-2E 45-MID0.85060-0

ENDO.85060 END1.28040
* 1/100 --- 2 /1 0 0 ----- 3/100)
Figure 11. Typical distributions of tie stresses for deflection angles.
2M, after the deformation of 15mm, the declination of the stiffness of the
member becomes larger, shear failure is occurred in the end portions of the
member and ties yield in the end portions of the member. For the specimen
of 4 5 - < M I D l .2 8 @ 4 0 - E N D 0 .8 5 @ 6 0 > - 0 , a f t e r the d e f o r m a t i o n of 9mm, the
declination of the stiffness of the member becomes larger, ultimate state
is affected much by shear cracks and ties yield in the middle portion of
the member.
Comparing the results for these specimens, it is clear that steel
fibre reinforced concrete specimens are more ductile than ordinary re
inforced concrete specimens.
496
Figure 12. Analytical model.
ANALYTICAL STUDY
Analytical programme
Fo r the a n a l y t i c a l study, the f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d is a p p l i e d . The
analytical model is shown in F i g . 12 and this model is selected after the
actual reinforced concrete specimens which are used in the experiment.
Concrete is represented by constant strain triangular elements. For
the behaviour of concrete under biaxial stress, the modified incremental
orthotropic model, which was proposed originally by Darwin and Pecknold[5]
being based on uniaxial strain and was modified by Noguchi et al.[6] who
TABLE 3
Material constant
(a) Concrete
Ordinary Steel fibre (2%)
Uniaxial compressive strength, f c ’ (kg/cm^) 250.0 250.0

Uniaxial tensile strength, f t ’ (kg/cm^) 36.0 48.0
Strain for f c ', ecu 0.0030 0.0036
Initial elastic modulus, E q (kg/cm^) 215000.0 215000.0
P o i s s o n ’s ratio,y 0.18 0.12
(b) Steel
Yield strength, t (kg/cm^) 3780.0 3780.0

9
Initial elestic modulus, E g (kg/cm ) 2100000.0 2100000.0
Modulus after yielding, E sy (kg/cm^) 50000.0 50000.0
(c) Bond link
Slippage stiffness, E^ (kg/cm^) 10000.0 130000.0

497
took into account the effect of the rotation of principal axes due to shear
stress, is used. Material properties of concrete are shown in Table 3(a).
Tensile steels and ties are represented by one-dimensional element.
The stress-strain relationship of steel is bi-linear type and material
properties of steel are shown in Table 3(b).
To e x p r e s s the s t r e s s and b ond slip r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e n s i l e
steels and concrete, bond link element is used. But perfect bonding between
tie and concrete is assumed. Material properties of bond link are shown in
Table 3(c).
Cracks of concrete are expressed by using smeared crack model.
Result of Analysis
The processes .of. _ahear failure of ordinary reinforced concrete and steel
f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e ( s t e e l fi b r e m i x t u r e of 2% v o l u m e ) short
c o l u m n s a re s h o w n in Fig. 13. F r o m this figure, it is s een that the
a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s are in goo d a g r e e m e n t w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t r e s ults.
Comparing the specimens of ordinary reinforced concrete and steel fibre re
inforced concrete, the shear loads for initial bending cracks and bending
shear cracks are near to each other. But for the shear loads for occurrence
of shear cracks and bond splitting failure, the values for steel fibre re
inforced concrete specimens are larger than those for ordinary reinforced
concrete specimens.
T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of t e n s i l e s t e e l s t r e s s e s and tie s t r e s s e s for
several loading processes are shown in F i g s . 14, and 15, respectively.
—css.
Vs?
w 7 1 if V*r
II L
7
I
a *
45-0.85@60-0 45-0.85060-2
Figure 13. Processes of shear failure.
45-0.85060-0 45-0.85060-2 45-0.85060-0 45-0.85060-2

Figure 14. Distributions of Figure 15. Distributions of
tensile steel stresses. tie stresses.
498
R e g a r d i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of t e n s i l e st r e s s e s , t h e r e is not m u c h
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the v a l u e s for the o r d i n a r y r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
specimens and the steel fibre reinforced concrete specimens. Regarding the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of tie s t r e s s e s , for the o r d i n a r y r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
specimens the tie stresses in the end portions of the member increase as
the loading becomes larger and those in the middle portion of the member do
not increase so much, whereas, for the steel fibre reinforced concrete
specimens the increase of tie stresses is not much as that for ordinary
concrete specimens.
CONCLUSION
From the results of the experimental and analytical study, it is concluded

as follows. By mixing steel fibre to reinforced concrete short columns, the
occurrence of bending cracks, bending shear cracks and shear cracks in the
end portions of the member can not be prevented, but it is possible to
prevent the spreading of shear cracks in the end portions of the member and
the spreading of bond splitting cracks in the middle portion of the member
to some extent. This effect is very much preferable for securing ductile
behaviour after maximum shear loading. It is concluded that the use of
steel fibre for reinforced concrete short columns is very effective to give
higher ductility to the member.
REFERENCES
1. Y.Tanaka, Y.Kaneko and H.Yashiro, The shear failure properties of

reinforced concrete short columns affected by bond in main bars.
Proceedings of Eighth European Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Lisbon, 1986.
2. Y.Tanaka, Y.Kaneko and H.Yashiro, The shear failure properties of
steel fibre reinforced concrete short columns. Proceedings of the
Seventh Japan Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, 1986,
pp. 1351-1356.
3. Y.Tanaka, Y.kaneko, H.Yashiro and S.Fukushima, The shear failure of
steel fibre reinforced concrete short columns. Transactions of the Japan
Concrete Institute, 1984.
4. Y.Kaneko, Shear analysis of RC members under cyclic loadings.
Proceedings of Japan Concrete Institute, Colloquium on Shear Analysis of
RC Structures, Introductory Report, 1982, pp. 39-48.
5. D.Darwin and D.A.W.Pecknold, Inelastic model for cyclic biaxial

loading of reinforced concrete. University of Illinois, UILU-ENG.
1974, pp. 74-2018, 169.
6. H.Noguchi, Analytical Models for reinforced concrete members sub
jected to reversed cyclic loading. Proceedings of Seminar on Finite
Element Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Tokyo, 1985,
pp. 93-112.
499
PROPERTIES AND FEEXURAL PERFORMANCE OF STEEL

FIBER REINFORCED REFRACTORY CONCRETES
SOKKE K. SHIVARAJ
Graduate Student
DR. V. RAMAKRISHNAN
501 E. Joseph St., Rapid City, SD 57701
GEORGE Y. WU
Civil Engineer
Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
Port Hueneme, CA 93043-5003
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of an investigation carried out to

determine the flexural behavior, including first crack strength, modulus
of rupture, the load deflection, the post-crack deformation characteris
tics, the post-crack load drop, and the toughness indexes of a refrac
tory concrete reinforced with stainless steel fiber to 0.5%, 1.0%, and
1.5% by volume. Properties of fresh concrete, and elastic and mechani
cal properties of hardened concretes are also presented.
Based on laboratory prepared test specimens, fiber reinforced
refractory concrete was workable even at high fiber concentrations (1.5%
by volume). There was no balling or tangling of fibers during mixing
and placing. The addition of fibers improved the ductility and the
post-crack energy absorption capacity. There was no significant change
in compressive strength, static modulus and pulse velocity. The static
flexural strengths increased 4.9%, 6.9%, and 39% when reinforced with
0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% steel fiber by volume, respectively. The postcrack
load drops expressed as a percentage of the corresponding maximum loads
decreased from 45.2% to 15.6% as the fiber contents was increased from
0.5% to 1.5% by volume. The first crack toughness increased from 17.48
in-lb (0.2 kg-m) to 32.37 in-lb (0.37 kg-m) with the addition of steel
fiber to 1.5% by volume.
INTRODUCTION
Refractory concrete has higher service temperature and thermal shock

resistance than Portland cement concrete (PCC). It contains refractory
aggregates and calcium aluminate cement. Refractory concrete is primarily
500
used in high temperature applications by steel and aluminum foundries,

petrochemical processors, cement producers, and ceramic manufacturers.
Other applications include heat resistant pavements for military aircraft
and firefighting training facilities.
Until the early fifties the only commercially available calcium
aluminate cements were of rather low purity. They contained high amounts
of iron oxide and silica, and could be used only in concretes that were
limited to relatively low temperatures. Calcium aluminate cements of
high purity expanded the use of refractory concretes considerably and
made high temperature applications possible.
The idea of providing an integral reinforcement through the use of
discrete steel fibers in PCC in order to enhance its physical and engi
neering properties was also applied to the refractory concrete. The
reinforcement of castable refractories was first introduced in the
United States in 1970 (1). Modern technology and continuous research to
produce efficient and durable fibers for this concrete reinforcement,
along with lowering of their production cost, has resulted in availabil
ity of many different kinds of fibers in the market.
Extensive research on fiber reinforced PCC (3, 4, 10, 11, 13) has
well established that the addition of fibers in concrete considerably
improves the static flexural strength, impact strength, shear and tor
sional strength, direct tensile strength, fatigue strength, shock resis
tance, ductility, and failure toughness.
Many investigations were also carried out to study different pro
perties of fiber reinforced refractory concrete using different types of
fibers (1,7,8,& 9). Fiber reinforced refractory concrete has been found
more economical in all applications where normally plain refractory con
crete is being used, either by the reduction of the refractory lining
thickness or by increasing the service life of the refractory concrete.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this investigation were:
1. To determine the properties of a fresh castable refractory

concrete with and without straight stainless steel fibers.
2. To determine the effects of steel fiber content on the

properties of fresh and hardened refractory concretes.
3. To determine the static flexural behavior including the first

crack strength, modulus of rupture, the load deflection curve,
the post-crack deformation characteristics, the post-crack load
drop, and the toughness indexes.
MATERIALS, MIXES, AND TEST SPECIMENS
Dry Ready Mix
The refractory concrete used is a proprietary product. It is a premixed

combination of selected refractory aggregates and a hydraulic setting
binder (calcium aluminate). The chemical composition of the refractory
concrete used is shown in Table 1. This mix is delivered in 100-pounds
(45.5 kgs) bags and required only the addition of potable water prior to
placement.
501
Fibers
The fibers in this investigation were melt-extracted, 1 inch (25.4 mm)

long, 0.018 inch (0.46 mm) in diameter, straight,^stainless steel
fiber. It has a modulus of elasticity of 18 x 10 psi (12.41 x 10 Mpa)
at 1600 °F (871 °C), a tensile strength of 1800 psi (12.41 Mpa) at 1600
°F (871 °C), and a melting temperature range of 2550-2650 °F (1400-1455
°C).
Water
Two gallons of potable water per hundred pounds of premix (540 lb/cu.
yard) (320.4 kg/cu.m) was added as per the manufacturer’s recommenda
tion.
Mixes
The same basic mix proportion was used for the plain (control) and the
steel fiber reinforced mixes. A total of four mixes were used:
1. Plain control refractory mix
Two batches were made for each mix for a total of eight batches.^
The mix designations are shown in Table 2. The batch size was 2.5 ft
(0.0708 m ).
Test Specimens
The following specimens were prepared from each mix:
1. 6 inch x 12 inch (152 mm x 305 mm) cylinders for compression

and static modulus test.
2. 4 inch x 4 inch x 14 inch (102 mm x 102 mm x 356 mm) beams for

static flexural test.
After casting, the specimens were covered with polyethelene sheets

for 24 hours at room temperature. They were then demolded and placed in
water tanks maintained at 72 °F (22.2 °C) for an additional 28-days cur
ing to simulate saturated wet refractory concrete airfield pavement.
Normally, only an initial 24-hour wet curing is required.
TESTS FOR FRESH CONCRETE
The freshly mixed concrete was tested for slump (ASTM C-143), air content
(ASTM C-231), fresh concrete unit weight (ASTM C-138), temperature of
concrete, and vebe time.
502
TESTS FOR HARDENED CONCRETE
Compressive Strength and Static Modulus
The cylinders were tested for compressive strength at 28 days as per

ASTM C-39. They were also tested for static modulus (ASTM C-469), dry
unit weight, and pulse velocity (ASTM C-597).
Static Flexural Test
Beams were tested at 28 days for pulse velocity (ASTM C-597) and static
flexural strength (ASTM C-1018). Later toughness indexes were calculated
using load-deflection data. As per ASTM C-1018, third point loading was
applied to the beams in the static flexural test. The span length was
12 inches (305 mm). Deflection was measured at mid span, by using a
dial gage accurate to 0.001 inch (0.0254 mm). This test was a deflection
controlled test. The rate of deflection was kept in the range of 0.002
to 0.004 inch/minute (0.051-0.102 mm/minute) as per ASTM C-1018. The
loads were recorded at every 0.002 inch (0.051 mm) increment in deflection
until the first crack appeared.Thereafter,the loads and deformations
were made at periodic intervals.
The test results on the fresh concrete are presented in Table 3. The
room temperature, humidity, and concrete temperature were recorded
during each mixing to ensure that all the mixes were done under approxi
mately similar conditions. The room temperature and humidity varied in
the range of 71.6 °F to 77 °F (22 °C to 25 °C) and 36% to 48%, respec
tively. The concrete temperature range was 73.4 °F to 80.96 °F (23 °C
to 27.2 °C).
Workability
Two tests were conducted to determine the workability of the mixes,

namely the slump and vebe time. The water content remained constant for
all the mixes (540 lb/cu.yd) (320.4 kg/cu.m). The vebe time measures
the workability of concrete based on the energy needed to compact the
concrete. It was observed that the slump value decreased with increas
ing vebe time. In all the mixes there was no balling, bleeding, or
segregation. Even though the slump values were almost zero at above
1 .0% steel fiber volume, no difficulty was encountered in placing and
consolidating the concrete in the laboratory with the use of a vibrator.
The fiber concrete at 1.5% by volume of steel fibers was cohesive and
workable. Slump alone does not provide an accurate indication of the
workability when vibration is needed for consolidation. In general
fiber reinforced concrete seems to be more workable than that indicated
by its slump. However, the energy needed to compact the concrete is
proportional to the fiber content in the concrete.
F inishabi1ity
Excellent finishability was achieved even at 1.5% by volume of steel

fibers.
503
Fresh Concrete Unit Weight
The fresh concrete unit weights are presented in Table 3. The average
fresh concrete unit weight was 136.88 lb/ft (2192.82 kg/cu.m) with an
average air content of 5.7%. The plain concrete had an unit weight of
132.56 lb/ft (2122.0 kg/cu.m) and an air content of 5.9% (Table 3).
The unit weights increased by 4.4%, 1.56%, and 7.38% for mixes with
0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% in fiber content by volume, respectively. The
increase in unit weight for 1 .0% of fiber by volume was less than those
at 0.5% and 1.5% fiber by volume. The reason could be due to the
difference in air content. The mix at 1.0% by volume of steel fiber had
high air content level of 5.8%, whereas the mixes at 0.5% and 1.5% by
volume of steel fibers had 5.7% and 5.6%, respectively. In general,
there seemed to be a slight increase in unit weight with an increase in
fiber content, provided both mixes have the same air content. The unit
weight decreases slightly, with an increase in air content, even when
there is an increase in fiber content.
HARDENED CONCRETE PROPERTIES
Dry Unit Weight
The dry unit weights are given in Table 4. The average dry unit weight
was 141.18 lb/cu.ft (2261.70 kg/cu.m), with a minimum of 138.7 lb/cu.ft
(2221.97 kg/cu.m) (-1.79%) and a maximum of 144.02 lb/cu.ft (2307.2
kg/cu.m) (+2.01%) at 28 days of age. The addition of fibers increased
the dry unit weight by 1.14%, 2.18%, and 3.84% for the mixes with 0.5%,
1.0%, and 1.5% fiber contents by volume, respectively. There was about
3% difference between the average unit weight of fresh concrete and the
hardened concrete at 28 days. This may be due to the gradual absorption
of water by the concrete during the curing period.
Pulse Velocity
Pulse velocity tests were conducted on beam and cylinder specimens at 28

days in accordance with ASTM 0 597. The test results indicated that the
pulse velocity is proportional to the concrete strength. It was also
observed that the addition of steel fibers to the concrete does not affect
the elastic wave transmitting property of concrete.
The compressive strength test results are also given in Table 4. The
compressive strength was 4000 psi (27.58 Mpa) for plain mix, whereas the
compressive strengths for the mixes with 0.5%, 1 .0%, and 1.5% of fiber
contents, were 3890 psi (26.82 Mpa), 3905 psi (26.92 Mpa), and 4970 psi
(34.27 Mpa), respectively, as shown in Figure 1. The compressive strength
decreased slightly by 2.75%, 2.38%, and increased by 24.25% at 0.5%,
1.0%, and 1.5% by volume of steel fiber, respectively. This may be
attributed to the low air content level in the mix with 1.5% by volume
of steel fiber. The mixes with fibers had lower air contents than the
plain concrete.
Standard deviation (S.D.) values for all the mixes are presented in
Table 4. The values of coefficient of variation (C.V.) in percent were
all below 4 which is the specified good value for research work (6 ),
except in case of the mix with 1.5% by volume of fiber, this may be due
to improper fiber orientation which causes inconsistent results.
504
An important aspect of fiber concrete, the ductile mode of failure,

was demonstrated while testing for compressive strength. The plain con
crete cylinder failed fully, shattering into pieces with a loud noise at
the appearance of the first crack, whereas the fiber concrete cylinders
continued to sustain the load and undergo large deformations without
breaking into separate pieces.
Static Modulus
The static modulus test results are given ig Table 4. pie average
static modulus for all the mixes was 2.9x10 psi (20x10 Mpa) and its
range was between 2.77x10 and 3.07x10 psi (19.1x10 and 21.2x10 Mpa).
In comparison with the control mix, the static modulus decreased by
3.82% and 0.35% as the compressive strength decreased by 2.75% and 2.38%,
respectively. There was 6 .6% increase in static modulus for a 24.4%
increase in compressive strength at 1.5% fiber content. Figure 2 shows
that there is no appreciable change in the ratio of E //f ’ values for
the plain and fiber reinforced concretes with different percentages of
fibers. This indicates that the addition of fibers had little or no
effect on the static modulus. The ratio was used to eliminate the effect
of compressive strength on static modulus.
Static Flexure Strength (modulus of rupture)
Results for static flexural strength tests are tabulated in Table 5.

Table 5 contains first crack load, first crack deflection, ultimate
load, and flexural stress. Figure 3 shows that the first crack strength
increases with increasing fiber contents. Figure 4 shows that the flex
ural strength increased 4.93%, 6.87%, and 39.4% for fiber reinforced
concrete with fiber contents of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%, respectively.
A direct comparison of flexural strengths will not be realistic
unless the compressive strengths of different mixes are taken into
account. To eliminate the effect of compressive strength, the flexural
stresses of different mixes were divided by the square root of the cor
responding compressive strength, as shown in Figure 5.
Standard deviation and coefficient of variation for all the mixes
were found to be very low. However, the variation between the beams for
a given type of mix are likely to be larger for fiber reinforced speci
mens than the ones without fibers because of the difficulty of consis
tently achieving the same uniform distribution of the randomly oriented
fibers.
LOAD-DEFLECTION BEHAVIOR
The area under the static load-deflection curve represents the energy
absorbed by the beam during its deflection. Figure 6 shows typical
load-deflection comparison curves for the control and the three con
cretes with 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%, by volume of fibers. The energy
absorption capacity of fiber reinforced concrete increases with steel
fiber content. In the case of plain concrete, the beam failed immedi
ately after the appearance of the first crack. Compared to plain con
crete, the reduction in the value of flexural rigidity with increasing
deflection is lower in fiber concretes. The rate of degeneration of
moment of inertia is slowed down by the fibers trying to resist the pro
pagation of the crack growth. The observed crack widths under loads
were also smaller with increasing fiber contents.
505
Post-Crack Load Drop Phenomenon
The difference between the maximum load and the load at a deflection
equal to three times the deflection at first crack is defined as the
post-crack load drop. The post-crack load drop decreases with in
creasing fiber content, as shown in Figure 6 . The load drops expressed
as a percentage of corresponding maximum loads were 45.20%, 20.35%, and
15.60%, respectively, for the beams with 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% fiber
contents.
Toughness Indexes
Toughness index (ASTM C-1018) is a dimensionless parameter which defines

or fingerprints the shape of the load-deflection curve. By including
the percentage load-drop values as suggested previously, the finger
printing of the shape of load-deflection curve can be further improved.
Toughness indexes have been defined on the basis of three service levels,
identified as multiples of the first crack deflection. The index is
computed by dividing the total area under the load deflection curve up
to the given service level deflection by the area under the same curve
up to the first crack deflection. The toughness index, 1^, is calculated
at three times the first crack deflection. Likewise, 1 ^ and 1 ^ are
the indexes at 5.5 and 15.5 times, respectively, the first-crack
deflection.
The toughness index for plain concrete is equal to 1 because all
plain concrete beams failed immediately after first crack. The tough
ness indexes for FRC vary greatly depending on the position of the crack,
the type of fiber, aspect ratio, the volume fraction of the fiber, and
the distribution of fibers.
The calculated values of toughness indexes 1^, Iiqj and are
tabulated in Table 6 . The 1^, 1 ^ , and I^q values all increase with
increasing fiber contents, as shown in Figure 7.
The ratios of I /I,_ and I /I^q are very good indicators of the
plastic behavior of tnat particular specimen. When the values of
and I on/11 n eclua ^ to 2 and 3, respectively, the specimen has perfect
plastic behavior. The straight stainless steel fiber reinforced refrac
tory concretes with 1 .0% and 1.5% fiber content by volume demonstrate
almost plastic behavior after the first crack and until deflection
reaches 5.5 times the first crack deflection, as indicated by the ratios
of I /I,, which are very close to 2 (1.81 and 1.85). However, the beams
showed a decline in the load carrying capacity after a deflection of 5.5
times the first crack deflection. This is indicated by the I ^ / I ^ ratios,
which were considerably less than 3.0 (1.86 and 1.77) in the region be
tween 5.5 times and 15.5 times the first crack deflection.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The pulse velocity was proportional to the refractory concrete

strength and the addition of steel fibers did not affect the elastic
wave transmitting property of the concrete.
2. The compressive strength of refractory concrete was not affected by

the addition of steel fibers at up to 1 .0% by volume of steel fibers.
However, the compressive strength increased by 24% with 1.5% by volume
of steel fiber. Steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete exhibited
ductile mode of failure.
506
3. The addition of steel fiber to the refractory concrete had little or

no effect on the static modulus.
4. The first crack strength, the static flexural strength and the tough
ness indexes increased with increasing steel fiber content.
5. The post crack load drop decreased with increasing steel fiber
content.
6 . After first crack to until 5.5 times the first crack deflection,
steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete behaved very much like a
perfect elastic-plastic material.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledged the funding support from the U.S.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command. The views expressed in this paper
are those of the authors who are responsible for its contents. The con
tents do not necessarily reflect official views or policies of the U.S.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command.
REFERENCES
1. ACI. Refractory Concretes, ACI Report 574R-79, Detroit, MI, 1979.
2. . Refractory Concrete: Past, Present, and Future, by

T.D. Robin. ACI Publication SP-57, Detroit, MI.
3. Ramakrishnan, V. and Charles Josifek. "Performance Characteristics

and Flexural Strength of Concrete Steel Fiber Composites," iri Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Dec 16-19,
1987, Madras, India, pp. 2.73 - 2.84.
4. ACI. "Characteristics and Fatigue Strength of Polypropylene Fiber

Reinforced Concrete," by V. Ramakrishnan, S. Gollopudi, and R. Zellers,
in Fiber Reinforced Concrete - Properties and Applications. ACI Special
Publication SP-105, Detroit, MI, 1987, pp. 159-177.
5. . Measurementof Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete,

ACI Committee 544 Report 2R-78, Detroit, MI 1978.
6. . Recommended Practice for Evaluation of Strength Test

Results of Concrete. ACI-214-77, Detroit, MI, [1977].
7. . Steel FiberReinforced Refractory Concrete, ACI

Publication SP-57, Detroit, MI.
8 . Lankard, D.R. and H.D. Sheets. "Use of Steel Wire Fiber in

Refractory Castables," in Bulletin of American Ceramic Society, Vol.
50, No. 5, [1971], pp. 497-500.
9. ACI. "Steel Fiber Reinforced Heat Resistant Pavement," by G. Wu, iri

Reinforced Concrete Properties and Applications. ACI Special Publication
SP-105, Detroit, MI, 1987, pp. 323-350.
507
10. Ramakrishnan, V. , G. Wu, and G. Hosalli, ’’Flexural Behavior and

Toughness of Fiber Reinforced Concretes," presented at 68th Annual
Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 24 Jan
1989 (to be published in TRB record).
11. ACI. "Flexural Strength of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concretes," by

V. Ramakrishnan, G. Oberling, and P. Tatnall, in Fiber Reinforced
Concrete Properties and Applications. ACI Special Publication SP-105,
Detroit, MI 1987, pp. 225-245.
12. Robson, T.D. High Alumina Cements and Concretes, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY.
13. Ramakrishnan, V. "Materials and Properties of Fiber Reinforced

Concrete," in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, Dec 16-19, 1987, Madras, India, pp. 2.3-2.23.
508
TABLE 1
Chemical composition of the castable
refractory concrete
Chemical Name Weight Percentage
Alumina, A ^ O ^ 26.5
Iron Oxide, FeO 1.2
Iron Oxide, Fe2 0 ^ 11.5
Lime, CaO 20.1
Silica, Si02 34.0
Sodium Oxide, Na20 4.2
Titanium Oxide, Ti02 0.5
Others 2.0
Price (over 2,000 lb) $32/100 lb bag (1989)
TABLE 2
Mix designation
Mix Number Batch Number Volume of Fiber
FI I & II None (Control)
F2 I & II 0.5%
F3 I & II 1 .0 %
F4 I & II 1.5%
TABLE 3
Properties of fresh concrete
Mix No. Air Content Vebe Time Temp. Humidity Concrete Temp Unit Wt.
(%) (Second) (°C) (%) (°C) (pcf)
Fl-I&II 5.9 7.6 22 36 26.10 132.46
F2-I&II 5.7 6.0 24 45 25.65 138.30
F3-I&II 5.8 10.0 25 48 27.20 134.53
F4-I&II 5.6 11.0 25 41 23.00 142.2
Note: 1 lb/yd3 - 0.5933 Kg/m3 1 lb/ft3 = 16.02 Kg/m3

509
TABLE 4
Hardened concrete properties
(mean values)
Mix Age Length Diameter Unit Wt. Static Modulus Comp. Strength
No. (Days) (in) (in) (pcf) ( 1 0 psi) (psi)
Fl-I&II 28 12.00 5.991 138.70 2.88 3997

S.D. 0.061 0.139 95.50
C.V. (%) 0.00 4.80 2.40
F2-I&II 28 12.04 5.987 140.28 2.77 3891

S.D. 0.585 0.086 153.16
C.V. (%) 0.40 3.10 3.90
F3-I&II 28 12.04 5.994 141.73 2.87 3906

S.D. 0.727 0.196 57.80
C.V. (%) 0.50 0.90 1.50
F4-I&II 28 12.01 5.990 144.02 3.07 4972

S.D. 0.234 0.0 363.97
C.V. (%) 0.20 0.00 7.30
TABLE 5
First crack strength and maximum flexural strength
(mean values)
Mix N o . Age First Crack Max. Load Flexural Stress

Load Deflection Stress
(days) (lb) (in) (psi) (lb) (psi)
Fl-I&II 28 3635 0.011 670 3635 670

S.D. 198.9 0.002 47.39 198.9 47.39
C.V. (%) 5.50 18.20 7.10 5.50 7.10
F2-I&II 28 3860 0.012 703 3860 703

S.D. 209.1 0.002 29.76 209.1 29.76
C.V. (%) 5.40 16.60 4.20 5.40 4.20
F3-I&II 28 3795 0.013 716 3795 716

S.D. 214.3 0.003 14.73 214.3 14.73
C.V. (%) 5.60 2.01 2.10 5.60 2.10
F4-I&II 28 4990 0.014 895 5205 934

S.D. 553.89 0.003 118.7 407.4 103.9
C.V. (%) 11.10 18.50 13.30 7.80 11.10
510
TABLE 6
Toughness indices of refractory concrete beams
(mean values)
Mix Ages Flexural First Crack ][5 ho I30 1 ml

No. Strength Toughness 4 f I 10
(Days) (psi) (in-lb)
Fl-I&II 28 688 17..48

S.D. 38.68 1 .06
C.V. (Decimal) 0.06 0 .06
F2-I&II 28 688 2 0 .03 4..02 6 .,97 1 2 .93 1 .

,60 1 .,85
S.D. 9.02 2 .78 0 .31 0 .,79 2 .33 0.,05 0 ..16
C.V. 0.01 0,.14 0,.08 0 ., 1 1 0 .18 0 .03 0 ..08
F3-I&II 28 716 22,

.24 4,.27 8 .03 14. 62 1 .81 , 86
1 .
S.D. 14.7 0,
.76 0,.04 0 .,40 1 .,00 0 .07 0.,11
C.V. 0.02 0,
.03 0,.01 0 .,05 0 .,07 0,.04 0.,06
F4-I&II 28 976 32..37 5,.37 9.,75 15. 92 1 .85 1 .

,77
S.D. 73.0 1 .58 0,.54 1 .,29 3. 92 0 .07 0..01
C.V. 0.07 0 .05 0,.10 0 ..13 0 .,25 0 .04 0 .01
Note: S.D. = Standard Deviation C.V. = Coefficient of Variation

1 psi = 0.0069 Mpa 1 in-lb = 0.0115 kg-m
1 lb = 0 . 4 5 4 kg 1 inch = 25.4 mm
Mpa Eg/v^c x 103
60 -j-----------
28 DAYS
CONTROL 0.5% 1.0% 1.5%

% OF FIBER % OF FIBER
Fig. 1 Compressive Strength vs. Percentage of Fig. 2 Ratio of Modulus to Square Root of
Fiber Compressive Strength vs. Percentage of
Fiber
Load (x103 lbs) <k9s) fr(psi) fr(Mpa)
Fig. 3 First Crack and Ultimate Load vs. Fig. 4 Flexural Strength vs. Percentage of Fiber
Percentage of Fiber
Load (x103 lbs) DEFLECTION (cms) (kgs)
frJyfVc
0 0.254 0.508 0.762
20
28 DAYS
17
14
11
5
CONTROL 0.5% 1.0% 1.5%
% OF FIBER
DEFLECTION (inch)
Fig. 5 Ratio of Flexural Strength to Square Root
of Compressive Strength vs. Percentage of
Fig. 6 Comparison of Load Deflection Curves
Fiber
1ST CRACK TOUGH NESS (in-lbs) 1ST CRACK TOUGHNESS (mt-kg)

TOUGHNESS INDEXES 0.40
35
20
-0.29
10
0 0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5%

0.5% 1.0% 1.5%
% FIBER
% OF FIBER
Fig. 8 First Crack Toughness vs. Percentage of
Fig. 7 Toughness Indexes vs. Percentage of Fiber Fiber
513
AN ANALYSIS OP POST-PEAK
LOADING CONDITIONS IN FIBROUS CONCRETE COMPOSITES
Norbert L. Lovata
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin U.S.A. 53706
ABSTRACT
This investigation presents the results of an experimental study to

determine the flexural strength of concrete reinforced with polypropylene
and steel fibers. The strength of plain concrete is compared to concrete
with different types of fiber reinforcement.
The testing included: (1) static flexural strength including the load
deflection curve, (2) determination of first crack loading, (3) the
modulus of rupture, (4) post peak loading curve.
The test results were collected and statistically analyzed. The test
samples were designed to reveal a fully randomized and replicated study.
The Statistical Analytical System was used to calculate a test of
significance among the groups.
A random sampling of the failed fiber specimens were prepared and
observed using the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) technique. The
interfacial features of the fiber surfaces were evaluated to determine the
bonding characteristics between the fiber and the concrete matrix.
KEYWORDS
flexural strength, fiber reinforced concrete, polypropylene fiber,
steel fiber, static test, post-peak loading condition.
514
INIRGDDCTIQN
Concrete by definition is a composite material. With the addition of

fibers the concrete becomes more complex. As each ingredient is added to
the concrete mix the performance characteristics change. There is
extensive research published regarding the merits and strength enhancement
of fibers in concrete. Most of the reported findings are limited in scope
to the concrete !s performance up to and at the point of initial failure or
referred to a modulus of rupture (MOR). Evaluating concrete is usually
done with traditional test methods. Attention is new turning to the
behavior of the material after the concrete begins to fail at MOR and by
employing new measuring techniques. It has also been realized that
traditional mechanical testing methods do not always appropriately measure
the capabilities of the fiber in the concrete matrix. For example, the
traditional slump test does not correctly measure what it was designed to
do in fiber reinforced concrete.
One area in fiber reinforcement that has been identified for extensive
testing is the phenomenon referred to as the post-peak loading condition
and involves the analysis of concrete after the first crack appears in the
specimen. During this stress period the fibers assume the total load
because the concrete has cracked. This concept is reported in detail in
the findings of Ramakrishnan [1] and the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
committee report 544.2R chaired by Shah [2].
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this investigation were to:
1. Plot and compare the stress-strain relationship between plain
concrete and fibrous concrete till the point of initial failure.
2. Determine the first-crack loading range for each treatment group
in this investigation.
3. Observe if there are any differences in the modulus of rupture
when comparing each group.
4. Compare any ultimate strength differences among the concrete
groups during the post-peak period.
515
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Type I Portland Cement satisfying ASTM C-150 standards were used for
all concrete mixes as the cementation material. The fine aggregate used is
a natural sand. The coarse aggregate used is crushed limestone with a
maximum size of 3/4 inch. The coarse material complied with AASTO size 67
specifications. The saturated surface dry specific gravity of the sand was
calculated at 2.66 with an absorption of 1.31. The limestone’s saturated
surface dry specific gravity was determined to be 2 . 6 6 with an absorption
of 1.79. The water used in this study was tap water from the local
municipal city supply. No additional variables such as air-entrained or
admixtures were included in the concrete design mix.
The polypropylene fibers (PPF) used is a collated fribrillated fiber
with a tensile strength of 70,000 psi. The manufacturer lists the modulus
of elasticity of the fiber as 0.71 X 106 psi and has a specific gravity of
0.91. Polypropylene is chemically inert, is noncorrosive and has a high
resistance to mineral acids and inorganic salts. The commercial supplier
recommended a D-15 type fiber, 2-1/4” in length. The D-15 fiber is
recommended for a 3/4 inch aggregate size. The fibers are packaged in 1.6
pound bags, with recommended use at one bag per cubic yard of concrete.
Steel fibers are manufactured in many configurations and lengths from
drawn wire. A 5/8" inch needle fiber with a 0.016" diameter was chosen for
this project. In determining the amount of steel fibers for the concrete
design mix, Hannant's [3] aspect ratio equation was utilized. 100 pounds
of steel fiber per cubic yard was chosen as the standard weight. The
equation takes into consideration the weight of the fibers, length and
diameter of the fiber plus aggregates larger than 5M4.
CONCRETE, MIXING AND RESEARCH DESIGN

A fully randomized, replicated research design was used for the experiment.
There are four test groups in the project. Each group has six beams, 3
beams plus 3 in replication. A total of 24 beams were cast and tested. All
samples were cured for 28 days in a humidity controlled curing room prior
to mechanical testing. The concrete design mix is listed in Table 1.
516
TABLE 1
Concrete design mix
material pounds
fine aggregate 1560
coarse aggregate 1560
cement 658
water 263
steel fibers 100
polypropylene fibers 1.6
Total 4142.6
The concrete was mixed in a six cubic foot drum mixer with each
material precisely weighed. The mixing procedure adhered to is listed in
ASTM C-92. The water/cement ratio was held constant at 0.40. Standard 6 "
X 6 " X 20" flexure beam specimens were cast. Each concrete specimen was
mechanically vibrated to insure proper consolidation. The designation of
the test groups in this study are as follows:
- 1 0 0 series composite steel and polypropylene fibrous concrete
- 2 0 0 series steel fiber reinforced concrete
-300 series polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete
-400 series control group plain concrete, no fibers added.
The flexure beams were tested according to ASTM C-78 procedures. The
maximum applied load rate of 50 pounds per second was held constant
throughout the testing process. Readings were observed and recorded at
1,000 pound applied load Increments. The maximum applied load was recorded
at the sign of first cracking of each beam and M0R. At this instant, time
recording began for the post peak loading period. The final reading for
the post peak loading period was recorded when each specimen failed to
sustain a minimum applied load of 3,000 pounds
RESULTS
The results from this investigation are divided and reported in two
parts. The first part includes the data up to the point when the first
crack appeared and the member began to fail. The second part of this
investigation is the reporting of the data relating to the post peak
loading period. In Table 2 are the results of the beam deflection and
modulus of rupture data. The applied loads are listed in pounds and the
deflections are listed in thousands of an inch.
517
TABLE 2
Test results and statistical data
Series Secondary Deflection Applied Standard MOR

reinforcing means load means deviations Means
10 0 steel & PPF 0.00544 8,383 0.00126 1,048

composite
200 steel 0.00697 8,675 0.00158 1,084
300 polypropylene 0.00585 7,783 0.000359 969
400 none/control 0.00546 7,392 0.000953 924
The averages and standard deviations listed were calculated from the six
specimens for each group. The modulus of rupture is calculated from the
relationship
3P1
R = -----------
2bd2
Where:
R = modulus of rupture, psi, or Mpa,

P = maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, lbf or N,
1 = span length, in. or mm,
d = average depth of specimen, at the point of fracture, in. or mm.
The modulus of rupture equation is found in ASTM 4.02 C-78. The load
deflection curves are presented in Figure 1. The steel fiber reinforced
concrete beams (2 0 0 series) yielded the highest ultimate strength values of
all groups tested. In Figure 1, a parallel load-deflection curve can be
observed in the control group concrete and the polypropylene fiber
reinforced concrete. The two treatment groups which contained steel fiber
reinforcing were influenced by this material and will be characterized in
the discussion of these results.
518
trt
Q.
d*
<
o
_j
Q
UJ
_J
CL
QL
<
MIDSPAN DEFLECTION, inches
Figure 1. Applied load versus mid-beam deflection.
The post-peak loading curves are presented in Figure 2. The results

from the steel fiber reinforced samples and the composite (steel and
polypropylene) fiber reinforced samples are plotted. It should be noted
that there are no control group or PPF post-peak loading data listed in
Figure 2. The control group concrete samples and PPF samples failed during
the first crack response. Propagation of the first crack and ultimate
failure occurred almost instantaneously with these two groups.
When analyzing the post-peak curves, certain principles should be
recalled. First, the section modulus of the beam at mid-span is 6 "X 6 "at
MOR. When the beam fails, the section modulus becomes smaller due to the
ripping plane from the bottom upward. Also there is a release of energy as
the beam drops and the hydraulic piston attempts to catch up with the new
deflection point. Consideration must be also given whether hydraulic or
mechanical screw energy is applied. In these test the flexure machine was
hydraulically driven.
The statistical treatment of the data has revealed some significant
responses.
519
When comparing the control group concrete to the steel fiber

reinforced concrete and also to the composite concrete group, there is a
significant difference. The calculated P value was 6.08 with a test of
significance at the 0.03 probability level. However, there was found to be
no statistical difference between the control group concrete and the
polypropylene fiber reinforced samples. In calculating the least square
difference (LSD) the resultant was 448.81. The critical value of T is then
2.09. This contrast of the steel fibers with no steel fiber reinforcement
was positive. This contrasting correlation compares favorably with the
general linear model. A close examination of the applied load data
revealed the potential for a positive significant correlation. The
statistical results confirmed this correlation. When statistically
comparing the Y variable (time), the post peak loading data generated a
significant positive F value at the 0.01 probability level. The resultant
was due to the fact that the composite fiber reinforced concrete did
sustain a constant applied load for 13.4 seconds when compared to the steel
fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) time of 6.3 seconds.
TIME IN SECONDS
Figure 2. Post peak loading deflection failure curve.

520
DISCUSSION
The steel fiber treatment group yielded the highest ultimate strength
values at the moment of first crack MOR. The data revealed a 28% higher
elastic limit (deflection) in the steel fiber reinforced concrete when
compared to the plain concrete at first crack. When reviewing the
deflection limits of the plain concrete with the steel fiber at the 7,000
pound applied load (PAL) range, the steel fiber reinforced (SFRC) concrete
sustained a 20 % greater flexure deflection then the plain concrete and
still did not fail.
The PPF reinforced concrete specimens were more brittle than the steel
fiber reinforced concrete. This gives evidence that the polypropylene
fibers assumed a greater portion of the applied load during different
periods of the static loading process. The ultimate strength difference
between the PPF reinforced concrete and plain concrete was less then 10%.
The PPF specimens produced a 5% strength improvement over the plain
concrete. These results compare favorably with research completed by Fahmy
et al [4].
The post-peak loading results clearly revealed that a steel and
polypropylene fiber composite can dramatically improve the concrete
performance. By analyzing the failed fibers from the composite concrete
specimens a clear picture verifies that the two types of fibers working
together, effectively transferred the applied load from the concrete to the
composite fiber matrix. The scanning electron micrograph in Figure 3,
clearly reveals that both the steel fiber and PPF assumed in tandem the
stress of the applied load. The steel fiber which is in the center of the
picture has residual concrete still embedded along the column surface. The
polypropylene fiber seen in the right half of the scanning electron
microscope (SEM) photograph, reveals stress to the point of deformation and
rupture. In Figure 4, a high magnification SEM reveals a failed PPF which
is split and t o m but still is embedded in the concrete matrix. It is
suggested that the load efficiency of polypropylene fibers are not constant
when sustaining loads in flexure or tension. Perhaps this phenomena works
in conjunction with the limits of the steel fiber and produces a
significant improvement in the ultimate strength by time measure.
521
Scanning electron micrographs:
Figure 3. Embedded steel and polypropylene fibers from a failed composite

concrete beam.
Figure 4. A stressed polypropylene fiber anchored in a failed concrete

flexural specimen
522
CONCLUSIONS
From this investigation the following conclusions can be made:
1 . There was found to be no significant difference when testing plain

concrete and polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete in the static flexural
strength (modulus rupture) mode.
2. With the addition of steel fibers to plain concrete a significant

difference was observed.
3. In the post peak loading condition, the composite fiber reinforcement

did improve the concretes performance by over 200%.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to give special acknowledgment to the efforts of Mr. Paul
B. Morrill, Research Assistant at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Recognition should be given to Forta Fiber Corporation of Grove City, PA.
USA in support of the University of Wisconsin research grant Project Number
890551.
REFERENCES
1 . Ramakrishnan, V., Gallapudi, S. P., and Zellers, R. C., Performance

Characteristics and Fatigue Strength of Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced
Concrete. Fiber Reinforced Concrete Properties and Applications, American
Concrete Institute Standards, SP-105, Detroit, Michigan, USA, 1987.
2. Shah, S. P., Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete, A

Journal of The American Concrete Institute, Vol. 8 5 , No.6 , Nov./Dec. 1 9 8 8 .
3. Hannant, D. J . , Fibre Cements and Fibre Concretes. John Wiley and

Sons, New York, 1978, pp. 54-55.
4. Fahmy, M. F . , Lovata, N. L . , Varzavand, S., Chemical treatments of

polypropylene fiber surfaces used in fiber reinforced concrete.
Proceedings of the 6 8th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board. January 22-26, 1989, Washington D.C., USA, Paper No. 880352.
523
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETES
Hiroaki Nakagawa, Shigeyuki Akihama and Tatsuo Suenaga

Kajima Institute of Construction Technology
2-19-1 Tobitakyu, Chofu City, Tokyo 182, Japan
ABSTRACT
T h i s p a p e r r e p o r t s on t he m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e t e r e i n f o r c e d
w i t h c a r b o n f ibres, A r a m i d f ibres, an d h i g h - s t r e n g t h V i n y l o n fibres.
Compressive, tensile, and flexural tests have been conducted to prove that
the strength of short-fibre FRC and its reinforcing efficiency depend on
the m a t e r i a l a n d v o l u m e r a t i o of the fibre. F l e x u r a l t e s t s on FR C w i t h
continuous fibres using a three-dimensional fabric, and on a hybrid-type
F R C w i t h a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a b r i c f i l l e d w i t h s h o r t - f i b r e FRC, have
c l a r i f i e d t h a t the f l e x u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s g e n e r a l l y d e p e n d u p o n the
matrix at the initial stage of loading and upon the characteristics of the
fibre used in the three-dimensional fabric at later stages.
INTRODUCTION
In a w orldwide high-tech boom, construction industries are now adopting

the u se of n e w m a t e r i a l s . A t y p i c a l e x a m p l e is FRC, t hat is, c o n c r e t e
reinforced with fibres of carbon, Aramid or Vinylon. With the potential
advantages of its light weight, high strength in tension and flexure, and
long durability, FRC is expected to be applied to high-rise buildings and
oceanic and underground structures.
In t h i s study, F R C w i t h ' d i f f e r e n t f o r m s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t has b e e n
c l a s s i f i e d i n t o s i x g r o u p s as s h o w n in T A B L E 1. O u t of t h e s e
classifications the forms of FRC already in actual use are that reinforced
at random two-dimensionally with short fibres, which has an established
efficient production process (direct s p r a y m e t h o d ) [1], and that
reinforced at random three-dimensionally (formed by casting and pressing,
etc.) [2]. In r e c e n t y e ars, h o w e v e r , e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d on
the research and development of a new material made of continuous fibre
formed with a resin matrix, to replace conventional reinforcing steel bars
and p r e s t r e s s i n g wire.
Thi s r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h r e e ty p e s of
FRC: 1) FRC of random three-dimensional reinforcement with short fibres,
2) F R C w i t h a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a b r i c (3D-FRC), w h i c h is a c o n t i n u o u s
f i b r e F RC r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d in Japan, a n d 3) h y b r i d - t y p e FRC w i t h a
three-dimensional fabric filled with short fibre FRC.
524
TABLE 1
Classification of reinforcement of FRCs
^^R e in fo rc e m e n t
F ib r t^ ^ ^ Short fibre Continuous fibre
o rie n ta tio n ^ s\ ^
Roving,
I -axis
I -D aligned
( I -dim ension) FRP deformed rod
2-axes 2-D random Cloth, Sheet,
(2-dim ensions) in plane FRP mesh
3-axes
3-D random 3-D fabric
(3-dim ensions)
TABLE 2
Physical properties of fibres
Fibre Tensile Modulus of

Diameter Specific Elongation
Fibre type length strength elasticity
(jt/m) gravity (%)
(mm) (GPa) (GPa)
Pitch-based
carbon fibre 18 .0 6 I .63 0.76 37.3 2. I
(GP-CF)
PAN-type
carbon fibre 7 .0 6 I .90 3 . 14 225 I .3
(HP-CF)
Aramid fibre 12 .4 6 I .39 3.04 73.5 4 .2
High-strength
Vinylon fibre
14 .2 6 I .30 I .47 36 .3 5 .0
TABLE 3
Geometry of test specimens and testing methods
Test Geom etry of Testing method
item test specimen (Cross head speed)
Compressive Cylindrical specimen

(0.5 m m /m in )
test 0 1 0 0 X 200m m
. 30 .
Tensile I--------- 13 Direct tension
85 40a "^80 40 85 a-a
te st | (0.5 m m /m in )
‘ ’ 330 ..' I
Flexural OH] Th ird-po int loading

te st jOQ^jop, , 300 , 300 7 ' 0 0 ( l . 5mm/ mi n)
| 1,100 I
SHORT FIBRE FRC
Th i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s the m e c h a n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of fo u r t y p e s of
FRC, those using pitch-based carbon fibre (GP-CF), PAN-type carbon fibre
(HP-CF), Aramid fibre, and high-strength Vinylon fibre.
T A B L E 2 s h o w s v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s of the f i b r e s used. T A B L E 3 lists
the tests carried out and their methods. The matrix is made of a cement
paste where the water-to-cement ratio, W/C = J+2 %. Omni-mixer was used
for mixing the FRC materials.
The test results are summarized in Table
525
TABLE U
Results from strength test on short fibre FRCs
Properties of Compressive
Tensile test Flexural test
Fi br e Fi br e fresh FRCs test
ty pe volume Compressive Efficiency Modulus of

Flow value Unit weight UTS LOP MOR
VP ( v o l. % ) strength factor elasticity
(mm) ( k g /m 3) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa) a (GPa)
Pitch-based I .8 6 144 1595 22.0 3.67 0.26 I2 .I 5.26 5.79

carbon fibre
(GP-CF) 3 - 05 126 15 13 I6 .5 5.30 0.23 9.82 6.67 I0 .7
PAN-type I .8 8 127 16 10 25.8 7.73 0 . 13 I2 .2 9.92 I I .2

carbon fibre
(HP-CF) 3 *37 II3 16 8 1 25.0 I2 .6 0 . 12 I3.7 I I .5 17 . 1
2.09 I 17 1780 31 .9 6 .0 1 0.09 I I .7 8.59 I I .5

Aramid fibre
3.67 109 18 10 33.5 8.78 0.08 13 . 4 8.58 I5 .8
High-strength 2 . 0 0 130 1709 37.0 5.26 0.18 10 . 6 5 .I3 8.46
Vinylon fibre 3.40 I 17 1675 29.3 6.77 0.14 I2.8 6 . 1I I2 .4
M a trix — 196 I86 0 37.9 0.74 - I 1.7 I .34 1.3 4
The Properties of Fresh FRC

The f l o w v a l u e of f r e s h FRC i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r mixing decreases
c o n s i d e r a b l y if the f i b r e v o l u m e is in c r e a s e d , a n d the rat e of this
d e c r e a s e d i f f e r s a c c o r d i n g to the fibre. G P - C F e x h i b i t e d the m i n i m u m
d e c r e a s e in f l o w v a l u e a m o n g the f i b r e s tested. The A r a m i d f i b r e
displayed the greatest decrease in flow value, followed by HP-CF and then
the Vinylon fibre. One of the factors that influence the decrease of flow
value of fresh FRC is the profile of the fibre. For HP-CF the flow value
d e c r e a s e s f o r the s a m e v o l u m e of f i b r e s if the d i a m e t e r of the f i b r e is
r e d u c e d s i n c e the t o t a l s u r f a c e a r e a of the f i b r e s b e c o m e s larger. The
wettability of a fibre against the matrix is another element contributing
to reducing flow value. Carbon fibres, having smaller wettability %are
accompanied by entrained air when they are mixed with the concrete, as can
be s een f r o m the r e d u c t i o n of the u n i t w e i g h t a f t e r the m i xing, w h i c h
seems to contribute to mini mizing the decrease of the flow value.
Compressive Behaviour
This study has clarified the fact that the compressive strength of short-
f i b r e F RC t e n d s to d e c r e a s e w h e n the f i b r e v o l u m e is increased. The
effect of the large volume of entrained air, due to the increase of fibre
volume, has a greater influence on this fact.
Tensile Behaviour
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of FRC is greater when a large volume
of f i b r e is added, or w h e n a h i g h - s t r e n g t h f i b r e is u s e d as the
reinforcing material. Equation (1) gives an estimated value for the UTS
of a fibre composite material with short fibres in random arrangement.[3]
°C = + Ojjd-vp (1)
where
0 Qz UTS of composite materials V^: Volume ratio of fibre
Op: UTS of fibre q-j: Efficiency factor for fibre orientation
G m : UTS of matrix r)2 : Efficiency factor for fibre length
526
When the matrix is a brittle material such as concrete and the volume
ratio of the fibre is larger than the limit value, the composite material
can s o m e t i m e s endure a load up to the m a x i m u m strength point with the
fibres bearing the stress even after cracks have occurred. In this case,
the UTS of the composite material is expressed by the first term alone of
the right-hand-side of Equation (1), namely
°c = ni0 2 ofvf (2 )
In this study, r\^ and p? were handled together and represented by a, the
e f f i c i e n c y f a ctor. V a l u e s of a w e r e o b t a i n e d from test results.
Experiments showed that GP-CF had the largest a value, and that the value
became smaller as the strength and the fibre volume became larger. The a
value of the A r a m i d fibre FRC was as low as 0.1, presu m a b l y because the
fibres added, which were confirmed through observation of the section to
be longer than any other fibre, did not produce a sufficient bond strength
between the fibres and the matrix.
Flexural Behaviour
The limit of proportionality (LOP) and the modulus of rupture (MOR) of
short-fibre FRC increased wit h the fibre volume, or if a high-strength
fibre was used. Figure 1 shows examples of load-deflection curves for FRC
using different types of fibres. The load-deflection curves are for bi
linear models, with the first line extending up to the LOP and the second
line extending thereafter where the flexural rigidity is smaller. In the
range of the first line, the properties of the fibre did not have a large
effect on flexural rigidity, since the properties of the matrix were more
dominant. However, in the range of the second line the effects of the
properties of the fibre were remarkable on the LOP and the MOR as well as
on the flexural rigidity and the deflection at the m a x i m u m load. For
instance, HP-CF had a greater MOR and flexural rigidity, compared with FRC
made of other fibres. That is, it had the m i n i m u m deflection for the
maximum load, while FRC made of Aramid or Vinylon fibre exhibited higher
levels of deflection. This shows the potential of FRC made of Aramid or
Vinylon fibre as a material of high toughness.
20
o 2 4 6 8 io
DEFLECTION (mm)
Figure 1. Load-deflection curves for short fibre FRCs

527
CONTINUOUS FIBRE FRC
Recently, the early deterioration of reinforced concrete structures, due

to the l o w g r a d e of th e a g g r e g a t e s , etc., h as b e c o m e a p r o b l e m in Japan.
C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e u r g e n t l y r e q u i r e d , in p a r t i c u l a r , in c o a s t a l zones
w h e r e s t r u c t u r e s a re b e i n g d a m a g e d b y the h i g h d e g r e e of c o r r o s i o n of
s t e e l bars. U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , F RP (fibre r e i n f o r c e d plastic)
bars, a product of high durability and high strength, made of lightweight
carbon or Ar a m i d fibre rovings in which resin is impregnated and hardened,
are regarded as a prospective replacement materials for steel bars.
The three-dimensional fabric adopted in this study as the reinforcing
material is a stereo-fabric made of rovings of various fibres, woven into
three directions and impregnated with epoxy resin, which allows a flexible
choice in the fibre material of the rovings, the number of filaments, and
the distance between the rovings. The mechanical bond strength between
the f i b r e s a n d the m a t r i x is h i g h b e c a u s e of the c h e q u e r e d p a t t e r n
s t r u c t u r e of the r o v ings. E f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n is a l s o p o s s i b l e since
three-dimensional weaving, impregnation of resin, and hardening can all be
c a r r i e d o ut b y an a u t o m a t i c w e a v i n g mach i n e . F i g u r e 2 is a c o n c e p t u a l
d r a wing of the three-dimensional fabric.
Flexural Behaviour of 3D-FRC Beams

F l e x u r a l t e s t s on 3 D - F R C w e r e c o n d u c t e d to s t u d y the e f f e c t s of f i b r e
material and matrix type on the flexural characteristics.
The f i b r e s a d o p t e d f o r the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a b r i c w e r e P A N - t y p e
c a r b o n fibre, A r a m i d fibre, a n d h i g h - s t r e n g t h V i n y l o n fibre. (Refer to
T A B L E 3 f o r t he p r o p e r t i e s of e a c h fibre.) T A B L E 5 s h o w s the
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l fabric. T A B L E 6 l i s t s the m i x
proportions of the matrices into which the fabric is filled. Three types
of matrices were tested, they were, river sand mortar (Mix-A), CFRC mixed
w i t h p i t c h - b a s e d c a r b o n f i b r e (Mix-B), a n d u l t r a - h i g h - s t r e n g t h m o r t a r
(Mix-C). Figure 3 gives the geometry of the specimen, and the method of
third-point loading with equal spacings, with a cross head speed of
1.0 mm/min, w h ich was adopted for these tests.
F i g u r e 4 s h o w s the tes t r e s u l t s (load vs. d e f l e c t i o n curves). In
general, the relation between the load and the deflection was decided by
the m a t r i x in the r a n g e u p to the i n i t i a l c r a c k o c c u r r e n c e , a n d by the
p r o p e r t i e s of the f i b r e s in the r a n g e beyond. The c r a c k i n g l o a d a n d the
flexural rigidity up to that point were larger when the matrix had greater
values of strength and a higher modulus of elasticity. Specimens with
fibres of high tensile strength, elongation, and modulus of elasticity
c o u l d w i t h s t a n d a l a r g e r m a x i m u m load, a n d e x h i b i t e d g r e a t e r m a x i m u m
d e f l e c t i o n a n d f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y a f t e r the f i r s t c r a c k o c c u rrence.
Specimens containing Vinylon fibre had the smallest m a x i m u m deflection as
a whole, despite the feature of the larger elongation of the mixed fibre
contents. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n w a s m o r e a r r e s t i n g w h e n the s t r e n g t h of the
matrix was greater.
Flexural Behaviour of Hybrid-type FRC Planks

T he f l e x u r a l t e s t s of the 3 D - F R C (Figure 4) p r o v i d e d s t e a d y c u r v e s up to
the m a x i m u m l o a d f o r s p e c i m e n s w i t h a C F R C mat r i x , w h i c h s u g g e s t that
cracks were not concentrated on these specimens, while the strength of the
specimens w ith other matrices decreased temporarily when a crack occurred.
In the m a t e r i a l ’s a c t u a l a p p l i c a t i o n to s t r u c t u r e s , it is n e c e s s a r y to
prevent or minimize any drop in strength, in order to effectively utilize
the high-strength property of the fibre.
Flexural tests were also carried out on hybrid FRC planks which were
528
Figure 2. Conceptual drawing of three-dimensional fabric
TABLE 5
Specifications of three-dimensional fabrics (for 3D-FRC beams)
Pitch of ro v in g s
Number of filam ents Shear
Tension
(mm) Fibre c o n te n t
Fibre type reinforcem ent reinforcem ent
X-axis Y,Z-axes X-axis Y,Z-axes
ratio Pt {%) ratio Pw {%) Vf(vol.% )
PAN-type
36,000 36,000 0.30 0.23 1.20
carbon fibre
Aramid fibre 10,000 12.5 40
10,000 0.26 0.20 1.05
Vinylon fibre 10,000 10,000 0.34 0.26 1.37
\ \ \
\ \ \\ \
'35\
\Y fS *
\ V A & Sj\
___ I
>s\
\ \\
V
\ \
TABLE 6
Mix proportions of matrices (for 3D-FRC beams)
Mix W /C Fibre volume Fibre Adm ixture

S/C Cement Aggregate
type (%) (v o l.% )
Water
M ix-A 45.0 2.2 ------ HPC River sand ------ reducing
adm ixture
Silica powder Pitch-based

M ix-B 73.7 0.4 2.3 HPC M ethylcellulose
M icro-balloon Carbon fibre
Super Water
M ix-C 20.0 I.O ------ densified Silica powder ------ reducing
cement adm ixture
Figure 3. Geometry of specimen (3D-FRC beam)

529
Figure 4* Load-deflection curves (3D-FRC beams)
made of FRC containing a three-dimensional fabric made of PAN-type carbon

fibre and Aramid fibre, and mixed with Vinylon short fibres. TABLES 7 and
8 s h o w the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a b r i c s a n d the m i x
proportions of the matrices, respectively. Low shrinkage cement with low
alumina and a high lime content was used to prevent cracks and deformation
in the planks due to drying shrinkage. Figure 5 gives the geometry of the
specimen. The loading method was third-point loading with equal spacing
at a cross head speed of 1.0 mm/min.
F i g u r e 6 s h o w s the l o a d vs. d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s o b t a i n e d f r o m the
tests. F i g u r e 7 s h o w s the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h the M O R a nd the
deflection at the M OR and the volume ratio of the Vinylon fibre. The load
vs. d e f l e c t i o n cu r v e s h o w s the r e i n f o r c i n g e f f e c t of the V i n y l o n f i b r e
m i x e d in the m a t r i x , i.e., the l a r g e r the f i b r e v o l u m e , the s m a l l e r the
d r o p in s t r e n g t h a f t e r c r a c k oc c u r r e n c e . C u r v e s of s p e c i m e n s w i t h no
short-fibre contents have an apparent yielding range after the first crack
p oint, as can be s e e n in the t e n s i l e s t r e s s vs. s t r a i n cu r v e of steel.
W hen a crack occurs, the main stress on matrix of extreme tension fibre is
released and shifts to the tension reinforcement of the three-dimensional
fabric to make the fibres elongate. This is the reason for the emergence
530
TABLE 7
Specifications of three-dimensional fabrics (for hybrid-type planks)
Pitch of rovin gs Tension reinforcement Fibre co n te n t

Number of filaments
Fibre type (m m ) ratio
Vf (v o l.% )
X,Y-axes Z -axis X,Y-axes Z -axis P t(% )
PAN-type 48.000 0.54 0.18

12,000 30 20
carbon fibre 72.000 0.79 0.28
Aramid 16,000 0.56 0.19

12,000 30 20
fibre 24,000 0.82 0.29
TABLE 8
Mix proportion of matrix (for hybrid-type planks)
W /C F ib re volum e ^ ,
S /C A g g re g ate A dm ixture
(% ) (v o l.% ) C em ent
1 q low shrinkage M icro

4 7 .3 0.13 M e thylcellulose
l'5 ce m en t balloon
c:_;n j rL 7x xiT _T jriir_rij_rjrT _ rjrT jrirL r^ i □ x r i - r n i n T t j t t d n S I

^ , A
io o T 400 1 400 1 4 oo "[Too 0
C\J
HP I D P P m i T IP T P 'T 'HP T “ ' i m t p "I T p T r r P r P " m
b a J i p f - i i r r j - t + t + + i i p t r M - ,J t j t t p p b j t r r M
p p r i : ; i L p P R i p 6 0 ><2 °> < U 8 0 ) ^ L L p l p P j
l I H 1' ! -1' h|_r 0 O
r P - P - p T U|T +i l . b - |j CO
iv l t l i j J b T i l / i t ri i J n _ r i D T d i d x L t d J f n . ' H O
h n j H 1 L+ P + l-T-L H P -L P- i-t L I4 M 4_| -pA ^ J-l+ d J + L p P)
[ J i i it H n p r H j | H T|-i t~ n P t H r i T f h T r i - r p ^ p - i - i - l
C L h L lv D l TI-J.TTL 1J -L T lT r i T U a D P r f r p r □ T 4P_PL l Q P
u T T i ^ j j 1 u n i LL i-i u lX ± u i a u i u
0
CM
I 10 (a 3 0 10
1,40 0
Figure 5. Geometry of specimen (hybrid-type plank)
of the a p p a r e n t y i e l d i n g range. It seems, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t the a p p a r e n t

yielding range becomes smaller when the content of the three-dimensional
fabric fibres is larger and their modulus of elasticity is larger, too.
In the case of specimens w ith short-fibre contents, on the other hand, the
apparent yielding range did not appear, because the matrix could bear the
stress even after crack occurrence, by using the short-fibre contents as a
bridge. W i t h r e g a r d to the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h the M O R a n d the
deflection at the M O R and the volume ratio of the Vinylon fibre, specimens
of PAN-type carbon fibre had a nearly constant value of m a x i m u m deflection
regardless of the fibre volume, and their typical flexural failure pattern
w a s w h e r e the t e n s i o n side f i b r e s broke. The M O R of s p e c i m e n s w i t h o u t
short-fibre contents was smaller than those with such contents, to the
d e g r e e t h a t the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d a p p a r e n t y i e l d i n g r a n g e a ppeared.
Specimens made of A r amid fibre with no short-fibre contents showed smaller
flexural strength and smaller m a x i m u m deflection than those with short-
fibre contents. This is because of the difference in failure patterns,
e.g., the flexural failure due to tension fibres breaking in the case of a
s p e c i m e n w i t h s h o r t f ibres, a n d the loss of s t r e n g t h due to the
compression failure of the matrix in the case of a specimen without short
fibres.
531
(MPa)
(KN)
STRESS
LOAD
FLEXURAL
DEFLECTION (m m ) DEFLECTION (mm)
Figure 6. Load-deflection curves (hybrid-type planks)
Q_
g
cr
O
FIBRE VOLUME (vo l.% )
Figure 7. Relation between MOR and deflection at MOR

and volume ratio of Vinylon fibre
co
co
LU
cr
H-
co
—I
<
ZD
X
D E F L E C T IO N (m m )
Figure 8. Load-deflection curves for different level volumes of fibres

532
F i g u r e 8 s h o w s the l o a d vs. d e f l e c t i o n cu r v e s for the d i f f e r e n t

level volumes of fibres. Although the flexural characteristics of 3D-FRC
are affected by the various factors mentioned above, the figure suggests
tha t t h e y d e p e n d on the p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t r i x up to the f i r s t cr a c k
o c c u r r e n c e ( b e cause the c o n t e n t of the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a b r i c to the
s e c t i o n of the m e m b e r is 1:100 or smaller), a nd on the m a t e r i a l a n d the
c o n t e n t of the f i b r e u s e d in the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a b r i c in the ra n g e
beyond. M a j o r d e c i s i v e f a c t o r s are the r u p t u r e e l o n g a t i o n of f i b r e for
the m a x i m u m deflection, and the UTS, modulus of elasticity and the fibre
content for the M OR and the flexural rigidity.
CONCLUSION
The following knowledge of the mechanical characteristics of FRCfs using

various short and continuous fibres has been obtained.
1. Short fibre F RC has a g r e a t e r m o d u l u s of r u p t u r e and ultimate

tensile strength when the fibre volume is increased, or when a high-
strength fibre is used. The reinforcing effect of the fibre and the
resultant flexural characteristics differ according to the fibre,
largely reflecting the properties of the fibre.
2. In g e n e r a l , the f l e x u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of FRC u s i n g a t h r e e -
d i m e n s i o n a l f a b r i c d e p e n d on the m a t r i x up to the l o a d c a u s i n g the
f i r s t c r a c k o c c u r r e n c e , a n d t h e n on the p r o p e r t i e s of the f i b r e in
the range beyond.
3. M i x i n g short fibres w i t h t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l fabric FRC p r e v e n t s a

decrease in strength after crack occurrence.
This study has proved that various types of FRC have the potential to
be materials w ith excellent mechanical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . H o w e v e r , there
still remain quite a fe w problems to be solved before FRC can be put into
practical use. The authors are attempting to solve these problems one by
one, hoping for the early arrival of the FRC age.
REFERENCES
1. A k i h a m a , S., O g a w a , K., Suenage, T., Uchida, I., Fujii, H., and

Hayashi, M., "Development of Ne w GFRC Cladding", 6th Biennial Congress
of the GRCA, Edinburgh, Scotland, October 1987.
2. Akihama, S., Suenaga, T., and Nakagawa, H., "Carbon Fibre Reinforced
Concrete", in Concrete International, American Concrete Institute,
January 1988, pp. 4-0-4-7.
3. Hannant, D. J., Fibre Cements and Fibre Concretes, John Willy & Sons,
1978, pp. 8-33.
533
FATIGUE STRENGTH OF POLYPROPYLENE FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETES
G. L. VONDRAN
Director of Research and Development, Fibermesh Company
1550-F Dell Avenue, Campbell, California 95008
M. NAGABHUSHANAM
Graduate Student, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology
V. RAMAKRISHNAN
501 East St. Joseph Street, Rapid City, South Dakota 57701
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation to

determine the flexural fatigue strength of concrete reinforced with three
different concentrations of fibrillated polypropylene fibers. The
properties of fresh and hardened concretes with and without fibers are
compared.
The test results indicate that there was no balling or tangling of

fibers during mixing and placing. There was an appreciable increase in
post-crack energy absorption capacity and ductility due to addition of
fibers. When compared to corresponding plain concrete there was a
significant increase in the flexural fatigue strength and the endurance
limit (for two million cycles). The static flexural strength increased
after being subjected to fatigue loading.
INTRODUCTION
Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) has been introduced in an attempt to

improve concrete ductility and its energy absorption ability [1]. In
FRC, thousands of small fibers are dispersed and distributed randomly in
the concrete during mixing, and thus improve concrete properties in all
directions. Because of their random distribution, they are not intended
to replace the function of the conventional reinforcement, but to help
eliminate the temperature and shrinkage cracks. Other advantages include
the increase in pre-crack tensile strength, fatigue strength, impact
strength and shock resistance.
534
A great variety of fiber materials in various sizes and shapes have

been developed for the use in FRC. Among these, the fibrillated
polypropylene (FPP) has been one of the most successful for they have
some unique properties that make them suitable for reinforcement in
concrete. These fibers have 550 - 760 MPa tensile strength. Studies
show that bond of FPP fibers to cement paste is both by interfacial
adhesion and mechanical interlocking [2]. Polypropylene fibers are
capable of large energy absorption and lead to improved ductility, higher
fatigue strength and higher impact resistance concretes [1, 3].
Polypropylene FRC has been used in millions of cubic yards of

concrete. The primary use is for slab-on-grade, which includes
driveways, sidewalks, pavements, housing, shopping centers, industrial
warehouses and other commercial slabs. Suspended slabs for parking
structures, bridge decks, overlays of prestressed, as well as metal deck
composite assemblies, are using FRC throughout the world. Walls, such as
tilt-up, parapet median dividers on highways, channel lining shotcrete
and thin-shelled precast units are other major areas. Many different
types and shapes of precast products are finding less handling breakage
when using FPP FRC. Water-tight structures such as waste-water treatment
plants, swimming pools, hazardous chemical storages, sea walls and water
storage tanks utilize FPP FRC on a daily basis.
Many applications of FPP FRC in the transportation industry, such as

railroads, bus depots, highway bridges, marine docks and airport taxiways
have gained acceptance. Particularly in pavement and bridge deck
overlays, flexural fatigue strength and endurance limit are considered
important design parameters. This is because these structures are
subjected to the fatigue load cycles [1, 2, 4].
Objectives
The primary objectives of this investigation are to determine the
behavior of FPP FRC when subjected to non-reversed fatigue bending.
Other objectives of this investigation are to determine:
1. Behavior of FPP fibers during mixing.
2. Properties of the fresh concrete reinforced with three different

concentrations of FPP fibers.
3. Characteristics of hardened concretes with and without fibers, but

otherwise identical mixtures.
MATERIALS, MIXTURES, SPECIMENS, AND TESTS
Materials and Mixtures

Type I portland cement meeting ASTM C130 was used for all mixtures. The
cement was produced by the South Dakota Cement Plant in Rapid City, South
Dakota. The fine aggregate used was natural sand which had a saturated
surface dry specific gravity of 2.63 and an absorption of 1.64%. The
coarse aggregate used was crushed limestone with a maximum size of
19.05mm. The crushed limestone has a saturated surface dry specific
gravity of 2.68 and an absorption of 0.54%. Both coarse and fine
aggregates satisfied grading requirements of ASTM C33.
535
The water used was the tap water from the Rapid City water supply
system. The air-entraining admixture used was a neutralized vinsol
resin, satisfying ASTM C260. The superplasticizers used conformed with
Type F ASTM C494 specifications.
The fiber used was FPP fiber in small bundles that separate into
individual fibers when mixed in concrete. The fibers used in this study
are commercially available under the brand name MFibermeshf! and have a
specific gravity of 0.90, tensile strength of 550 - 760 MPa, and modulus
of elasticity of 3450 MPa.
Twelve mixes were made for this investigation. Three mixes were
control mixes without fibers. The other nine mixes contained varying
amounts of fibers. The quantities are given in Table 1. All were 0.09
cubic meter batches and mixed in accordance with ASTM Cl92
specif ications.
TABLE 1 ~
Mix Quantities for 0.09 M Batch
Mix Fiber Rock Sand Cement W-C SPD AEA

Series (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Ratio (cc) (cc)
I Plain None 85.19 85.19 35.73 0.40 180 25

I 0.17. FPP .080 85.19 85.19 35.73 0.40 240 25
I 0.17. FPP .080 85.19 85.19 35.73 0.40 240 25
I 0.57. FPP .401 85.19 85.19 35.73 0.40 330 25
I 0.57. FPP .401 85.19 85.19 35.73 0.40 330 25
I 1.07. FPP .801 85.19 85.19 35.73 0.40 380 25
I 1.07. FPP .801 85.19 85.19 35.73 0.40 550 30
II Plain None 97.89 77.02 29.48 0.50 78 18
II 0.17. FPP .080 97.89 77.02 29.48 0.50 78 18
II 0.57. FPP .401 82.46 64.64 39.42 0.42 156 22
II 1.07. FPP .801 82.46 64.64 39.42 0.50 208 23
II Plain None 82.46 64.64 39.42 0.42 123 22
FPP - Fibrillated Polypropylene % by Volume

SPD - Superplasticizer Dosage
AEA - Air Entraining Agent Dosage
Test Specimens
The following specimens were cast from each mix: three to five (152.4mm
x 304.8mm) cylinders for compression and static modulus tests. In Series
I twelve to fifteen beams (101.6mm x 101.6mm x 355.6mm) and in Series II
six to seven beams (101.6mm x 101.6mm x 355.6mm) and six to seven beams
(89mm x 114.3mm x 406.mm).
The specimens were cast in steel molds immediately after mixing,

covered with a plastic sheet, and cured for 24 hours at room temperature.
They were then Qdemolded and immersed in lime-saturated water tanks
maintained at 22 C and remained in the water until they were tested at 7
or 28 days. The fatigue specimens were removed from the water at 28 days
of age and painted with a curing compound.
536
The freshly mixed concrete was tested for temperature, slump (ASTM
C143), air content (ASTM C231), time of flow through inverted slump cone
(ASTM C995) and vebe time (British Standard 1881). Measurement of FRC
properties followed the latest recommendations of ACI Committee 544 [5]
and ASTM C1116 Standard Specifications for FRC [6].
The main thrust of the investigation was to determine the endurance

limit in flexural fatigue loading for various concretes used. The
endurance limit was defined as the maximum load at fatigue loading. The
two million cycle limit was chosen to approximate the life span of a
structure that may typically be subjected to fatigue loading, such as a
bridge deck or highway pavement. Some cycles exceeded two million
because there was no automatic cutoff control. The range of the cyclic
loading was expressed as a precentage of the average maximum load in
static flexure for each mix. The higher limit varied depending on the
particular mix, generally from 55% - 80%. of the maximum load. The
fatigue test was then run between these limits. If the beam failed
before the two million cycle limit, the upper limit was reduced for the
next specimen. If the beam survived, the upper limit was raised and a
new beam was tested at the increased upper limit. All the beams which
survived the two million cycle limit were later tested for flexure and
the maximum loads at which they failed were noted. The frequency of
loading used was 20 cycles per second for all tests. The machine used
for these tests was a Material Test System (MTS) employing a load control
mode.

The FPP fibers used in this program performed very well. Although fibers
were added to the mixer all at one time along with cement and aggregates,
no fiber balling occurred. It was observed that the mixing action caused
the bundles to open up into fibermesh form, producing individual fibers
distributed uniformly throughout the concrete. The fresh concrete with
fibers was observed to have little surface bleeding and no segregation.
Room temperature, humidity and concrete temperature were recorded

for all the mixes made to ensure all were done under approximately
similar conditions. The results of the tests on fresh concrete are given
in Table 2.
Workability
Slump, inverted cone time and vebe time tests were conducted to
determine the workability of the mixes [5]. These test results indicate
that satisfactory workability can be maintained even with a relatively
high fiber content. This was achieved by adjusting the amount of
superplasticizer and/or wat^r-cement contents to maintain relatively the
same strength.
537
TABLE 2
Properties of Fresh Concrete
Mix Initial Vebe Concrete Air Vebe Inverted

Series Slump Slump TemjD. Content Time Cone Time
(mm) (mm) (%) (Sec.) (Sec.)
I Plain 235.0 171.5 21.9 5.2 0.7

I 0.1% FPP 209.6 124.0 21.2 9.0 2.0 ----
I 0.1% FPP 158.8 88.9 26.6 4.4 2.0 7.8
I 0.5% FPP 133.4 52.3 21.6 5.4 3.5 23.0
I 0.5% FPP 95.3 69.9 25.4 3.2 3.7 23.7
I 1.0% FPP 3.3 0 21.1 4.4 10.0 90.0
I 1.0% FPP 3.3 0 25.1 3.2 9.5 62.0
II Plain 95.3 57.2 26.7 5.2 2.2 9.5
II 0.1% FPP 31.8 26.9 26.3 3.5 5.5 15.3
II 0.5% FPP 165.1 136.7 27.1 7.6 1.5 6.7
II 1.0% FPP 79.5 47.8 26.8 6.9 3.7 56.0
II Plain 158.8 88.9 27.2 4.3 1.6 6.1
Fiber Factor
Two higher quantities beyond the fiber manufacturer’s recommended

amount of 0.89 kg/m (0.1% by volume) were selected at 4.48 kg/m (0.5%
by volume) and 8.95 kg/m (1.0% by volume) for this investigation. For
Series I mixes, the water-cement ratio and proportions were maintained
constant. Fibers were added in different quantities without taking into
account the fiber factor. It was observed that higher volumes of fibers
reduce the slump because of the added surface area of the fibers. The
compressive strength and the modulus of rupture values also decreased.
It is obvious the same proportions could not be used for higher volumes
of fibers, and fiber factor adjustments are necessary to balance
proportions for suitable workability, placeability, appearance and
strength. Optimum mixture proportions should be obtained by trial mixes,
particularly when using higher fiber volumes.
An important asset of fiber concrete, namely the ductile mode of

failure, was demonstrated while testing for compressive strength. The
plain concrete cylinder failed, fully shattering into pieces with a loud
noise, whereas the fiber concrete cylinders continued to undergo large
deformations without totally breaking into pieces. Hence the shatter
resistance of concrete reinforced with fibrillated polypropylene fibers
is substantially improved over conventional concrete, providing greater
safety for life.
Modulus of Rupture
Series I results of modulus of rupture are illustrated in Figure 1.

The modulus of rupture was divided by the square root of compressive
strength of the concrete mix to eliminate the effect of compressive
strength which might be influenced by air content or other factors. It
was observed that neither the fiber reinforcement nor the quantity of
fibers had an appreciable effect on flexural strength.
538
Modulus of Rupture
20i-------------------------------------------------------
15
control 0.1% 0.5% 1.0%

Percentage of Fiber
Figure 1. Modulus of rupture expressed as ratio of the square root

of compressive strength.
It should be recognized that there is always more scatter and sometimes

one or two odd results in testing fiber reinforced concrete because of
the random orientation of the fibers and possible non-uniform
distribution of coarse aggregate in small specimens, particularly in the
tension zone.
Toughness Index
Typical load-deflection comparison curves for the plain concrete and

the concretes with three different fiber volumes are given in Figures 2 &
3. It can be seen how the improvement in elastic-plastic behavior of
fiber concrete composite takes place with the increase in fiber content
from 0.1% - 1.0%.
The toughness index is defined as the area under the load-deflection

curve up to a specified deflection, divided by the area under curve up to
the point where concrete first cracks (first-crack toughness). Ihe area
under the curve represents the energy in mm/kg required to cause the
deflection of the beam. The areas under the load-deflection curve were
measured by using the instrument planimeter. The toughness index is a
measure of the capacity of fracture energy absorption and ductility of
the specimen. Plain concrete fails immediately upon cracking, without
further load carrying capabilities. Since this is a brittle failure I ,
I and I are always equal to 1.0 for plain concrete. Concrete beams
reinforced with FPP fibers continue to deflect in a ductile fashion and
carry loads well past the point of first crack. The beams with higher
fiber contents had higher energy absorption and ductility compared to
beams with less fibers, as shown in Figure 4.
539
3000
SERIES II
2500 - A Plain Concrete
O 0.1% Fiber
i2000
■i q 0.5% Fiber
• 1.0% Fiber
1500
j i \ ..
1000 m
f Dor"_-O'--.
"t> 13 "*
500 I I
i 1 1 1
2.0 4.0 6 .0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
Deflection (mn) Deflection (mm)
Figures 2 and 3. Typical load deflection curves for different fiber

volumes are illustrated for Series I and II.
130 Series II
Series II
Series II
0.1% 0.5% 1.0%

Percentage of Fiber
Figure 4. Summary of toughness indices shows increased toughness with

increases in fiber volumes.
Post-Crack Load Drop Phenomenon
The difference between the maximum load and the load recorded at a
deflection equal to three times the deflection measured at first crack is
defined as the post-crack load drop. The load drops expressed as a
percentage of maximum loads are 45%, 27% and 26% respectively for the
beams of Series I with 0.1%, 0.5% and 1.0% fiber contents. The load
drops are 78%, 52% and 30% for the beams of Series II with 0.1%, 0.5% and
540
1.0% fiber contents respectively. The post-crack load drop is generally

less with increase in fiber content as seen in Figures 2 and 3. Compared
to polypropylene fibers, the straight steel fibers, reported previously
by V. Ramakrishnan, had higher post-crack load drops [1]. Table 3
shows the comparison of load drops for typical load-deflection curves of
two types of fibers.
TABLE 3
Post-Crack Load Drop
Fiber Types of Fibers

Content Polypropylene Staight Steel
0.1% 45%
0.5% 27% 80%
1.0% 26% 77%
FLEXURAL FATIGUE BEHAVIOR
The study of fatigue properties of FPP fiber reinforced concrete was done
in detail, as it was the main objective of this investigation. Beams
made with plain concrete and the concretes with 0.1%, 0.5% and 1.0% FPP
fiber contents by volume, were tested in flexural fatigue. Results of
fatigue tests are calculated using the actual dimensions of each beam at
the failed cross-section and the upper load limit. The maximum of
fatigue stress of each specimen is expressed as a percentage of the
average modulus of rupture for the same mix.
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue strength is defined as the maximum fatigue flexural stress at
which the beam can withstand two million cycles of non-reversed fatigue
loading. It was observed that the fatigue strength was increased by the
addition of FPP fibers to the concrete. In Series I the fatigue strength
was 2.72 MPa for plain concrete, whereas it was 2.66 MPa, 3.45 MPa and
3.56 MPa for 0.1%, 0.5% and 1.0% fiber concrete mix and an increase of
27% and 32% for 0.5% and 1.0% fiber concrete mixes respectively, showing
a decrease of 2% for 0.1% fiber concrete mix and an increase of 27% and
32% for 0.5% and 1.0% fiber concrete mixes respectively. Similarly, in
Series II, there is an increase in fatigue strength of fiber concrete
mixes when compared to plain concrete. Figure 5 summarizes Series I and
II fatigue strengths.
Endurance Limit: Percentage of Modulus of Rupture of Plain Concrete
The endurance limit is defined as the maximum fatigue flexural

stress at which the beam could withstand two million cycles of
non-reversed fatigue loading, expressed as a percentage of modulus of
rupture of plain concrete.
541
Maximum Fatigue Strength
Percentage of Fiber
Figure 5. Fatigue strengths are summarized.
Endurance Limit
<d js
Series II fr (plain)
Series II fr (corresp. mix)
Series I fr (plain)
Series I fr (corresp. mix)
Control 0.1% 0.5% 1.0%

Percentage of Fiber
Figure 6. The endurance limit is expressed as a percentage of the

modulus of rupture of plain concrete.
542
It is evident from Figure 6 that, for the beams with 0.5% fiber
content, there is an increase in endurance limit expressed as a
percentage of modulus of plain concrete. In the mix with 0.5% fiber
content in Series I, the endurance limit when expressed as a percentage
of modulus of rupture of plain concrete is 63%, whereas it is 59% when
expressed as a percentage of its modulus of rupture. However, in Series
I for the mixes with 0.1% and 1.0% fiber contents, the endurance limit
expressed as a percentage of modulus of rupture of plain concrete was
lower than that when expressed as a percentage of its modulus of rupture,
because these mixes had lower compressive strengths than those of plain
concrete. For Series II, it can be seen that the the endurance limit
when expressed as a percentage of modulus of rupture of plain concrete is
higher than that expressed as a percentage of its modulus of rupture.
Ibis optimization is due to fiber factor adjustments in the mix
proportions for Series II.
Endurance Limit: Expressed as a Percentage of Its Modulus of Rupture
Endurance limit of concrete can also be defined as the fatigue

stress at which the beam could withstand two million cycles of
non-reversed fatigue loading, expressed as percentage of its modulus of
rupture.
The endurance limits for Series I mixes with 0.1%, 0.5% and 1.0%
fiber contents are 116%, 118% and 138% respectively. Whereas for plain
concrete it is 100%, thus showing an improvement in the fatigue
performance of fiber reinforced concretes. Similarly, in Series II the
endurance limit increases with increase in fiber content. The endurance
limits are shown in Figure 6. The specimens which did not fail after
more than two million cycles in flexural fatigue test were tested again
for static flexure to find out whether there had been microcracks
developing or strength degradation was taking place in concrete, because
of the fatigue test at a fatigue loading below the endurance limit. It
is observed that the two million cycle fatigue loading below the
endurance limit did not lead to decrease of flexural strength. In fact,
the flexural strength increased slightly in most cases, especially when
the fatigue stress, to which the specimen was subjected earlier, was
lower.
There is considerable amount of apparent scatter in the tests mainly

because of two reasons. Each fatigue test takes a long time and hence
the ages at which different specimens of the same mix are tested vary
considerably, and this age difference does influence the test results.
The static flexure test was done at 28 days, and these tests are done at
much later ages. Therefore, the ratio fmax / fr> and hence the
endurance limit, is not consistent. The determination of the endurance
limit was done taking into consideration the above factors.
CONCLUSIONS
Fibrillated polypropylene (FPP) fiber reinforcement improves concrete

subjected to dynamic and fatigue loadings. These fibers also show
improvements in toughness and endurance. Fatigue strength increases were
determined by many flexural tests in this investigation of one particular
FPP fiber. Results may not apply to other synthetic fibers.
543
Based on the test results of this study, the conclusions are as follows:
1. The addition of FPP fibers resulted in greater fatigue strengths.
2. Toughness index values increased with additional FPP fiber content.
3. Static modulus of concrete, compression and flexural strengths were

not appreciably affected by FPP fibers.
4. Endurance limit for two million cycles was increased with the
addition of FPP fibers, showing 16%, 18% and 38% gains, which
translated to concrete in service means many added years of
longevity.
5. Static flexural strength of the FPP fiber concrete beams increased

after they had been subjected to fatigue loading.
6. When using volumes of 0.5% and 1.0% FPP fibers, fiber factor
adjustments are necessary to balance the mix proportions for
workability, placeability, appearance, and strength.
7. Ductility and post-crack behavior improved particularly at 0.5% and

1.0% volumes of FPP fibers.
REFERENCES
1. Ramakrishnan, V., Materials and properties of fiber reinforced

concrete. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, Madras, India, December 1987.
2. Rice, E., Vondran, G., and Kunbargi, H., Bonding of fibrillated

polypropylene fibers to cementitious materials. In Materials
Research Society Proceedings, Pittsburgh, PA, Vol. 114, 1988, pp.
145-152.---- ----------
3. Vondran, G., Plastic fiber reinforced concrete. In Proceedings of

Recent Advances in Concrete Technology, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, MI, February 1989.
4. Ramakrishnan, V., Gollapudi, S. and Zellers, R., Performance

characteristics and fatigue strength of polypropylene fiber
reinforced concrete. In Fiber Reinforced Concrete - Properties and
Applications, American Concrete Institute, ACI SP-105, Detroit, 1587,
pp. 155-177.
5. ACI Committee 544, Measurement of properties of fiber reinforced

concrete. ACI Materials Journal, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, MI, November-December 1988, pp. 583-593.
6. ASTM Committee C09.03.04, Standard specification for fiber-reinforced

concrete and shotcrete. In ASTM C1116, Philadelphia, PA, 1989.
7. Ramakrishnan, V. and Nagabhushanam, M., Flexural strength and

performance characteristics of high volume polypropylene (Fibermesh)
fiber reinforced concretes. Report to Fibermesh Company, South
Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD, January 1989.
544
THE PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE CONTAINING HIGH PROPORTIONS

OF STEEL FIBRES WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
RAPID FLEXURAL AND FATIGUE LOADINGS
J.E. Butler B.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.C.E., M.I.W.E.M.

Reader in Civil Engineering,
Portsmouth Polytechnic.
ABSTRACT
A cyclic flexural loading machine has been built which has the capacity of
testing large beams (200x200x15 0 0 m m ) . It was capable of either:
(i) testing to destruction at stressing rates ranging between the

conventional BS1881 value and very rapid rates, typically
250MN/m2 /s.
(ii) undertaking fatigue tests with load cycling above zero for up
to 10^ cycles at rates of up to 20 H e r z .
Instrumentation was also developed which automatically recorded a

complete strain and deflection history for each test.
The mix details of the concrete matrix were 650kg/m coarse aggregate
(10m to 5mm) 970kg/m3 fine aggregate, 475kg/m3 Ordinary Portland Cement and
0.4 water cement ratio. The principal fibre used was a 25x0.4mm Melt
Extract type but a variety were examined. To ensure that satisfactory
compaction was achieved it was necessary to use super plasticizers in high
fibre concretes. A comprehensive programme of workability testing
complemented the investigation.
The sensitivity of concrete flexural strength to loading rate has been

carefully observed. Evidence has been produced to show that this
sensitivity was greater for plain concrete than for fibre concretes. An
explanation for this phenomenon has been formulated.
Particular emphasis has been placed on the examination of the strength

and fatigue performance of concretes containing large volumes of steel
fibres (up to 3.3% by volume of composite). The scale of the work is
demonstrated by the testing of over 50 large beams supported by a series of
standard destructive and non-destructive tests on some 400 100x100x500mm
beams used as controls. A model for flexural fatigue performance prediction
has been prepared.
545
INTRODUCTION
Fatigue has become increasingly important as a design consideration for

structures subjected to large numbers of live loads. Typical examples are
road and airfield pavements, bridges, offshore construction and structures
likely to experience earthquake. Although concrete is often the major
material used for such structures, after some 80 years of experimental
research and the preparation of comprehensive reviews of current knowledge
(1,2) there is little quantified fatigue data available to the designer.
Particular problems associated with evaluating published fatigue data

inc l u d e :
(i) extrapolation of results gained by testing mortar beams of

slender cross section, to predict the performance of concrete
containing large aggregates,
(ii) differences in testing technique, typical examples are use of

centre point or third point loading, variation in span/depth
ratio, and loading cycles of sinusoidal or triangular form
which may oscillate above or about zero,
(iii) laboratory practicality dictated the testing of small carefully

prepared specimens. This has conflicted with the more variable
control and much larger element size that will be encountered
on site,
(iv) the failure to recognise that the fatigue performance of

concrete may be better understood if use was made of strength
properties achieved by loading at the rapid stressing rates
typical of fatigue tests (of the order of l O O N / m m ^ / s ) rather
than that used during conventional testing. (0.03N/mm^/s).
The investigation at Portsmouth has concentrated on the testing of

large beams because this made instrumentation more manageable, these
dimensions may be more comparable with those associated with some practical
applications and there was less danger of preferred fibre orientation.
Previous preliminary work at Portsmouth had also demonstrated the
significance of stressing rates (3)(4).
The rate of application of stress has had a considerable influence on

concrete ultimate strength, its effects on fatigue performance were thought
to be less marked (2). Some studies (5) (6) , however, reveal a substantial
effect of stress rate on fatigue behaviour of concrete, if a sufficiently
wide range of stress rates is considered. Since the fatigue strength of
concrete has been evaluated from a Stress ratio-N curve and the value of
the stress ratio is dependent on the magnitude of ultimate strength, then
the fatigue data become sensitive to the rate of stress application. It
was found that a reduction in stress rate by a factor of 100, from 50N/mm2/s
to 0.5N/mm2/s, resulted in a tenfold reduction in the number of cycles to
fa i l u r e .
546
SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION
Before any fatigue tests could be undertaken, three objectives needed to be

achieved:
(i) the design, construction and performance verification of a

cyclic flexural loading machine that has a + 100kN maximum
load capacity and applied third point loading to beams simply
supported over spans of between 500mm and 1250mm. The loads
can be cycled above or about zero at frequencies ranging from
0.1 Hz to 20 Hz. There are also facilities to apply ramp loads
at rates up to 2000 kN/s and static loads up to 100 kN. The
m a c h i n e Ts performance has been verified with reference to
symmetry of loading, comparison with another machine and
correlation with other published data. A more complete
report of these aspects of the work has been published (3).
(ii) derivation of the change in the modulus of rupture with the rate
of increase of stress for plain and fibrous concretes.
(iii) development of methods of assessing concrete deterioration.

Generally these methods operated for tests of duration of
about 0.02 second to several days. Three methods have been
used; deflection, strain across the beam section and electro
dynamic modulus. Their general performance was reported
elsewhere (4).
During the testing programme two methods of loading have been used:
" single shot ramp loading11, this was a single loading at a selected constant
rate of stress application. The range of rate was between 0.008 N/mm^/s
and 260 N/mm^/s, thus providing tests lasting from about a hundredth of a
second to a few minutes before failure occurred, "fatigue loading", this
was a long term test in which a load, with a triangular wave form varying
between approximately zero and a selected maximum, was applied with a
constant frequency.
PRODUCTION OF TEST BEAMS
Uncrushed Thames Valley sand and gravel were used with the sand complying
with the BS882 zone 2 requirements. 'Typical1 ordinary Portland cement was
specified with a sulphonated napthalene formaldehyde admixture being
introduced to aid compaction at higher fibre contents. Melt-Extract
stainless steel fibres (25x0.5mm) were incorporated into mixes throughout
the investigation with some supplementary testing of concretes containing
hook ended (40x0.4mm) and indented fibres (50x0.5mm). Mix details and
workability performance have been displayed in table 1.
547
TABLE 1
Mix details and workability performance
Mix No. 1 2 3 4
Cement kg/m3 475 475 475 475

Sand kg/m3 970 930 900 870
Aggregate kg/m3 650 630 600 580
Water kg/m3 190 190 190 200
Free w/c 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.42
Admixture kg/ m 3 - - 4.75 5.68
Fibre content % vol - 1 .2 2.3 3.3
Vebe (s) 4 15 4 37
The general mixing, casting and compaction techniques have been

previously described (3). At each casting a large beam (either
200x200x2500mm or 100x200x1500mm) was produced with a set of at least twelve
100x100x500mm controls. After the beams had been cast, they were covered
with damp sacking and left in the laboratory under polythene sheets until
the moulds were struck 2 days later. The small beams were put into curing
tank where they were stored under water at 18-22°C until testing at an age
of 28-30 days. Large beams were first cured in water for 28 days, then in
air (under laboratory environment) and were tested between 3 to 6 months
after casting.
The following standard tests were used with the controls:- density,
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), dynamic modulus (DM), modulus of rupture
(MR), direct tensile strength using Laxy Tongs (DTS) with strain measurement
producing elastic modulus (EM). Typical means values have been provided in
table 2.
TABLE 2
Typical properties of 500mm control beams tested at 28 days
Mix No. 1 2 3 4
Density (kg/m3 ) 2330 2395 2461 2576

UPV (km/ s) 4.31 4.41 4.63 4.58
DM (GN/m2 ) 42.4 44.5 48.4 47.2
MR (N/mm2 ) 5.51 7.40 14.43 13.95
DTS (N/mm3 ) 2.34 3.40 4.93 5.92
EM (GN/m2 ) 38.8 41.7 46.8 45.3
Note that each value represents an average of at least twelve tests.

548
PROCEDURES
The testing procedures have been described in detail elsewhere (3) (4).
However the following points need emphasis.
(i) Maximum Stress Level
From the ramp tests, the ultimate strengths (Su ) of the concretes
were estimated. For plain concrete, fatigue tests were performed
with maximum stress levels (Sm a x ) between 0.3 to 0.6 of Su obtained
at stress rates typical of the fatigue loading. Fatigue tests were
conducted on fibrous concretes with Smax ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 of
the estimated strengths (Su ) achieved at relevant stress rates as
applied in fatigue tests. The minimum stress level (Sm in) remained
constant throughout the tests at about 10 percent of Sm a x f*
Therefore all the tests were carried out above zero cycling.
Figure 1. The variation of ultimate strength with stressing rate for

plain and fibrous concretes.
549
(ii) Frequency of Loading
The frequency of loading (triangular wave form) varied from beam

to bea m depending upon the maximum stress level and nature of
the beam. The frequencies were adjusted to obtain relevant rates
of loading as they were applied in flexural loading tests. The
frequencies examined were in the range of 4Hz to 20Hz, representing
rates of loading and unloading of about 40 to 200 N/mm^/s but with
a preference for testing at 65 N/mm^/s. Tests were continued until
failure occurred or a time limit, normally one week, was reached.
If a beam had not failed by this time the test was stopped.
RESULTS
The relationships between ultimate flexural strength and stressing rate

have been displayed in figure 1 and the fatigue performance summarised
in f igure 2.
Figure 2. Results of fatigue tests on 1500mm beams.

550
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Effects of Stressing Rate
Figure 1 shows linear regression analyses of results. It has been

calculated that the ultimate strengths of the fibrous concretes (1.2%),
(2.3%) and (3.3%) improved by about 41%, 43% and 30% when the stress rate
varied from 0.02 to 200N/mm^/s whereas plain concrete increased its
strength by 75%.
During a slow rate test the microcracks begin to propagate and there
is sufficient time to permit these to develop across the weakest plane
prior to failure hence the specimen fails under a low load. In a rapid
rate test, however, in a very short time cracks are forced to develop along
shortest possible path lengths generally through stronger matrix zones,
resulting in higher material strength. Therefore the velocity by which a
critical crack grows has a significant effect on the strength development.
Generally the sensitivity to stressing rate of the fibrous concretes

was markedly less than for the plain concrete. The low increase in
flexural strength with increasing rate of stress application suggested
there was only a small increase in the effective fibre-matrix bond strength,
a conclusion also reached by Hibbert and Hannant (7). Further the steel
fibres may have limited the velocity of critical crack growth.
Flexural Fatigue Tests
From figure 2 it was evident that for plain concrete no failure occurred
below 2.0N/mm^ maximum stress and the trend seemed to be established for
up to 1 million cycles. Thus the fatigue limit of plain concrete appeared
to be about 50% of its ultimate strength obtained at conventional
stressing rates.
It was clear that no failure occurred at maximum stresses below 4, 6

and 8.5 MN/m^ for concretes with (1.2%), (2.3%) and (3.3%) fibre contents.
These trends were established up to 2-3 million cycles. The apparent
fatigue limits increased from 60% to 80% the fibre enhancement.
The S-N curve method of inspecting fatigue data is gravely deficient

since the method does not take account of the effect of stressing rate.
Thus the fatigue limit does not represent true material behaviour. Another
form of presenting fatigue data has been based on deriving a ratio of the
maximum stress applied and the ultimate flexural strength. It is argued
that this ultimate strength should be gained by testing at the stressing
rate appropriate to the fatigue test. This approach has been used to
produce figure 3.
The curves produced appeared to become asymptotic at about 10“* cycles.

The stress ratios needed to ensure no flexural fatigue failure were 47%,
56% and 64% for fibrous concretes (1.2%), (2.3%) and (3.3%) and 30% for
plain concrete.
551
Figure 3. Flexural fatigue results related to ultimate strength at the

relevant stress rate.
Mechanism of Flexural Fatigue Strength
Investigators generally have had difficulties in explaining the mechanism

of the fatigue strength of plain concrete. The problem has been further
complicated when fibres were incorporated into the matrix.
External forces acting on a beam, give rise to internal stresses.

These stresses are distributed unevenly because the inherent flaws and
microcracks present in concrete result local stress concentrations. If
the stress at the tip of a microcrack exceeds its bonding strength then it
starts to propagate. In plain concrete slow crack propagation has been
observed prior to failure. This was due to the coarse aggregate causing
subsidiary cracks, or either by the branching of cracks from the original
crack or by the cracks circumventing the aggregate particles.
The mechanism of fibrous concrete fatigue strength may also be

explained by considering the model based on the crack behaviour at its tip.
It is assumed that at the crack tip stress concentration builds up with
successive cycles. The stress concentration is resisted by the matrix and
the fibre-matrix bonding strengths.
552
Thus in a cyclic loading test, stress concentrations at tip of a

microcrack vary from almost zero to maximum within each cycle of loading.
Therefore the accumulation of successive loading and unloading may
consequently cause the following conditions:
(i) Undamaged-If the stress concentration does not reach the

bonding strengths over a large number of cycles then crack
propagation is unlikely to occur. Therefore no sign of
damage could be expected.
(ii) Damaged-If the stress concentration builds up higher then

bonding strengths, it is possible that a crack starts to grow
slowly for some cycles of loading. Either the reinforcing
action of fibres or large aggregate may then prevent further
crack growth. However the beam is damaged. The extent of
damage may vary from no visual evidence to several millimetres
of crack length.
(iii) Failed-If in (ii) the fibres could not prevent the slow crack
growth, the stress concentration develops higher at the crack
tip. Hence the process of crack growth becomes more rapid.
This process continues until failure. For plain concrete crack
growth becomes very rapid with sudden failure.
REFERENCES
1. Abeles, P.W., The fatigue of concrete, Abeles Symposium, ACI

Publication S P 4 1 , 1974.
2. Raithby, K.D., and Whiffin, A.C., Failure of plain concrete under

fatigue loading - A review of current knowledge, TRRL Report
LR 231, 1968.
3. Butler, J.E., and Keating, J., Preliminary data derived using a

flexural cyclic loading machine to test plain and fibrous concrete,
Materiaux et c onstructions, 1981, 14, p p . 25-33.
4. Butler, J.E., and Keating, J., Assessing the deterioration of plain

and fibrous concrete subjected to flexural fatigue, Strain,18, No.4,
Nov 1982, p p . 149-160.
5. Sparks, P.R., and Menzies, J.B., The effect of rate of loading upon
the static and fatigue strength of concrete in compression,
Mag, of Cone. R e s , 25, June 1973, p p . 73-80.
6. Awad, M.E., and Hilsdorf, H . K . , The strength and deformation

characteristics of plain concrete subjected to high repeated
and sustained loads, Struct. Res. Series No.372, Dept, of Civil
Engineering, University of Illinois, Feb 1971, 266pp.
7. Hibbert, A.P., and H a n n a n t , D.J., Impact resistance of fibre

concrete TRRL Report 654, 1981.
553
MARINE DURABILITY OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

OF HIGH WATER/CEMENT RATIO
P.S. MANGAT , B.T. MOLLOY , K. GURUSAMY

♦Department of Engineering
University of Aberdeen
Kings College, Aberdeen AB9 2 U E , UK
**TAYWOOD LTD., UK
ABSTRACT
An assessment of the corrosion potential of steel fibres in

concrete, on the basis of knowledge on rebar corrosion in
concrete, raises serious doubts about the marine durability of
steel fibres in concrete owing to their large surface area and
low cover. Recent research, however, has shown that under
splash/tidal zone exposure fibre corrosion does not occur
provided they are embedded in uncracked concrete or in con
crete with very fine crack widths. These conclusions are
generally based on research using "marine" mixes of high
cement contents and low water/cement ratios.
This paper reports the results of a marine durability
investigation on a mix of steel fi^re reinforced concrete
which had a cement content of 428 kg/m and a relatively high
water/cement ratio of 0.58. The concrete was reinforced with
melt extract fibres or galvanised corrosion resistant fibres.
The test samples were exposed to a marine environment simula
ting the splash/tidal_zone. The results show that resistance
of steel fibres to Cl induced corrosion is equally satisfac
tory in mixes made with relatively low cement and high water/
cement ratio as it is in rich mixes of high cement content and
low water/cement ratio.
INTRODUCTION
An assessment of the corrosion potential of steel fibres in

concrete, on the basis of generally accepted principles of
rebar corrosion in concrete, would raise serous doubts about
the durability of steel fibres owing to their high surface
area/ volume ratio and low cover. Even fibres such as melt
554
extract (stainless steel) and corrosion resistant (galvanised

steel) would not be beyond doubt since free samples of such
fibres (not embedded in concrete) have shown ample evidence of
corrosion when exposed to sea-water in the auth o r s 1 laboratory
in Aberdeen.
Considerable research in recent years, however, has
clearly shown that under splash/tidal zone exposure corrosion
of fibres does not occur as long as they are embedded in
sound, uncracked concrete or in concrete with very fine crack
widths [1,2,3,4]. Even at the surface of concrete, such
embedded fibres are free from corrosion despite very high
levels of chloride contamination and low pH of the matrix
[5,6,7]. These conclusions are largely based on research of
marine mixes of concrete which were made with relatively high
cement contents (or cement + pfa content) and low water/cement
ratios not exceeding 0.45.
Since fibre reinforced concrete requires relatively high
water content in order to maintain workability even at high
cement contents, water/cement ratios in excess of 0.45 may be
necessary for marine mixes. The resulting relatively perme
able and porous matrix is likely to provide a more critical
environment for fibre corrosion under sea-water exposure. A
research programme was, therefore, carried out on such a mix
of steel fibre reinforced concrete made with a water/cement
ratio of 0.58. Durability results up to 3150 cycles of marine
exposure (5 years) are reported in this paper. The results
are compared with data for a mix designed in accordance with
standard procedures for marine concrete [8], which had a
water/cement ratio of 0.4.
EXPERIMENTAL
Mix Proportions and Materials

Two mixes of fibre reinforced concrete were used. The first,
mix A, was designed according to standard procedures for
marine concrete [8] to ensure a high cement content and a low
water/cement ratio £0.45, while maintaining satisfactory work
ability. The resulting proportions for mix A were
1.0:1.5:0.86 (by weight) witlj a water/cement ratio of 0.4 and
a cement content of 590 kg/m .
The second mix, mix C, was designed to achieve satisfac
tory workability but with a lower cement content of 428kg/m .
The resulting water/cement ratio required was 0.58 and the mix
proportions were 1.0:2.5:1.2 (by weight).
The mixes were reinforced with melt extract (stainless
steel) and galvanised (corrosion resistant) fibres. Volume
fractions used were 3* (melt extract, ME) and 2.2% (corrosion
resistant, CR) giving vf 1/d of 147 and 145 respectively.
Fibre details and mix proportions are given in Table 1.
Ordinary Portland cement, 10mm nominal size granite coarse
aggregate and fine aggregate of Zone 2 grading were used.
555
TABLE 1
Details of mixes and fibres
MIX FIBRE DETAILS FIBRE TYPE MIX

PROPORTIONS
1 d 1/d
(mm) (mm) T J) i7 s
- - - 0 0 - 1.0:1.5:0.86
A0
25 0.51 49 3 147 Melt Extract water/cement
a me
= 0.4
40 0.60 67 2.2 145 Corrosion

acr
Resistant
c - - - 0 0 - 1.0:2.5:1.2
o
25 0.51 49 3 147 Melt Extract water/cement
C ME
= 0.58
40 0.6 67 2.2 145 Corrosion

O
o
Resistant
Specimen Preparation, Curing and Testing
100x100x500mm prism specimens were cast in the laboratory and

demoulded after 24 hours. All the specimens were then cured
for 14 days in the laboratory air. After this, a representa
tive number of specimens were leftto continue curing in the
laboratory air while the rest were transferred to a marine
spray chamber in the laboratory which provided a simulated
marine splash/tidal zone environment. This environment was
provided by alternate cycles of sea water spray and of drying,
each of 6 hours duration.
The specimens were tested after 2000 and 3150 marine
cycles (3.4 and 5 years respectively).
Three specimens per mix were subjected to four point bend
ing tests. Equivalent cube tests were carried out on one
broken half of each prism. The second broken half of each
prism which was cured under marine cycles was used for chemi
cal analysis of the pore fluid to determine free Cl and OH
concentrations using procedures which are described in detail
elsewhere [7].
The state of passivity of fibres was determined by
electrode potential measurements which were made on fibres
exposed on fractured surfaces after flexural testing. The
procedure which is described fully in earlier reports [1] was
used to establish a profile of fibre potentials with increas
ing depth of concrete cover.
556
Flexural Properties
Figure 1 shows the load versus deflection graphs obtained from

flexural tests on mix A specimens after 2000 marine cycles
(MC) of exposure. Corresponding graphs for laboratory air
cured specimens at an equivalent age of 3.4 years are also
plotted. Similar data for mix C specimens are plotted in
Figure 2. The graphs in both Figures 1 and 2 show that the
magnitude of maximum flexural load is higher for specimens
cured under marine exposure, relative to air cured specimens.
Apart from this the load-deflection curves under both curing
conditions have similar shapes with a gradually falling branch
after maximum load. The "marine cycle” cured specimens do not
show any sudden fracture of the specimens. This indicates
that failure is due to gradual fibre pull-out instead of
sudden fibre fracture owing to a reduction in cross-section
caused by corrosion. This provides indirect evidence of the
absence of corrosion in the fibres in both mixes A and C.
Figure 1. Typical flexural load - deflection curves of Mix A

specimens cured in laboratory air (3.4 years) and in
marine spray (2000 cycles).
Modulus of rupture values of mix A specimens are listed in

Table 2, for both the laboratory air curing condition and
marine spray cycles. These values have been substituted in
the following composite flexural strength expression [9,10] in
order to determine the fibre-matrix bond strength, t ,:-
557
Deflection (mm)
Figure 2. Typical flexural load - deflection curves of Mix C

specimens cured in laboratory air (3.4 years) and in
marine spray (2000 cycles).
acu = 0.97 am (1—8 v f ) + t vf (1/d) (1)
where
crcu = composite flexural strength
crm = matrix flexural strength
8 = fibre orientation factor assumed as 0.41
= volume of fibres
t = average interfacial bond strength.
TABLE 2
Modulus of rupture (a ) and bond strength, t , for mix A
after 2000 MC (3.4 years)
Laboratory air Marine spray
Mix v f 1/d crcu (N/mm2 ) T(N/mm2 ) a (N/mm2 ) t (N/m m 2 )

cu'
Ao 0 5.7 - 8.5 _
a me
147 11.0 3.72 13.0 3.24
145 11.7 4.26 13.7 3.76
a cr
558
These values of t which are listed in Table 2 assist in

assessing the relative reinforcing capacity of fibres under
both curing conditions and provide indirect evidence of any
corrosion. The t values in Table 2 for air cured specimens of
melt extract spd corrosion resistant fibre concrete are 3.72
and 4.26 N/mm respectively which are not markedly different
from2 the values for marine cured specimens (3.24 and 3.76
N/mm ). This indicates that no basic change in composite
flexural behaviour has occurred under the two curing regimes
and, therefore, corrosion is unlikely to have occurred under
marine exposure.
Similar conclusions can be drawn from corresponding data
of Mix C specimens, which are listed in Table 3. For example,
the t values |or air cured specimens after 5 years are 1.85
and 1.53 N/mm for melt extract and corrosion resistant fibre
reinforced specimens respectively. The corresponding values
under marine cycle curing are somewhat greater at 2.53 and
2.51 N/mm .
TABLE 3
Modulus of rupture ( c r ) and bond strength, t , for mix C
after 2000 MC (3.4 years) and 3150 MC (5 years)
Laboratory air* Marine spray*
Mix v f 1/d crcu (N/mm2 ) t (N/mm2 ) crc u (N/mm2 ) t (N/mm2 )
Co 0 4.3,(4.2) - 6.4,(4.8) -
^ME 147 7.6,(6.8) 2.33,(1.85) 10.0,(8.4) 2.58,(2.53)

145 5.5,(6.3) 0.92,(1.53) 10.4,(8.3) 2 .89,(2.51)
C CR
♦The values after 3150 MC (5 years) are given in brackets.
The equivalent cube strengths increased due to fibre

reinforcement and marine exposure. The values for mixes C 2
CME and CC R , after 2000 M C , were 50, 68 and 71 N/mm
respectively. T h e 2corresponding values under air curing were
41, 49 and 40 N/mm . The relative strengths o£ mixes A^, and
A_,_, under marine cycles, were 101 and 102 N/mm respectively.
UK
Pore Fluid Composition
The free Cl concentrations at various depths from the con

crete surface are plotted in Figure 3, for both mixes A and C.
These were determined by chemical analysis of the pore fluid
after 2000 cycles of marine exposure.
The chloride concentration in natural sea water from Aber
deen, which was used in the marine chamber, was 560 mM/L.
Continuous circulation of the sea water in the spray chamber.
559
Depth into concrete Depth into concrete

(mm) (mm)
Figure 3. Free Cl in pore Figure 4. Free 0H~ in pore
solution after 2000 MC solution after 2000 MC.
however, resulted in evaporation leading to higher Cl concen

trations of up to 3800 mM/L (135,000 ppm).
The graphs in Figure 3 show much higher Cl concentrations
in mix C, owing_to its higher water/cement ratio. Also the
reduction in Cl concentration with depth is small for mix C
and very significant for mix A. From these results it is
evident that fibres in mix C are more vulnerable to Cl
induced corrosion.
The OH concentration (pH) profiles of the two mixes are
plotted in Figure 4. At large depths from the surface, the
OH concentration in mix A is very high gelative to mix C,
owing to its high cement content (590 kg/m ). At about 25mm
depth, for example, the OH concentrations of mixes A and C
are 110 mM/L (pH=13.04) _and 35mM/L (pH=12.54) respectively.
Near the surface, the OH concentrations of the two mixes are
similar, at a pH of about 12. This indicates that the extern
al environment has a greater control over OH concentration
near the surface and mechanisms such as leaching have a
greater influence on OH concentration than cement content and
mix proportions.
The important para m e t e r ,_from the point of view of corro
sion, however, is the Cl /OH ratio of the pore fluid surroun
ding the fibres. These values are obtained from Figures 3 and
4 and are listed in Table 4 together with values obtained from
specimens tested after 3150 MC (5 years) of exposure. Accor
ding to generally assumed corrosion theory, increasing Cl /OH
concentrations are conducive to Cl induced corrosion and a
threshold value of 0.61 has been suggested for corrosion ini
tiation of iron in an OH solution simulating the pore fluid
in concrete [11].
560
The Cl /OH ratios for mix A, listed in Table 4, are

greatly in excess of 0.61. However, it has been clearly
demonstrated that fibres embedded_ in the matrix remained free
from corrosion [1]. The Cl /OH ratios for mix C are even
greater than mix A, especially at higher depths from the
surface. However, the mechanical properties discussed so far
and visual inspection of fibres in the test samples indicate
no sign of corrosion.
TABLE 4
Cl /OH ratios at different depths after
2000 MC (3.4 years) and 3150 MC (5 years)
Cl /OH ratios C1~/0H ratios

after 2000 MC after 3150 MC
Depth
Mix A Mix C Mix A Mix C
0-10mm 266 235 120 186
10-20mm 43 97 36 103
20-30mm 4 57 9 72
Electrode Potential
The half-cell potentials of fibres exposed at the fractured

faces of flexural specimens which were cured under marine
cycles are plotted in Figures 5 and 6. Figure 5 refers to
specimens reinforced with melt extract fibres and Fig. 6
refers to corrosion resistant fibres. All data points are
average values of at least three prism specimens.
In Figs. 5 and 6, the electrode potentials of fibres in
mix A are similar after 3.4 and 5 years of marine exposure.
No visual evidence of corrosion was found in either of these
fibres at any depth in concrete. The results for mix C, in
Figs. 5 and 6, show similar electrode potentials as mix A,
especially in the surface zone of up to 15mm depth. The
potentials for mix C become more negative than for mix A at
greater depths possibly due to the much higher Cl /OH ratios
as seen in Table 5. These results, therefore, show that the
corrosion potential of fibres in mix C, especially near the
surface, is no different than in mix A and the absence of
corrosion is confirmed by visual observations and the mechani
cal properties.
561
Mix A.2000MC, A
a 'iooh Mix A, 3150MC, •

MixC, 3150MC, 0
1ro -200-I
• •
• A A A
1 -300
<u •
-400 • A
o n o
0) 2 ° o
■o-50(H
-600
0 10 20 30 40 50
Depth into concrete
(mm)
Figure 5. Electrode potentials with depth of melt extract
fibres.
0-
- 100- Mix A, 2000MC, *

Mix A, 3150MC, •
- 20 0 - Mix C. 3150MC, o
W -300-
1 -400-
"ro
*■§ -500-
<u
S.-600H
<u ▲
h -700H •o
^ -800-
-900-
-1000 -
0 10 20 30 40 50
Depth into concrete
(mm)
Figure 6. Electrode potentials with depth of corrosion
resistant fibres.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results presented in this paper it can be conclu

ded that resistance of steel fibres (melt extract and corro
sion resistant) to Cl induced corrosion is equally satisfac
tory in 3mixes made with a relatively low cement content
(428kg/m ) and high water/cement ratio (0.5g) as it is in a
rich mix of very high cement content (590kg/m ) and low water/
cement ratio (0.4).
562
REFERENCES
1. M a n g a t , P.S. and Gurusamy, K . , "Corrosion resistance of

steel fibres in concrete under marine exposure", Cement
and Concrete Research, 1988, Vol. 18, pp. 44-54.
2. Mangat, P.S., and Gurusamy, K . , "Permissible crack widths

in steel fibre reinforced marine concrete", Materials and
Structures, 1987, 20, 339-347.
3. Morse, D.C. and Williamson, G.R., "Corrosion behaviour of

steel fibrous concrete", Report no. CERL-TR-M-217, May
1977. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
VA. 22151, U.S.A.
4. Schupack, M . , "Durability of steel fibre reinforced

concrete exposed to severe environments", Proceedings
Steel Fibre Concrete, US-Sweden Joint Seminar (NSF-STU),
Editors S.P. Shak and A. Skanendahl, Stockholm, June 3-5,
1985, pp. 479-496.
5. Mangat, P.S. and Gurusamy, K . , "Chloride diffusion in

steel fibre reinforced marine concrete", Cement and
Concrete Research, 1987, Vol. 17, pp. 385-396.
6. Mangat, P.S., and Gurusamy, K . , "Chloride diffusion in

steel fibre reinforced concrete containing P F A " , Cement
and Concrete Research, 1987, Vol. 17, pp. 640-650.
7. Mangat, P.S. and Gurusamy, K . , "Pore^fluid composition

under marine exposure of steel fibre reinforced concrete",
Cement and Concrete Research, 1987, Vol 17, pp. 734-742.
8. FIP "Recommendations for the Design and Construction of

Concrete for Structures", 2nd e d n . , 1974, pp. 28-30.
9. Mangat, P.S. and Gurusamy, K . , "Flexural strength of steel

fibre reinforced cement composites", Journal of Material
Science, 22, 1987, 3103-3110.
10. Mangat, P.S. and Gurusamy, K . , "Long-term properties of

steel fibre reinforced marine concrete", Materials and
Structures, 1987, 20, 273-282.
11. Hausmann, D . A . , "Steel Corrosion in Concrete, how does it

occur?" Materials Protection, November 1967, pp. 19-23.
563
TEN YEAR FLEXURAL DURABILITY TESTS ON CEMENT SHEETS

REINFORCED WITH FIBRILLATED POLYPROPYLENE NETWORKS
DJ HANNANT
Construction Materials Research Group
University of Surrey
UK
SU M M AR Y
A ten year durability program me has been com pleted on flexural test sam ples
reinforced w ith 54 layers o f continuou s netw orks o f fibrillated polyp rop ylen e
film . H alf o f the sam ples were exposed to natural weathering and h alf to indoor
storage in air. The main con clu sion w as that no detrimental e ffects were
observed in relation to the m axim um notional stress m easured in either set o f
sp ecim en s during this tim e period.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
A ll n ew ly d ev elo p ed fibre reinforced cem ents for roofin g and clad ding products
require real tim e durability testin g before market cred ib ility can be achieved.
T his test program me w as started in 1978 to in vestigate the perform ance under
natural w eathering con d ition s and insid e storage o f a cem ent based com p osite
reinforced w ith layers o f netw orks o f fibrillated p olyp rop ylene film . T hese
netw orks were in their early stages o f developm ent in 1978 and there was
little published data on their long term performance in a cem ent matrix. A
m ajor feature o f th ese com p osites is their tough ness resulting from their
d u c tile c h a r a c te r istic s3 and it w as essential to check whether this ductility was
m aintained for lon g periods o f tim e under natural w eathering conditions. Tw o
durability program m es were therefore started, one for flexural sam ples in 1978
and one for direct tension sam ples in 1979. F ive year results for the direct
ten sio n tests have already been p u blished4 but this paper is the first
pu blication w h ich d escrib es the flexural tests w hich have now reached 10
years.
TE ST P R O G R A M M E
The primary concern o f the durability programme w as the effe c t upon the long
term behaviour o f the com p osite o f three m ain parameters. T hese were:-
564
i) The degree o f ultra v io le t (U V ) stabilisation o f the polypropylene

film - T w o cases were considered:
a) No sta b ilisa tio n (natural), b)H igh UV stab ilisation
ii) The condition o f the com posite. Tw o cases were considered:
a) U n crack ed
b) Cracked to a predetermined d eflection o f 2 mm at the l/3rd points.
T his is equivalent to a strain on the tensile surface o f more than 3000 x
10 "6 and h ence the sp ecim en s were fin ely cracked. The cracked surfaces
(ten sile fa ces) were placed facin g upwards on the exposure site.
iii) The exposure conditions. Tw o cases were considered:
a) N atural ou td oor w eath erin g, b ) In d oor a ir -c u r in g
Test ages were 1, 6 and 12 months; 2, 3 ,5and10years and four specim ens o f
each type were provided for each test period. Thus there were atotal o f 224
sp ecim en s, h a lf o f w hich w ere exp osed to natural w eathering, and h a lf o f
w h ich w ere air-cured in the laboratory.
D urability sp ecim en s for the eight test series were cast over the period 7 A ugust
1978 to 23 A ugust 1978 and placem ent o f the external exposure specim ens at the
B uilding R esearch Station exposure site at Garston, W atford was on 15 Septem ber
1978.
M A T E R IA L S
M a tr ix
The m aterials used were Ordinary Portland Cement, tap water, silica sand
p assin g 300 m icrons siev e and retained on 150 m icrons sie v e (L eighton
Buzzard), and M elm ent L 10 (m anufactured by H oechst C hem icals). M ix
proportions by w eight are given in Table 1, the batch w eights being those
actually used for each com p osite sheet.
TABLE 1
M ix p r o p o r tio n s by w e ig h t
R a tio K g.
C em en t 1.0 5 .0
W a te r 0.31 1.55
Sand 0 .9 2 4 .6 0
M e lm e n t 0.03 0 .1 5
TOTAL 2 .2 6 1 1 .3 0
F ilm n e tw o r k s
The m echanical and geom etrical characteristics are shown in T able 2. Both film
types sh ow ed a high degree o f secondary fibrillation w hich prevented a direct
determ ination o f film strength. H ow ever sim ilar film s from the sam e
m anufacturer w hen tested in the com p osite in direct ten sion had ten sile
strengths betw een 250 MPa and 300 MPa4 .
565
RESULTS
W hen lo a d -d e flec tio n curves o f ind ividu al sp ecim en s are com pared at different
ages, it is im portant to understand the e ffe c ts o f variations in sam ple thickness
and o f fibre volum e on the shape o f the curves. A com plete theoretical
prediction o f lo a d -d eflectio n curves is very complex^ and has not been
co m p letely so lv e d but som e factors affecting these results aregiven below .
Effect of sp ecimen thickness
The reason that sp ecim en th ick n ess is important w hen d iscu ssin g the results is
that the bending sam ples were loaded to 10 mm deflection at 'he third points or
to failure w h ich ever occurred first. Thus an 8.5 mm thick pecim en spanning
135 mm w ould, assum ing sim ple elastic theory, have a m axim um ten sile strain
equal to about 25,000 X 10'^ at 10 mm third point deflection. H owever, a 5 mm
thick sam ple w ould only experience a tensile strain o f about 15,000 X IO '6 at the
sam e d eflection . T herefore, failure o f a thick sam ple before 10 mm deflection
does not n ecessarily im ply a low er material ductility than for a thin sam ple.
T ypical m axim um ten sile strains for a range o f parameters, assum ing a central
neutral axis p osition , are show n in Table 3. H ow ever, the neutral axis position
after cracking w as probably at least 3/4 0 f the depth from the tension surface
and the real m axim um ten sile strains were therefore probably at least 50%
greater than those show n in Table 3.
TABLE 3
Maximum tensile strains on the beam surface assuming simple
elastic theory with the neutral axis at mid-depth
(*/3rd point loading. Span 135mm)
Beam depth (m m ) 5 6 7 8 8.5

Strain x 1 0 '6 2m m 2969 3559 4152 4745 5042
at 1/3 point
d e fle c tio n 10 m m 1 4,8 2 9 17,795 2 0,761 2 3 ,7 2 7 2 5 ,2 1 0
Effect of Fibre Volume
R educed fibre volum e can lead to reduced ductility in the range o f deflection s
used but a quantitative explanation o f fibre volum e effects in flexure is very
com plex. Failures o f som e thick sam ples at sm all deflection s with only a few
cracks may be explain ed by the fibre volum e at the failure crack being locally
less than that required to m aintain the load on the beam at that deflection . This
required fibre volu m e w ill increase w ith tim e as the matrix gains strength and
s t if f n e s s ^ leading to higher loads at a given deflection . H ence the d eflection at
m axim um load o f thick ( 8 mm) low fibre volum e ( 3.5% - 4%) specim ens may be
m ore se n sitiv e to natural w eathering than sam p les kept in the laboratory.
It should be rem em bered that values for the ten sile strength o f the com posite
are probably le s s than h a lf the observed m axim um notional flexural stresses for
reasons a ssociated w ith the incorrect flexural analysis w hich is generally used
to calcu late flexu ral strength^. A lso it is not possible to calculate changes in
fibre strength w ith tim e from the flexural results because in the m ajority o f the
sam ples no fibre failure w as observed when the load was rem oved.
566
TABLE 2
Film classification (Modulus & Geometry)
F ilm Y oungs C losed N om V ol / M ean M ean

T ype M o d u lu s f ilm th ic k u n it s lit slit
E* w id t h ness t le n g th le n g th fr e q u e n c y
GPa m m (p i) m m 3 /m m (m m ) s lits /m m
1 9 5 2 /R 1 /7 5.8 to 2.9 95 43 4.10 15 (10 4.2
to 25)
1 9 5 2 /R 1 /9 5.2 to 2.8 90 47 4.26 15 (10 4 .5
to 25)
*The higher value o f E is in the strain range 0-1 0 0 0 0 x 10“^ w hereas the low er
value w as obtained for strains > 10,000 x 10"^. The E values are thought to be
low er bounds due to the p ossib ility o f non-uniform loading o f the film .
S P E C IM E N M A N U F A C T U R IN G T E C H N IQ U E
The test sp ecim ens were 150 mm by 50 mm coupons cut from nom inally 6 mm
thick sheet. Each sheet was approxim ately 1 m by 600 mm and was produced
from a sin g le batch o f matrix.
The film s were opened from about 90mm to 600 mm, and were made up in
packets o f several layers. The first packet was 6 layers in order to allow easy
matrix penetration and this was follow ed by 6 batches o f 8 layers to give a total
o f 54 layers o f each film . Each packet o f film was held open by hooking over
pins on the lay-up board. The thickness control o f the com posite was not good
so that the nom inal 6 mm thick sheet varied betw een 5 mm and 9 mm and thus
the fibre volum e in individual sam ples varied betw een about 4% and 8%.
Storage until 28 days was in a 100% humidity room at 2 0 ° C .
T E ST IN G T E C H N IQ U E
A ll tests were on coupons o f dim ensions 50 mm by 150 mm in 4-point bending,

sim ply supported on rollers at a span o f 135 mm. An Instron testing m achine
w as used w ith a cross-head speed o f lOmm/min and hence all the load -d eflection
curves are for d eflection at the third points. Centre point d eflection is
approxim ately 1.15 tim es */3 point deflection .
H alf o f the sam ples were pre-cracked to 2 mm deflection at the 1/3 points and
unloaded before placin g on the exposure sites. Subsequent loadings were to
failure or 10 mm d eflectio n , w hichever occurred first. U n load ing curves were
recorded for all sam ples, som e o f w hich were also load cycled several tim es to
ch eck for resilien ce o f the film after various exposure periods.
A ll flexural tests were m ade w ith the cem ent-rich surface in tension and the
fibre-rich surface in com pression. This was to ensure easy v isib ility o f tensile
cracking and to give a 'worst c a se ’ situation for cracking and crack width.
A fter testing, the fibre volum e was determined for a 50 mm by 25 mm strip from
each sam ple by d isso lv in g the matrix in dilute H.C1 and recovering the
n e tw o r k s.
567
E ffe ct of tim e on l o a d - d e f le c t io n curves
In order to obtain an easy visual assessm ent o f the way in w hich the sam ples
have changed w ith tim e in natural w eathering, tw o sets o f curves have been
selected for sp ecim en s from the sam e sheets w hich have been tested at lan d 6
m onths, 1 or 2, 3, 5 and 10 years. The sets o f curves shown in Figures 1 and 2
were selected to include a range sam ple th icknesses and fibre volu m es to
illustrate som e o f the points m ade in the previous sections.
F igure 1 sh ow s the effe c t o f 10 years o f natural weathering on pre-cracked

sam ples o f betw een 5. mm and 6 mm thickness with a relatively high fibre
volum e (betw een 5.2% and 7.3% ). The curves are m ostly sm ooth with little
change in overall shape and with good ductility and recovery o f d eflection
throughout the 10 year period. M axim um notional flexural stress varied
betw een 26.2 MPa and 33.8 MPa but did not seem to be age dependent. The
c on clu sion from Figure 1 w ould be that naturalweathering for 10 years has not
been detrim ental to the com p osite.
F igure 2 is sh ow n to illustrate the effect o f natural weathering on thicker

uncracked sam ples (6.5 mm - 6.8 mm thick) with low er fibre volum e (4.3% -
5.5% ). The m atrix cracking strength increased gradually over the years from
10.5 M Pa to 19.6 M Pa as a result o f increased hydration and/or carbonation. The
curves are m uch more jagged than in Figure 1 as a result o f the increased
d eflectio n w hich is required when cracking occurs to balance the forces at a
cracked section when less fibre is present. A lso, at 5 years and 10 years the
m axim um load was reached at about 8 mm deflection which im plied a sm all loss
in du ctility at these low er fibre volum es. The range o f m axim um notional
flexural stresses w as from 16 MPa to 24 MPa.
The sp ecim en s w h ich were stored in laboratory air show ed sim ilar
characteristics to those in Figures 1 and 2 but with a sm aller increase in matrix
cracking stress with tim e as described below .
S tr e s s at bend over p o in t (B .O .P .)
The B .O .P. (cracking stress) was only m easured for those specim ens that had not
been pre-cracked at 28 days, com prising h alf the total number. The way in
w hich the B .O .P. varies with tim e for inside and outside exposure conditions is
show n on Figure 3 with bars for 95% confidence lim its in the m ean values. It
can be seen from Figure 3 that there is a sudden increase betw een 6 m onths and
1 year in the B .O .P. for the sam ples stored in natural w eathering at the B uilding
R esearch Establishm ent. This increase is presum ably due to the effects o f
c on tin u in g hydration/carbonation o f the matrix and is not show n at 1 year for
the intern ally stored sam p les.
There is a general trend o f increasing BOP with tim e betw een 1 year and 5 years
for both indoor and outdoor exposure conditions. H ow ever, use o f the Student's
't-test' indicates that the mean BOP's at 5 years and 10 years for outside storage
are not sign ifican tly different at the 95% con fid en ce lev el. The same
con clu sion applies to the means o f the 5 and 10 year inside stored sam ples.
568
1 MONTH 6 MONTHS
(MPa)
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

Stress
2 YEARS a> 3 YEARS

S-
Tensile
C
CU
I—
Flexural
Defies Deflection (mm)

Notional
fO
c
o
5 YEARS
Vf = 7.0% d - 5.23mm
30
20
10

1
Figure 1. Notional flexural stress - "3 point deflection for
pre-cracked samples exposed to natural weathering
for periods up to 1 0 years.
(V.p = fibre volume, d = sample thickness, span 135mm)
569
Deflection (mm)
(MPa)
Stress
1 YEAR a> 3 YEARS

i-
Tensile
Flexural

Notional
10 YEARS
5 YEARS +->
o
Figure 2. Notional flexural stress - 3 point deflection for

uncracked samples exposed to natural weathering for
periods up to 1 0 years.
(Vf = fibre volume, d = sample thickness, span 135mm)
570
Time (years)
Figure 3. Effect of exposure times up to ten years on the properties

of the composite for inside and natural weathering exposure
conditions.
A utogenous h e a lin g
P reviou s work 4>7 under direct ten sile stress system s has indicated that pre-
cracked sp ecim en s can heal to a certain extent under external w eathering
con d ition s. T his is m uch less noticeab le in flexure than in tension although
from 3 years onwards in Figure 1 there is a distinct change in slope o f the load-
d eflection curve at 3 to 4mm deflection which was not visib le at 1 and 6 months.
T his w ould indicate that som e healing had occurred during the long tim e period.
Notional flexural stress at 2mm deflection
B ecau se o f the high ductility o f the m aterial, the d eflection s at m axim um load
are lik ely to be m uch greater than those permitted in practical applications. A
com parison o f notional flexural stress at a low er d eflectio n may therefore give
a m ore u sefu l assessm en t o f the change in perform ance characteristics with
tim e. A deflection o f 2m m, equivalent to a strain on the tensile surface o f about
5 0 0 0 x 1 0"6 , w as therefore chosen for this com parison.
571
It w as found that the initial cracking state had little effect on the notional
flexural stress at 2mm deflection. Table 4 therefore show s the m eans o f 16
sp ecim en s at each exposure condition over a 10 year period. It is clear from
Table 4 that there is no significant difference at 10 years betw een the means o f
the sam p les stored in natural w eathering and those stored in laboratory air.
H ow ever, the naturally w eathered sam ples had reached about 17 M Pa notional
flexural stress by 1 year whereas the insid e stored sam ples sh ow ed continuing
increases throughout the 10 years w hich is related to the slow er rate o f gain o f
m atrix strength in relatively dry laboratory air.
TA B L E 4
A verage stress at 2mm deflection at the different ages
A ge E xp osu re M ean M ean N o t io n a l S ta n d a r d

S a m p le fib r e str ess D e v ia t io n
th ic k n e s s vol. % M Pa M Pa
(m m )
28 days Curing 6.51 5 .1 7 15.3 2 .2
R oom
6 mths I n s id e 6.6 9 5 .1 2 14.3 1.88
1 year 6.73 5 .2 0 13.8 1.79
ti
2 years 6.65 5 .3 2 15.5 2 .0 4
ft
3 years 6.63 5 .1 9 15.2 1.65
ti
5 years 6.53 5.8 5 16.9 2 .6 6
10 years 6.7 6 5 .5 0 18.0 2 .6 9
28 days C u r in g 6.55 5 .3 9 14.8 2 .0 5
R oom
6 m ths O u tsid e 6 .5 6 5.25 14.7 2 .0 6
1 year 6.65 5 .4 4 17.5 1.74
2 years 6.6 5 .3 7 17.8 1.97
3 years 6.53 5.21 17.0 2 .3 8
5 years 6.65 5 .9 0 18.8 2 .2 5
10 years 6 .8 8 5 .4 2 17.8 1.95
U ltim a te str e n g th
Figure 3 sh ow s the averages o f the m axim um notional flexural stresses for 16

sp ecim en s at each test age and storage condition plotted against tim e. It can be
seen that tim e and exposure condition for a period o f 10 years have virtually no
e ffe c t on the m axim um notional flexural stress in the com posite. This is
b ecause the m axim um stress is m ainly dependent on the fibre properties w hich
had not changed su fficien tly during the 10 year period to affect the flexural
results. Changes in fibre strength cannot be deduced from these results due to
the c o m p lex ities o f the analytical treatment o f the flexural loading system .
Twenty six out o f the thirty two specim ens tested at 10 years exceed ed 7mm
d eflectio n before the m axim um load w as reached.
DISCUSSION
The mean values o f nominal stress at the BOP, 2mm deflection and 10 mm
d e flec tio n (or ultim ate) for the different groups at 10 years were generally
sim ilar to those m easured at 5 years. The main statistically sign ifican t changes
during the 10 year period were increases in the BOP from 28 days to 10 years
for both storage conditions and the higher BO P o f the externally w eathered
sam ples when com pared with the inside stored sam ples. The type o f film
572
stab ilisation and w hether or not the sp ecim en s were pre-cracked had little
e ffe c t on com p osite perform ance. The major factors affectin g individual load-
d eflectio n curves at all ages were the sam ple thickness and volum e o f fibre.
The average residual d e flec tio n after unloading from approxim ately 10mm for
all unfailed sp ecim en s during the 10 year period w as about 4.7m m and as there
was no sign ifican t change w ith tim e it appeared that the resilien ce or
recovery capacity o f the film w as un affected by external w eathering.
L ik ew ise, the 10 year period had little effect on average crack spacing w hich
rem ained betw een 6mm and 9mm.
C O N C L U SIO N S
E xposure for 10 years, inside or outside, uncracked or pre-cracked, does not

appear to be detrim ental to the perform ance o f the com posite in flexure. Som e
general b en eficia l properties are observed in that the stress at the bend over
point in creases w ith tim e.
ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS
The p olyp rop ylen e film s were supplied by Bridon Fibres and P lastics Lim ited
and initial financial support for the project was provided by D SM in the
N etherlands. Thanks are due to a number o f research workers who prepared
the sam p les and tested them at various tim es throughout the 10 year period.
Particular thanks in this respect are due to Dr S V K ekwiek, Ms G Gardiner and
M J K eating. The B uilding R esearch Establishm ent provided space and security
for the externally stored sam ples on their ow n exposure site at Garston,
REFERENCES
1 Hannant D J, Z onsveld J J and Hughes D C 'Polypropylene film in cement

based materials'. C o m p o site s Vol 9 No 2 April 1978 pp 83-88.
2 Hannant D J and Z onsveld J J 'Polyolefin fibrous networks in cem ent

m atrices for low cost sheeting'. .P h ilosop h ical T ransactions o f the R oyal
Society A 294 1980 pp 591-597.
3 Hibbert A P and Hannant D J 'Toughness o f com posites containing

polyp rop ylene film s com pared with other fibre cem ents'. C om p osites V ol
13 N o 4 October 1982 pp 393-399.
4 Hannant D J 'Durability o f cem ent sheets reinforced with fibrillated

p olyp rop ylen e netw orks'. M agazine o f Concrete Research Vol 35 No 125
D ecem ber 1983 pp 197-204.
5 K eer J G and Hannant D J 'The prediction o f the load-deflection behaviour

o f a fibre reinforced cem ent com posite'.RILEM Sym posium FRC 86.
D evelop m en ts in fibre reinforced cem ent and concrete. Paper 1.6. 1986.
6 Hannant D J 'Fibre cem ents and fibre concretes’. Publ. John W iley &
S o n s . 1978.
7 Hannant D J and Keer J G. 'Autogenous healing o f thin cem ent based

sheets. Cem ent and concrete research Vol 13 1983 pp 357-365.
573
DURABILITY OF STEEL FIBROUS CONCRETE USED FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF

CONTAINERS FOR NUCLEAR WASTE STORAGE
Frederic Dubois
Conseiller pour les etudes betons
Agence Nationale de Dechets Radio-actifs (ANDRA), France
Hubert Nouguier
Chef division DSQAC
Agence Nationale de Dechets Radio-actifs (ANDRA), France
Abstract
For the long term storage (300 years) of nuclear waste in containers made
of fibre reinforced concrete, tests were run on the ability of three
metal fibres to withstand corrosion.
Accelerated tests did not show any evidence of corrosion of the fibres
totally embedded in the concrete.
Fibres situated on the surface or along a crack were corroded. The

corrosion followed the marks of machining. The depth of the corrosion
varied according to fibre type. The thickness of the corroded layer of
an uncoated fibre was twice that in the case of a galvanized fibre.
The overall corrosion of the fibre does not seem to cause the concrete to
spall.
The reinforcement of the concrete with steel fibres improves its perfor
mance as regards corrosion insofar as one follows the rules for a correct
production of the concrete.
Introduction
The following tests were carried out in the framework of research into
the strength of containers for radioactive waste. Given the nature of
the waste, the requirement is that it shall be stocked for 300 years.
The use of steel fibres to reinforce concrete was not unscathed by the
number one enemy of the longevity steel : corrosion.
574
The fibres, embedded in the cement paste, i.e. a highly alkaline medium,
were subjected to the same phenomenon of passivation as were the tradi-
tonal reinforcements. Moreover, the tests below showed that the steel
fibres benefited from their small diameter and large specific area in
comparison with traditional reinforcements.
In the case of traditional reinforced concrete, it is necessary to

provide a sufficient cover for the reinforcement in order to obtain a
sufficiently long intiation period so as to avoid the deterioration of
the structure. Since the fibres are distributed at random throughout
the concrete, some of them will inevitably end up situated at the exposed
surface: these fibres lack the cover and are thus directly exposed to
corrosion.
The tests on the steel fibre concrete are not very advanced at present,
and results currently available relate only to the work carried out on
concretes used in maritime construction. No study on fibre corrosion
mechanisms can be found, nor is there anything on the deterioration of
steel fibre reinforced concrete.
Up to the present, it is admitted that the corrosion of fibres is limited

to the surface (1). The pressure exerted by oxidation is not sufficient
to result in the deterioration of the concrete. Research by Batelle and
by Bekaert confirm these findings (2).
In order to go on to evaluate the behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete

with an horizon of 300 years, accelerated tests were necessary. Based on
the knowledge of the process of corrosion as studied hereunder, it was
agreed to speed up the kinetics of the reactions without any change to
the basic mechanisms.
The tests
Three steel fibre types were kept for behaviour studies in three
different corrosive preservation media.
The fibres tested were :

- milled, untreated fibres of a length of 32 mm and a diameter equivalent
to 0 . 8 mm (Harex);
- fibres obtained from wire, untreated, of a length of 60 mm and a di a m e
ter of 1 mm (Dramix);
- fibres of a length of 60 mm and adiameter of 0 . 8 mm,obtained from
galvanized wire. The zinc coating was of a min. of 30g/m2 (Dramix);
The following corrosive media were used :
- immersion in a solution of high pH (>12.3) comprising 100 1 of deio
nized water, 100 g of NaOH and 465 g of K0H. 45 g of NA 2 SO 4 was then
added to this solution (solution I).
- immersion in a solution of high pH (>12.3) comprising 100 1 of deio
nized water, 100 g of NaOH and 465 g of K0H. 200 g of NA 2 SO 4 was then
added to this solution (solution II).
- exposure to a saline fog acc. NF (norme Frangaise) X 41-002, using a
saline solution of 5 parts by weight of NaCl and 95 parts by weight of
distilled water.
The following were kept as samples :
- prisms of 50 x 50 x 200 mm, sawn from prisms of 150 mm x 150 mm x 400 mm.
575
These prisms were cast by traditional methods, with fibres mixed with
the concrete as the other ingredients. Before immersion or exposure to
the fog, the sawn prisms were fissured by means of a flexural test for
the purposes of obtaining a crack of the same size (0.4 mm to 0.5 mm).
- sticks of 20 x 15 x 150 mm, sawn from prisms of 150 x 150 x 400 mm in
pure cement paste. The paste was cast in moulds at whose bases the
fibres were arranged at regular 2 cm intervals. The same fibres at
equal 2 cm intervals were immersed in the upper surface of the prisms.
These samples did not undergo the saline fog test.
Actual behaviour during the time was studied by an examination of the

corrosion on samples of concrete reinforce with fibre of steel wire of 10
years of age. Samples of milled fibre reinforced concrete were not

available for these tests.
Behaviour of steel fibres in deliberately cracked concrete
Initially, the tests carried out on samples from the 50 x 50 x 200 mm

prisms were arranged for durations of 100, 200, 500 and 1 000 hours.
After 500 hours of tests, it was clear that the corrosion was not marked
enough to merit examination. It was decided to run tests lasting 500, 1
000 and 3 000 hours.
After the preservation medium, the samples were then dried in an oven at
a temperature of 105 °C. Then the cracks were sealed with a resin to p r e
vent further corrosion and to facilitate a second sawing of the samples.
Small test samples were selected by visual control and an X-ray test.
The microscope tests were carried out at various magnifications and by

means of polarized light. Thus, the various components (corrosion p r o
ducts, wire, concrete) were easier to identify.
Where it was impossible to determine the nature of these elements via the
microscope lens, the samples were examined by a scanning electron
microscope.
Interpretation of the results
Milled steel fibre (Harex).
After 500 hours and 1 000 hours in solutions I and II, there were no a p
preciable signs of corrosion. In the saline fog, only the fibre near the
surface was slightly corroded.
At 3 000 hours, there were very localized signs of incipient corrosion in

solution I. This corrosion showed a penetration in the order of 10 m i
crons and followed the lines of deformation due to its machining.
Corrosion in the saline fog was more marked and formed especially in the
zones that experienced greatest deformation. The space between the fibre
and the concrete was filled with corrosion products. This layer was 60
to 80 microns thick. The corrosion was locally highly selective,
following the lines of deformation and penetrating at a certain point to
over half the thickness of the fibre.
576
The part of the fibre situated in the crack corroded for a length of
about 4 mm and a width of around 2 mm.
photo 1
Little surface corrosion, following the lines of deformation
Untreated wire fibre (Dramix)
After 500 hours, viewing by refraction microscope showed some traces of

salts in the iron on the fibre in the sample kept in solution I.
In the saline fog, a slight corrosion was noted around the edges of a
fibre situated quite near the outer surface of the concrete.
After 3 000 hours in solution II, crystals were seen to form on the
surface; these were not Fe salts, but a deposit of lime.
In the saline fog, corrosion began in the part of the fibre that was
situated in the crack. The corrosion products had spread the entire
length of the crack and had not penetrated the concrete-fibre interface.
The depth of corrosion was 20 microns. It was noted that the corrosion
spread also a little of the way along the deformation lines resulting
from wire-drawing. Examination of a corroded fibre bared of its concrete
envelope clearly showed irregular corrosion following the wire-drawing
lines. The depth of corrosion was 70 microns maximum. The corrosion
products had a needle-like appearance. Chemical analysis of these
products indicated the presence of Si, S, Cl, Fe and Ca.
577
Photo 2
The corrosion products do not penetrate between the fibre and the
concrete.
Photo 3
Superficial corrosion, following the wire-drawing lines

578
Galvanized wire fibre (Dramix)

No trace of corrosion was found in the galvanized fibres after 500 hours
in solutions I and II, nor in the saline fog.
After 3 000 hours in solutions I and II, there was still no sign of
rust. Examination of samples kept in the saline fog allowed observation
of a swollen layer of oxides of a thicknes of 20 to 30 microns. There
was no selective corrosion, but a shallowish corrosion of 5 microns. The
zinc layer had disappeared from the corroded zone in the crack.
Examination of the fibre loosened from the concrete enabled demonstration
of a red ring of Fe salts surrounded by a white band of Zn and Ca salts,
as was confirmed in the analyses. An incision made at the corroded zone
enabled measurements to be taken as to the depth of corrosion; this was
gradual and measured 15 to 20 microns.
photo 4
Conclusions
There was little or no corrosion of the steel fibres completely embedded

in the concrete subjected to the corrosive action of the chlorides and
sulphates. Examination under the microscope showed the presence around
the fibres of an interstitial layer rich in lime, more evident in the
case of cylindrical fibres.
The saline fog test was the most severe. Corrosion spread along the
deformation lines and, thus, differently for each different fibre type :
- for the milled fibres, corrosion followed the direction of planing,
entailing a rapid loss of fibre section,
- for drawn fibres, corrosion followed the drawing direction, and
remained superficial.
For the three fibre types, corrosion occured in the crack in the zone
that was into contact with the corrosive agent.
579
Fibres embedded in the concrete remained well protected and showed only
slight corrosion after 3 000 test hours.
The zinc layer on fibres obtained from galvanized wire provided

additional protection. Corrosion was only slight.
Behaviour of the steel fibres at the concrete surface
For samples in stick form, in two opposite faces of which the fibres to
be tested were immersed, the durations of the tests were set at 500, 1
000 and 3 000 hours.
Interpretation of the results
Milled fibre (Harex)
After 500 hours in solution I, the formation of little pits was noted
resulting from selective corrosion on the rough surface of the fibre. In
solution II, patches of rust formed on the fibre, leading to observation
after 1 000 hours of immersion of a marked degree of typically selective
corrosion. The smooth side of the fibre showed a certain degree of
corrosion, but less serious.
There was no worsening of corrosion after 3 000 hours immersion.
Untreated wire fibre (Dramix)
There was little or no corrosion of the untreated Dramix fibres after 500
and 1 000 hours immersion in solution I In solution II, corrosion p r o
ducts were observed on the surface of the fibre, with the presence of a
precipitation of lime which could provide additional protection. After
1 000 hours immersion in the latter solution, corrosion was observed to
worsen. A spongy film of oxides was seen to form. The attack was less
deep than in the case of the milled fibres, but rather a corrosion in the
direction of the length of the fibre. The depth of attack was 10 to 15
microns. After 3 000 hours immersion in solution I, a surface
colouration could be seen on the fibre and, patches of rust appeared on
the fibres kept in solution II.
Galvanized wire fibre (Dramix)
A white precipitation (zinc hydroxide) formed on the galvanized fibres

after 500 and 1 000 hours immersion. There was no trace of rust.
There was still no trace of rust after 3 000 hours. There was a very
localized change of colour of fibres kept in solution II.
580
Photo 5
Results after 3.000 hours
Conclusion
The milled fibres are more sensitive to selective corrosion on their

rough surface.
Even after 3 000 hours, incipient corrosion was only very local.
Examination of the fibres showed a precipitation of lime from the c o n
crete where solutions halt the progress of the corrosion. The slow p r o
gress of the corosion of fibres visible at the surface of the concrete
necessitated corrosion tests during exposure periods in excess of 4 000
hours.
Behaviour of samples of 10 years of age
As a general rule, one could see two times less surface corrosion in the
case of the galvanized fibres than for the untreated wire. Likewise at
crack level, both fibre types showed rust spots, but these were more
marked in the case of the untreated wire.
An examination under a binocular showed a tendency to selective c o rr o

sion. At the corroded part, the depth of corrosion reached 100 microns
(one-fifth of the diameter of the fibre).
With the galvanized fibres, it was noted that the zinc layer was partial
ly dissolved. Corrosion penetration was 20 microns. The corrosion p r o
cess progressed in the normal way; in certain cases, the alloy layer was
dissolved and the iron had been attacked.
In conclusion, after ten years ageing by external exposure, the 0.8 mm

diameter fibres protected by concrete were not corroded. Maximum co rr o
sion depth was 100 microns for non-galvanized and 50 microns for
galvanized fibres.
581
General conclusion
Forecasting the long-term behaviour of a new material type, such as steel

fibre reinforced concrete, runs up against the duration of tests
conducted under normal exposure conditions.
The attacks of a chemical nature allowed for and justified by the
experiments held in the "Laboratoire des Betons et des Revetements du
Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique" (The Atomic Energy Commission's
Concrete and Coatings Laboratory, France) have enabled the acceleration
of the kinetics by increasing the concentrations of the reagents involved
without thereby changing the fundamental mechanisms.
The physical phenomena simulated by initiating cracks in the order of 1
mm in width by means of a flexural load enabled the speeding up of the
corrosion of fibres already passivated by the lime in the cement.
Microscopic examination produced the following findings :

- There was little corrosion of samples immersed in corrosive solutions.
- The saline fog tests were more severe.
After 3 000 hours, the fibres in the concrete remained well protected
and did not show signs of corrosion. The fibres situated in the cracks
were corroded. Corrosion spread in the direction of the machining :
for the milled fibres, this was the planing direction, entailing a
rapid loss of fibre section; for drawn fibres, corrosion remained
su pe rf ic ia l.
- The zinc layer on the fibres obtained from galvanized wire
provided additional protection. The corroded layer was only half as
deep as that found on other fibre types.
Observations made regarding concrete reinforced with 10-year old fibre

revealed only superficial corrosion of the fibres.
The good behaviour of these new concrete types in the presence of

corrosives may be explained with reference to the following :
- The fibres are passivated and protected by the lime freed by
the hydration of the silicates.
- The concrete is not cracked, while the fibres ensure the helical
reinforcement of the concrete matrix, including the concrete skin.
(Maintenance of this property over time depends on the geometry of the
fibre).
- Total corrosion of the fibre does not cause the concrete to scale off.
- The increase in the cement dose, the presence of appropriate
additives, the weak W/C ratios in producing the matrix, are further
factors best suited for upgrading compactness.
References
(1) PJM MONTEIRO, DE GJORN

"Microstructure of the steel-cement paste interface in the presence of
chloride". Cement and Research, vol. 15, pp 781 - 784, 1985.
(2) D.J. Hamart and J. Edgington

"Durability of steel fiber reinforced concrete" RILEM symposium on
Fiber Reinforced Cement Concrete, September 1975 (Construction Press
Lancaster, vol. 1, pp 159 - 169).
582
ESTIMATION OF FROST RESISTANCE OF FIBER

REINFORCED CONCRETE
LAI SERGIO
Engineer, Dept, of Structural Engineering
Piazza D'Armi, 09100 Cagliari, Italy
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of a serie of laboratory

studies conducted to determine the freezing-and-thawing
resistance of fibre reinforced concrete with polypropylene
fibres containing micronized silica.The tests were conducted
in accordance with ASTM C 666 procedure A modificate and UNI
Standard 7087-72. Particular attention has been focussed on
the prediction of freeze-thaw resistance on the basis of
tests of short duration.
INTRODUCTION
Superplasticizers or high-range water-reducing admixtures,

are relatively new developments in the field of concrete
technology. They have been in use in Japan since the late
I960' s and in Europe since 197 2. Many reports have been
published on various properties of superplasticizer admixed
concretes. Freezing-and-thawing resistance of concrete
containing superplasticizers has not been clarified
sufficiently. A few reports have been published on this
problem (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5), but further fundamental data is
needed. There is a lack of published data on the freeze-thaw
583
behavior of fiber reinforced concretes and in particular on

those containing micronized silica (6 and 7). For this reason
experiments were conducted using the UNI Standard 7087-72 and
modified ASTM C 666 procedure A tests. This modification was
introduced to enable strength predictions on the basis of
rapid tests. In (6) and (7) two types of tests were performed
on mortars and concretes admixed with micronized silica and
polypropylene fibers. The first, the slow test (overall
duration of each cycle 12 hours), did not appear suitable for
long term predictions whereas the rapid type (overall
duration of each cycle 4 hours) gave fairly satisfactory
results. In fact, in this case the results achieved after
only 30 freeze-thaw cycles were camparable with the results
obtained after 300 cycles following standard UNI test
(elastic-dynamic modulus losses of about 12 and 15 %
respectively). In the present investigation the attention has
thus been focussed on the rapid freeze-thaw tests.
CONCRETE MIXTURES
Materials
Portlan cement tipe 525 was used in the mixes. The fine
aggregate for concrete was crushed gravel. The superplastici
zer of the compound of naphthalene-sulphonate condensed with
formaldehyde was used in all the concretes. A commercial
silica-fume and polypropylene fibres (L= 19 m m . ) was used.
Mix proportion
Two mixes were made and the water/cement-silica ratios
employed were 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, 0.45 and 0.50 for all freeze-
thaw tests. The mix proportion are shown in table 1.
Preparation, casting and testing of specimens

The ingredients were mixed in the same order used for conven
tional concretes. The microsilica was premixed with the
cement and added to the mix. After laying (on three layers)
the concrete was pressed with a vibrating plate. Particular
584
care was taken to protect the specimens in the initial stage

by covering them with a plastic sheet to avoid rapid evapora
tion. Eight 100x100x400 mm. prism and eight 100 mm. cubes
were cast from each mix. After casting, the molded specimens
were covered with a plastic sheet and left in the casting
room at 20 C for 24 hours. After demolding they were cured
in 20 C water for 14 days ( ASTM C 666 procedure A ); for
UNI Standard test they were cured in 20 C climatic room for
45 days and 20 C water for another 15 days.
A total of 160 specimens were tested.
TABLE 1
Mix proportion
W/(C SF) Slump W C S G SF superpl.

.30-.35 300
.40-.45 10 cm. vari a b . 700 998 0-80 variab.
.50 400
Unit Weight of W, C, S, G and SF * kg/cu m );
TEST METHODS
Uni 7087-72
The freeze-thaw cycle consist of:
lowering the temperature of the specimens in air from 5 to
-25 C; keeping temperature at -25 C; elevating the tempera
ture to 5 C with the specimens in water; keeping the tempera
ture at 5 C.
The elastic modulus, length and mass of specimens are
measured periodically. The test continues for 300 cycles; it
can be stopped when the conglomerate undergoes either a reduc
tion in dynamic elastic modulus of 60 %, an expansion of 0.2
0.3 % or else a mass loss of more than 3 % .
585
ASTM C 666, procedure A modificates

This test method covers the determination of the resistance
of concrete specimens when subjected to rapidly repeated
cycles of freezing and thawing in water. A freezing-and-thaw
ing cycle consist of alternately lowering the temperature of
the specimens from 5 C to -18 C (3 hours) and raising it
from -18 C to 5 C (1 hours). The modification consist in
considering temperatures varying between 5 C and -20 C
with different gradients in accordance with figure 1 in (7).
The relative moduli of elasticity of the test specimens, in
thawed condition, are determined.
Results of the freeze-thaw test in accordance with UNI

Standard and ASTM C 666 procedure A modificated on
rectangular specimens are shown in the figures 1-7.
Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 show in general that after 30 cycles
with the UNI Standard test, not only is there no decline in
elastic-dynamic modulus but there is even a slight improveme
nt. After 300 cycles the reduction in elastic modulus
fluctuates between 22 and 44 % (plain concrete) and between
14 and 28 % (conglomerates modified with microsilica and poly
propylene fibers). Figs. 5 and 6 indicate a drop of about
5 % (M C 3 0 B ) , 6 % (M C 3 0 A ) , 8 % (M C 5 0 B ) and 10 % (M C 5 0 A )
after 30 cycles.
The plain concrete controls obviously exhibit a more
pronounced reduction.
The concretes containing microsilica andpolypropylene
fibers exhibited a comparable decline in compressive strength
and elastic-dynamic modulus with the UNI Standard test and
that proposed here (14-28 % against 5-10 % , with a ratio of
3/1) .
586
TABLE 2
Mix designations
Mix W/C or S.F. Fibres Cement

Designation W/C SF 80 kg/cu m 1 kg/cu m kg/cu m
NC30A 0. 30 - - 300
NC35A 0. 35 - - 300
NC40A 0. 40 - - 300
NC45A 0. 45 - - 300
NC50A 0. 50 - - 300
NC30B 0. 30 - - 400
MC30A 0. 30 yes yes 300

MC35A 0. 35 " ” 300
•• •I
MC50B 0. 50 400
NC=Plain cone rete ; MCS=Modified concre t e .
E (N /m m ^ x lO ^ )
50 100 150 200 250 300 F-T Cycles
Figure 1. Result of freeze-thaw test for plain concrete with

C = 300 kg/cu m, effect of W/C.
587
E (N/irm^ x 102)
•h 46
o
X) 42
52
^ 38
w
w 34
2
3 30
S 26
)- NC30B
q 22 A NC40B
I NC50B
18 -
I 1- - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - 1- - - - - -
50 100 150 200 250 300 F-T Cycles
Figure 2. result of freeze-thaw test for plane concrete with

C = 400 kg/cu m, effect of W/C.
Figure 3. Result of freeze-thaw test for modified concrete

with C=300 kg/cu m, effect of W/C SF ratio.
588
50 100 150 200 250 300 F-T Cycles
Figure 4. Result of freeze-thaw test for modified concrete

with 0 4 0 0 kg/cu m, effect of W/C SF ratio.
5 10 20 30 F-T Cycles
Figure 5. Result of rapid freeze-thaw test (W/C SF= 0.30).

589
Figure 6. Result of rapid freeze-thaw test (W/C SF = 0.50).
Relative Dynamic Modulus (%)
Figure 7. The correlation between dynamic modulus and surface

strength.
590
CONCLUSIONS
Test result are summarized as follows:

-concretes containing micronized silica were observed to
perform better in freeze-thaw cycles;
-with rapid freeze-thaw cycles the reduction in dynamic
elastic modulus is 5 % and 8-9 % for the conglomerate with
W / (C - S F ) of 0.30 and 0.50 respectively, while the reduction
for the UNI test is 14-23 % ;
-the method for predicting freeze-thaw behavior of conglomera
tes proposed here, which is based on rapid test, can be con
sidered fairly valid and reliable.
Statistical processing is currently under way to better defi
ne the correlation between the different parameters involved
(W/C SF ratio, proportion of cement, decline in compressive
strength, e t c .).
REFERENCES
(1) TOKUMITSU, Z., KOBAYASHI, K., WATANABE, A. and KONDO, T.,

'Use of High-Range Water-Reducing Agents', Journal of the
Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Annual, 1980, pp.44-51.
(2) ROBERTS, L.R. and SCHEINER, P., 'Air Void System and
Frost Resistance of Concrete Containing Superplasti
cizer', ACI Special Publication SP 6 8 , 1981, p p.189-213.
(3) HALHOTRA, V.M., 'Mechanical Properties and Durability of

Superplasticized Semi-Lightweight Concrete', ACI Special
Publication SP 6 8 , 1981, pp.283-305.
(4) KOBAYASHI, M. , NA KAKURO, E., KODAMA, K. and NEGAMI, S.,

'Frost Resistance of Super-Plasticized Concrete', ACI
Special Publication SP 6 8 , 1981, pp.269-282.
591
(5) OKADA, E., HISAKA, Y. and HATTORI, K . , 'Freeze-Thaw Resi

stance of Super-plasticized Concretes', ACI Special
Publication SP 6JB, 1981, pp. 215-231.
(6) LAI, S., 'Sulla messa a punto di un conglomerato fibroso

con microsilicas resistenza ai cicli di gelo e disgelo',
Giornate AICAP 89, Napoli, Italy, Hay 4-6, 1989.
(7) LAI, S., 'Estimation of Frost Resistance of F.R.C. conta

ining Microsilica', IABSE Symposium, Lisbon, Portugal,
September, 1989.
(8) YAMOTO, T., EMOTO, Y. and SOEDA, M . , 'Strength and Freez-

ing-and-Thawing Resistance of Concrete Incorporating Con
densed Silica Fume', P r o c . 2nd Int. Conference on Fly-Ash
Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete,
Madrid, Spain, SP 91-54, 1986, p p .1095-1118.
(9) SUGAWARA, T., SHOYA, M. and SUGITA, S., 'Effect of Freezi

ng and Thawing action on Surface Strength of Concrete',
Proc. o_f the 4th Int. Conference on Durability of Build-
in_9 Materials & Comp onents, Singapore, Nov. 4-6, 1987.
592
C R A C K IN G A N D M O IS T U R E P E N E T R A T IO N IN F IB R E C E M E N T S H E E T IN G
J G KEER, G XU+ R FILIP

C on stru ction M aterials R esearch Group
C iv il E n g in ee rin g D epartm en t
U n iv e r sity o f Surrey
UK
+ V isitin g F e llo w from C hongqing Institute o f A rchitecture and

E n g in e e r in g , C h in a,
SU M M A R Y
C rack ed and un crack ed p o ly p r o p y le n e -r e in fo r c e d cem en t sp e c im e n s have

been p laced w ith one surface in contact w ith water and m oisture penetration
a ssesse d . W ater penetrated very rapidly through fin e cracks in the untreated
norm al sam p les and in sam p les incorporating a w aterproofing add itive. A
sila n e treatm ent ap p lied p re-crack in g w as e ffe c tiv e in p reven tin g m oistu re
p en etration through very fin e cracks, but this e ffe c tiv e n e ss reduced as crack
w id th s in creased . T he sila n e treatm ent applied p ost-crack in g p reven ted
m oisture penetration through all the crack w idths studied. Cracked sam p les o f
the norm al fibre cem ent were stored in a curing room to prom ote autogenous
h ea lin g o f cracks and re-tested. G enerally, cracks had partially healed and
m o istu r e p en etration w a s retarded.
A num ber o f fibre cem ent m aterials have been develop ed as alternatives to
asb estos-cem en t for use as roofin g and cladding sh eets. The behaviour o f the
altern ative m aterials can d iffe r from asb esto s-cem en t in that m u ltip le
cracking o f the matrix may occur before the ultim ate load is reached ( 1).
W ith a sb esto s-c em e n t, m u ltip le cracking is barely detectab le before failu re at
lo w strains or d e flec tio n s, so serviceab ility criteria were not critical. S h eetin g
can be d esigned so that loads in service due to wind or snow should not cause
cracking o f the m atrix. H ow ever less w ell -defined loads or stresses, due to
in stalm en t, fix in g or restrained m oisture m ovem en t, for exam p le, may cause
local cracking. W h ile such cracks m ay be very narrow and heal autogenou sly
with tim e, early penetration o f m oisture to the underside o f sh eets can be
v is u a lly d istu rb in g and u n sa tisfa c to ry .
An alternative fibre cem ent w hich has recently been m arketed as a sh eet
m aterial is rein forced by layers o f netw orks o f fibrillated p olyp rop ylen e film
(2, 3). The paper reports a test program me w hich has com m enced to
in v e stig a te the d egree o f any m oisture penetration through sh eetin g and to
a ss e s s m eth od s o f p reven tin g penetration .
593
CRACKING IN FIBRE CEMENTS
The te n sile stress - strain curve o f the p olyp rop ylen e fib re-rein forced cem ent
under d isc u ssio n con form s w e ll to the th eoretical relation sh ip describ ed by
A v esto n et al (F ig. 1), for a brittle matrix reinforced by aligned, linear elastic
fibres (4). In region OA the matrix is uncracked. T ypically cracking occurs at
a m atrix failure strain, E m u ’ o f 300 x 10"^. In region A B , m ultiple cracking o f
the matrix occurs. In S ection BC, the fibre only is being stretched as it slips
through the m atrix, before failure due to fibre fracture at C. One point to note
is that, th eo retica lly , at constan t stress during A B , crack w idths remain
constan t; the in crea sin g strain arises from the form ation o f further cracks,
not the e x ten sio n o f e x istin g cracks. An unloading curve during the m ultiple
cracking phase is show n (D E ). T heoretically the residual strain at zero load is
about 40% o f the strain from w hich unloading com m enced (5).
Figure 1. Theoretical stress - strain curve in tension
T he se ries o f ap p roxim ately parallel cracks form ed during the m u ltip le

cracking phase are spaced betw een x' and 2 x \ given by:
^f _ . £m u Vm Af
* vf pf (l )
T he m axim um crack w idth, w, during m u ltip le cracking correspon ding to the

sp acing o f 2 x ’ is given by:
w = Emu (1 + a ) x \ (2)
w here E is the elastic m odulus, £ the strain, V the volum e fraction, T the bond
strength, A the fibre c ro ss-se ctio n a l area, P the fibre perim eter; subscripts m,
f and u refer to m atrix, fibre and ultim ate respectively, and a = E m V m / E f V f .
594
In d e v e lo p in g the p o ly p ro p y le n e -re in fo r ce d cem en t, e ffo r ts have b een m ade

to m in im ise crack sp acin g, h ence crack w idth, by im provin g the bond
strength x b etw een fibre and matrix ( 6), increasing the P f / A f ratio and the
fibre m odu lu s E f or having as high a volum e o f fibres present con sisten t with
an e con om ic m aterial. T yp ically crack sp acings o f 5mm or less are achieved,
w ith correspon ding crack w idths under load from equation ( 2 ) o f about
0.05m m (Em = 30 GPa, V f = 0.06, E f = 15 GPa). At zero load, residual crack widths
m ight be 0 .0 2 - 0.03m m . W hile such cracks are very fine and d ifficu lt to see,
ev id en ce from load tests on corrugated sh eets has show n that m oisture can be
drawn through th ese fin e cracks by capillary action from a w et top surface.
The cracks are h igh ligh ted by the form ation o f damp areas on the underside,
although no drops o f water form.
The cracking behaviou r in direct ten sion is relevant to the problem in

corrugated sh eetin g in flexu re sin ce the bottom trough o f the corrugation is
e f fe c t iv e ly in te n sio n .
T E ST P R O G R A M M E
The test program m e so far has concentrated upon the observation o f m oisture
p en etration through cracked and uncracked laboratory m ade sp ec im en s.
S p ecim en s w ere approxim ately 300m m long by 25m m w ide by 5mm thick s t r i p s .
T hree m ain typ es of sp ecim en s have been investigated :
a) ’norm al' p o ly p r o p y le n e -r e in fo r c e d cem ent w ith a m atrix co m p o sitio n as

in T able 1. T h ese are referred to as control specim ens in the Figures.
b ) as a) but for a w aterproofing additive incorporated into the m atrix. The

ad d itive con tain s am m onium stearate and a disp ersion o f fin e asphaltic
particles. The m atrix com position is show n in Table 1,
c) as a) plus treatm ent p r io r to cracking with tw o applications o f a

m on om eric alkyl alk oxy silan e.
In add ition the sp ecim en s in c) w ere re-tested fo llo w in g further silan e

a p p lic a tio n a fte r cracking. Som e work is also reported on the effect o f
a u togen ou s h e a lin g on type a) sp ecim en s.
TABLE 1
M a t r ix m ix p r o p o r t io n s
NORM AL W A T E R P R O O F E D M IX
C em ent 1.00 1.00

W a te r 0.34 0 .3 2
P u lv er ise d fu el ash 0.25 0 .2 5
S ilic a sand (1 5 0 -3 0 0 |I m ) 0.19 0 .1 9
S u p e r p la s tic iz e r 0.02 0 .0 1 3
W a te r p r o o fin g a d d itiv e — 0 .0 2 7
595
S p e c im e n M anufacture
Flat sh eets about 600m m square w ere m ade in the laboratory by a technique in
w h ich the m atrix is w orked into the polyp rop ylen e netw orks by hand.
C om m ercial packs o f netw orks w ere used , w h ich com bine lon gitu d in al and
lateral fibres. The netw orks are availab le under the trade-nam e R etiflex (a
registered trade nam e o f M oplefan SpA ). Fibre volu m e fractions in the
lon gitu d in al direction ranged b etw een 3.0 and 4.7% . A fter m anufacture, the
sh eets w ere kept under polyth en e for 1 day before b ein g stored under water
at 2 0 ° C for a further 27 days. Sheets to be treated were placed in laboratory air
for 4 days, treated, stored for a further 4 days, cut into strips, then left in
laboratory air for a further 2 days before testing. Untreated sh eets were
stored for 8 days, cut, then stored for a further 2 days in laboratory air.
Test P ro ced ure
15 strip sp ecim en s were cut from each type o f sheet a) - c) above. O f these:
(i) 3 w ere tested in tension to failure;

( ii) 3 were strained in tension to 0.5% and unloaded;
( iii) 3 were strained in tension to 1.0% and unloaded;
(iv ) 3 were strained in tension to 2.5% and unloaded;
(v ) 3 w ere left uncracked.
S p ecim en s w ere loaded in an Instron 1122 m achine. Figure 2 sh ow s a typical

te n sile stress - strain curve to failure for a type a) normal specim en .
Su perim posed on this (in dashed lin es) are typical un loading curves from 0 .5 ,
1.0 and 2.5% . Corresponding residual strains are zero load were about 0.2 , 0.4
and 1.0% resp ectively. The average crack width at zero load can be estim ated
by d iv id in g the residual exten sion o f a sp ecim en by the number o f cracks in
the sp ecim en . T ypical residual crack widths for unloading strains o f 0 .5 , 1.0
and 2.5% were 0.02 - 0.03, 0.03 - 0.04 and 0.05 - 0.06m m respectively.
Figure 2. Typical tensile stress - strain curve.

596
A fter crack in g, the sp ecim en s w ere w eigh ed (Wi) and carefully placed on a
saturated sp onge w h ich had itse lf been placed in a tray o f water, so that the
free water surface w as lev e l w ith the sp onge surface. Treated surfaces w ere
placed in contact w ith the sponge. O f practical importance is the tim e o f
appearance o f w ater on the top surface o f the sp ecim en s caused by capillary
absorption o f w ater up cracks. In addition, the sp ecim en s w ere w eigh ed at
intervals over a period o f 96 hours (W2 , W 3 , etc) as a m easure o f the ease o f
penetration o f the water into the matrix via the cracked surfaces. At the end
o f the period on the sp on ge, the sp ecim en s w ere dried in an air-circulating
oven at 1 0 0 °C for 24 hours and re-w eighed (Wo). The initial m oisture content,
M 1 , w as determ ined from:
Mi = 100 (Wi -Wo)/Wo
and su b seq u en t m oistu re con ten ts from:
M2 = 100 (W2 - W0)/W0 etc.
T he w ater absorption referred to in subsequent figures and tables is calculated

as the increase in m oisture content i.e. (M 2 - M i) , (M 3 - M i) etc, due to
con tact w ith the saturated sp on ge.
T he sp ecim en s w h ich w ere retreated w ith silane w ere left in laboratory air for
4 days, treated w ith tw o further applications o f silane, then stored for 4
further d ays b efo re b ein g retested.
RESULTS
V isu a l O b se r v a tio n s
U ncracked sp ecim en s: no m oisture could be seen to have penetrated to the top

su rfa c e.
C racked norm al fibre cem en t sp ecim en s and fibre cem ent plu s w aterp roofing
ad d itive sp ecim en s: m oisture reached the top surface via cracks alm ost
im m ed iately after the sp ecim en s w ere placed on the sp onge.
C racked sila n e treated sp ecim en s: for the sp ecim en s treated prior to cracking,
rapid m oisture penetration to the top surface occurred in the sp ecim en s pre
strained to 2.5% and in one sp ecim en pre-strained to 1.0%.
For sp ecim en s re-treated w ith silan e after cracking, no m oisture w as observed

on the top surface for any o f the sp ecim en s.
W ater ab so rp tio n
T able 2 g iv es the water absorptions at 1 hour and 96 hours. Initial m oisture

c o n te n ts (M i ) are also tabulated. F igs 3(a)-(d) show the water absorptions for
the uncracked sp ecim en s and for the sp ecim en s cracked to 0 .5 , 1.0 and 2.5% ,
for the first six hours o f contact with the saturated sponge. The values are
g e n era lly the average o f three sp ecim en s.
O ne point w hich has to be noted in considering the results is that the initial
m oisture content is different for the sp ecim en types, and also differs, for a
g iv en sp ecim en typ e, b etw een sets o f sp ecim en s uncracked or pre-cracked to
d ifferent lev e ls. T h ese variations, h ow ever, do not affect the broad
c o n c lu sio n s w h ich can be drawn from the results.
597
control
stearate additive
c -
o
silane—coating
o
cr> silane—coating
D 2
reapplied
<D
-4—'
o 1
* *
.— — Ft------ — -------- ©
-O-
=A=
2 3
Time (Hr.)
(a) Uncracked specimens
(b) Specimens pre-cracked to 0 .5 % strain
ucr
' absorptions over first six hours
contact with sponge.
598
(c) Specimens pre-cracked to 1.0% strain
_ . control
(d) Specimens pre-cracked to 2 .5 % strain — ©—
stearate additive
— *- -
silane—coating
silane— coating
reapplied post-
Figure 3. (cont'd). Water absorptions over cracking
first six hours contact with sponge.
599
T able 2 and the F igures confirm the v isu al observation that the w aterproofing
a d d itiv e has b een in e ffe c tiv e in p reven tin g m oisture penetration into
uncracked or cracked sheet. T his is not surprising, perhaps, bearing in m ind
that w e are trying to im prove an already dense matrix and that the d osage
le v e l o f the ad d itive, w h ile conform in g to the suppliers recom m endations, is
perhaps lo w for such a cem ent-rich matrix as used here. The silane treatment
applied pre-cracking is e ffe c tiv e up to pre-strains o f 1.0%. At 1 hour the
water absorptions o f the 0.5 and 1.0% sp ecim en s are sim ilar to that o f
u n crack ed , untreated sp ec im en s, su g g estin g that m oisture is h avin g d iffic u lty
p en etratin g crack s. A p paren tly the sila n e pre-treatm ent can n ot preven t
m oistu re b e in g drawn into the w ider residual cracks w idth s (greater than
about 0.05m m ) associated w ith a pre-strain o f 2.5% . The absorption results
confirm the visu al observations. The application o f silan e to the sp ecim en s
already cracked is e ffe c tiv e in p reven tin g m oisture penetratin g the sp ecim en .
The very lo w valu es at 1 hour and in the Figures (and the low er final values at
96 hours) are b ecau se the application o f the treatm ent to the individual strips,
rather than the in itial treatm ent o f the sh eet, has resulted in the sp ecim en
sid es b ein g w aterproofed. W ater penetration into the body o f the sp ecim en by
this route (w h ich happened to som e exten t w ith the sp ecim en s treated pre
cracking) is therefore retarded. N o n eth eless, it can be conclu ded that
p enetration via the cracks has also been greatly retarded, to the exten t that no
m oistu re v isib ly reached the top surface.
At 96 hours, absorptions are sim ilar for specim en types a) b) and c). By
"blocking" cracks, the silan e treatm ent has altered the rate o f absorption. For
a) and b) the absorption at 1 hour is 60-70% o f the absorption at 96 hours. For
sp ecim en s c) pre-cracked to 0.5 or 1.0%, the equivalent value is about 15%.
H e a lin g of cracks
Earlier work (7 ) has sh ow n that cracks in p olyp rop ylen e - reinforced cem ent
can heal w ith tim e, and that som e o f the strength and stiffn ess o f the
uncracked m atrix is regained. T he se lf-h e a lin g is generally attributed to the
hydration o f p rev io u sly unhydrated cem ent grains and m ay be aided by
carbonation ( 8). H ealin g o f cracks in corrugated sh eetin g has also been
reported (3 ). S p ecim en s o f 'normal' p olyp rop ylen e - reinforced cem ent w ere
m anufactured as describ ed above, cracked to 2.5% strain and the water
absorption a ssessed . The sp ecim en s w ere then returned to the curing room for
4 w eek s, allow ed to dry in laboratory air for the sam e period as in the initial
test and re-tested .
F ig 4 com pares the absorptions o f the cracked sp ecim en s in the initial test
w ith th ose o f the cracked sp ecim en s after further curing. The results for the
uncracked sp ecim en s are also show n. W ater appeared alm ost im m ed iately on
the top su rface o f the cracked n on -healed sp ecim en s, w hereas for the healed
sp ec im en s, on e m inute elap sed before e v id en ce o f m oisture penetration w as
seen on the top surface. The w ater absorptions o f the healed cracked
sp ecim en s in F ig .4 are m uch sm aller than the initial test valu es, and approach
the perform ance o f the uncracked sp ecim en s in the in itial test.
600
Time (Hr.)
Figure 4. Water absorptions - effect of autogenous healing.
C O N C L U S IO N S
1. M oisture w ill penetrate very rapidly through cracks in a fibre cem ent and
be v isib le on the op p osite surface, even though the cracks are very fine
and barely v isib le w hen dry.
2. A w aterp roofing additive in the matrix w as not e ffe c tiv e in preventing

m o istu r e p e n e tr a tio n .
3. A sila n e treatm ent applied pre-cracking can be e ffe c tiv e for very fin e
cracks, but m oisture penetration can occu r as crack w idth s increase above
about 0 .05m m .
4. A sila n e treatm ent applied p ost-crack in g is e ffe c tiv e in preven tin g

m o istu r e p en etra tio n through fin e cracks.
5. Cracks heal au togen ou sly with tim e and this may prevent further v isib le
e v id e n c e o f m oistu re p enetration .
REFERENCES
1. K eer J G 'Perform ance o f N on -asb estos fibre cem ent sheeting', M aterial
P rop erties and A p p lica tio n s-F ib r e rein forced con crete and ferrocem en t,
Amer. Cone. Inst. 1989 Annual C onvention, Atlanta, G eorgia., Feb. 1989, to be
p u b lis h e d .
2. Hannant D J and Z onsveld J J 'P olyolefin fibrous networks in cem ent

m atrices for lo w co st sheeting' P h ilo so p h ica l T ransactions o f the R oyal
S o c ie t y . London, A 294, 1980, pp 83-88.
601
3. K eer J G and T h om e A M 'Performance o f polypropylene reinforced

cem ent corrugated sheeting'. C o m p o s it e s . 16, No. 1, Jan 1985, pp 28-32.
4. A veston J, Cooper G A and K elly A .'S in gle and m ultiple fracture.' Paper 2, The
properties o f fibre com p osites. Nat. P hysical Lab. 1971, pp 15-24.
5. K eer J G 'B ehaviour o f cracked fibre com posites under lim ited c y clic
lo a d in g ’. Int J. o f Cem ent C om posites and L ightw eight Structures. 3, N o 3,
A ug 1981, pp. 179-186.
6 . H ughes D C 'Stress transfer betw een fibrillated polyp rop ylene film s and
cem ent m atrices', C o m p o s ite s . 15, N o .2, April 1984, pp 153-158.
7. Hannant D J and K eer J G 'A utogenous healing o f thin cem ent based sheets'.
C em ent and C oncrete R esearch . 13, 1983, pp. 357-365
8 . Taylor W H C oncrete T ech n ology and P ractice 4th ed. p. 561 M cG raw-Hill,
1977.
TABLE 2
Water A bsorptions at 1 and 96 hours.
1 hr results
W ater ;absorptio n %
Initial
S p ec im en T yp e M oisture Un- Pre-crac ked to a strain o f
C ontent* C r a ck ed 0.5% 1.0 % 2.5%
%
a) Normal 12.4 0.44+ 1.56 2 .5 3 2.86
b) W ith w aterp roofing

additive 11.2 0.5 5 2.31 3 .0 8 3 .7 7
c) S ilane treatment
pre-cracking 10.3 0.23+ 0 .5 9 0.47+ 2.46+
d) Silane treatment
post-cracking - 0.01 -0.03 0 .0 4 0 .0 7
96 hr results
a) Normal 2.88 2 .6 0 3 .8 0 4 .0 1
b) W ith w aterproofing
additive 3 .5 4 3.71 4 .3 9 5 .2 2
c) Silane treatment
pre-cracking 2.81 3.23 3 .5 8 4 .2 2
d) Silane treatment
post-cracking 2.11 1.76 2.21 2 .7 0
+ average o f tw o sp ecim ens

* average o f all tw elv e sp ecim en s
602
EFFECT OF THERMAL INCOMPATABILITY ON FIBER-REINFORCED

LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE
by
Alfarabi Sharif, M.H.Baluch and Islam Basunbul
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
KFUPM Box 782, Dhahran 31261
Saudi Arabia.
Abstract
This paper presents the effect of thermal cycling on Latex Modified

Concrete (LMC) and Polypropelene Fiber Reinforced Latex Modified Concrete
(FLMC). The influence of the thermal incompatability of the concrete
components (TICC) is obtained by studying the variation in compressive strength,
tensile splitting strength, flexural strength and permeability. The cycling itself
consists of heating the specimen up to 80°C for six hours, followed by cooling
to room temperature of approximately 27 C over a period of another six hours.
Specimens are subjected to zero, thirty, seventy, one hundred and ten and one
hundred and sixty cycles. T w o types of limestone aggregates are incorporated
in this study which are Dhahran and Abu Hadriah aggregates. The fiber content
is kept constant considering the manufacturer recommended percentage (1 . 8
kg/m ).
The result of this work has indicated the beneficial effects of latex in
resisting the deterioration caused by TICC. However, the addition of fiber has
slightly increased the strength reduction rate and permeability.
Introduction
In the Arabian Gulf area concrete durability has recently been a problem
where numerous concrete structures appear to deteriorate at an extraordinary
rate. Such deterioration could be attributed to many factors one of which is
the severe environmental and climatic conditions (1). The climate in this region
is so severe that ambient temperature changes of 20-25°C and seasonal changes
of 40-50°C are normally exhibited. However for concrete exposed to direct sun
light, daily temperature changes upto 50°C and seasonal changes upto 70°C.
Such high temperature variations accompanied with large differences in
coefficient of thermal expansion of the concrete constituents cause high internal
stresses built up which lead to crack formation within the matrix (2). The
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the cement paste is 10-20 times that
of same lime stone aggregates (3). The problem of TICC using limestone
aggregates (4) has shown a reduction in concrete strength and an increase in
permeability due to the degredation of the concrete under this phenomena.
The use of latex with concrete made from limestone aggregate helps in
decreasing the water cement ratio, hence increasing strength, reduce
permeability and enhance workability (5). The addition of polypropylene fiber to
latex modified concrete overlay used as a protective system for bridge decks
has been recommended to reduce crazing, spalling and improved the skid
resistance (6 ). The use of latex modified concrete with or without fiber as a
603
protective overlay system in an environment similar to that of the Arabian Gulf

requires investigating the effect of TICC phenomena.
This paper presents the results of a laboratory test program in which the
effect of heating/cooling cycles in the temperature range of 27°C to 80°C on
the durability of latex modified concrete and fiber reinforced latex modified
concrete made from two limestone aggregates from the Eastern province of
Saudi Arabia has been studied. The durability was evaluated by determining
changes in compressive strength, tensile splitting strength, flexural strength and
permeability after different heating/cooling cycles.
Materials
Portland cement type I, fine aggregate from half moon beach, locally
manufactured polymer styrene-butadiene rubber latex whose basic properties are
listed in table (1 ) and polypropylene fabriMated fiber whose properties are drawn
in table (2). Coarse aggregates ma ximum size 12.5 m m selected from two
locations of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia - Dhahran & Abu Hadriyah
were used in this study. The physical and chemical characteristics of fine and
coarse aggregates are reported by Al-Tayyib et al. (7).
Table (1) Properties of Nitoband (SBR)
Total Specific PH at Viscosity

solids gravity 20 C at 2 0 °C
45.0 1 .0 2 10 40.0
Table (2) Properties of Polypropylene fibrillated fiber
Length Specific Ultimate Melting Tensile Young

( mm ) gravity elonga point strength Modulus
tion (%) (°C) (MPA) (GPA)
55 0.90 8 160 400 2.5
Preparation of Mixes
Four mixes were prepared using the following proportions, water cement
ratio (w/c) of 0.40, polymer cement ratio (P/C) of 0.10, sand aggregate ratio
3
(S/A) of 0.50 and cement content 416.0 kg/m . Dhahran aggregate was used in
mixes I and II while Abu Hadriah aggregate was used in mixes III and IV.
3
Polypropylene fiber content of 1.8 kg/m was added to mixes II and IV.
Mixing Procedure and Curing
A mixture of cement, sand and aggregate were mixed dry for 90 seconds
in a drum - type mixer. Latex was premixed with the water and added slowly
to the dry mix for an additional two minutes of mixing. Then fiber is added
604
slowly to the mix for an additional five minutes of mixing. All cast specimens
were immediately covered with polyethelenebags and moist cured for 2 days.
At the end of the second
day, specimen were demoulded and left for additional 7 days of dry curing
before thermal cycling started.
Strength Tests
Thirty cylindrical specimens 75 m m x 150 m m per mix were cast for
compressive and splitting - tensile strength and tested according to A S T M C39-
72 and A S T M C496-71, respectively. Fifteen prisms 50 m m x 100 m m x 540
mm per mix were cast for flexural strength and tested according to A S T M
C293-74. All specimen were tested after 90 days.
Permeability Test
Fifteen 200 m m cubes were cast for each mix and tested for water
proofness under different thermal cyclind according to the, German Industrial
Standards, DIN 1045, specifies a ma xi mu m penetration depth of 30 m m of
pressurized water for concrete design to resist aggressive environment.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Test
The coefficient of thermal expansion of both aggregates used in this study
had been reported by a previous companion study (4) The coefficient of thermal
expansion of latex modified mortar is determined following the experimental
technique presented by Venecanian (8 ). The latex modified mortar is prepared
using P/C of 0.1, w/c of 0.4 and cement-sand ratio = 0.3. Three 10 c m cube
specimen were cast and four demec gage discs were positioned on each of three
mutually perpendicular faces at a gage of 5 cm. Change in gage length was
recorded for 20°C temperature increments from 40°C to 100° C starting
initially at room temperature of 20°C.
Resulsts & Discussion
All strength results are listed in tables (3), (4) and (5) which are plotted
as the percent of increase or decrease of the noncycled specimens versus the
number of thermal cycles, figures (1) to (3). Generally for latex modified
concrete (LMC) and fiber reinforced latex modified concrete (FLMC) strength
increases then followed by a reduction of this increase at different rates. The
compressive strength have not shown such changes and the increase or reduction
are less than five percent of the noncycled specimens.
605
Table (3) Compressive strength (MPa)
No.of cycles
Mix No. 0 30 70 110 160
1 46.6 46.8 48.3 47.7 49.1

II 46.9 47.6 47.3 48.4 49.0
III 49.0 48.3 47.8 47.6 47.4
IV 47.4 47.4 46.6 46.4 45.8
Table (4) Tensile Splitting Strength (MPa)
No. of cycles
Mix No. 0 30 70 110 160
I 4.35 4.50 4.80 4.80 4.70

II 5.0 5.05 5.35 5.5 5.35
III 4.35 4.55 4.7 4.7 4.6
IV 4.4 4.50 4.85 4.7 4.55
Table (5) Flexural Strength (MPa)
No. of cycles
Mix No. 0 30 70 110 160
I 7.7 7.8 8.1 8.4 8.2

II 7.7 8.0 8.4 8.7 8.3
III 7.3 7.4 7.9 8.2 7.9
IV 7.4 7.5 8.0 8.1 7.7
H
F lkLNM
CO M F'F Jibk] Vf
Fig (la) Influence of latex and fiber on compressive strength pj_g (ib) influence of latex and fiber on conpressive strength
using Dhahran aggregate using Abu Hadriah aggregate
606
Fig (2a) Influence of latex and fiber on tensile splitting Fig (2b) Influence of latex and fiber on tensile splitting
strength using Dhahran aggregate. strength using Abu Hadrlah aggregate
Fig (3a) Influence of latex and fiber on flexural strength Fig (3b) Influence of latex and fiber on flexural strength
using Dhahran aggregate using Abu Hadriah aggregate.
The influence of latex and fiber are shown in figures (1 a,b), (2 a,b) and
(3 a,b) for compressive strength, tensile splitting strength and flexural strength,
respectively. The beneficial effects of latex in resisting the deterioration
caused by TICC is clearly shown as compared with the results of Al-Tayyib et
al (4) where normal concrete is made using same materials with the following
mix proportion w/c = 0.55, S/A = 0.5 and cement content = 400 kg/m . The
thermal cycling have same upper and lower temperatures but each cycle
duration was 48 hours, where 24 hours of heating and 24 hours of cooling was
considered. Such improvements could be attributed to the increase in ductility
provided by the latex to the cement paste. The effect of fiber addition to
latex is shown in figures (1)to (3) to slightly increase the rate of strength
reduction at high number of cycles.
607
The permeability is generally increasing for all concrete specimens as the

number of thermal cycles is increasing. Figures (4) and (5) represent the
influence of latex and fiber using Dhahran and Abu Hadriah aggregates
respectively. The beneficial effect of latex is ildistrated in reducing the
permeability as compared to normal concrete and fiber reinforced latex modified
concrete. The fiber addition to latex have negligible effect on permeability as
shown in figures (4) and (5).
Fig (4) Influence of latex and fiber on permeability using

Dhahran aggregate. Fig (5 ) Influence of latex and fiber on permeability using
Abu Hadriah aggregate
The beneficial effect of latex in reducing the concrete deterioration due

to TICC phenomena could be due to reduction of coefficient of thermal
expansion of the cement paste due to the addition of latex. The variation of
strains with temperature for latex modified mortar is shown in fig (6 ). Strain
readings were computed based on overaging all changes in length. In addition,
the coefficient of thermal expansion ( a ) quoted are an average over the
temperature range of 20°C - 100°C. The (a) value (9.52 x 10 '6 / m m / m m / o C) as
compared to (a) values reported by Al-Tayyib (4) for cement mortar using same
material without latex (10.2 x 10”6/°C for w/c = 0.70 and 11.2 x 1Cf6/°C for
w/c = 0.55) concludes that latex have slightly reduced the C T E value of the
cement paste. However, such a reduction cannot justify the improvement of
latex modified concrete to withstand the TICC phenomena. Such an improvment
could be in addition attributed to the increase in ductility provided by latex to
the cement paste. To illustrate such an increase in ductility, figure (7) shows
the tensile stress-strain diagrams for latex modified concrete and normal
concrete (9) which indicate the endurance of latex modified concrete to
withstand more deformation before developing any cracks leading to its
deterioration. The effect of aggregate type on strength and permeability have
608
shown negligible influence which demonstrate the beneficial effect of latex

addition in increasing the cement paste ductility to absorb the variation of C T E
between the aggregate and cement paste.
, /
/■
i) 5) IGU ISO 2Qj 250 3G0 £3

s t r a i n x IOrtrt-6
O 20 40 60 60 100 Fig (.7) Tensile stress r- strain diagram.

TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 6 STRAIN VS TEMPERATURE FOR LATEX M 00IFIE0 *
Conclusions
The strength and permeability results have shown the benefit of latex in
reducing the deterioration caused by TICC. However, the addition of
o
polyproplene fiber (1 . 8 kg/m ) has shown a slight increase in both the rate of
strength reduction and permeability.
References
1- Rasheeduzzafar, F.H.Dakhil and A.S. Al-Gahtani, "Deterioration of

Concrete Structures in the Environment of the Middle East", ACI Journal,
p-13, Jan. 1984.
2- S.D.Venecarin, "Influence of Temperature on the Deterioration of Concrete
in the Middle East", Concrete, London, Vol II, No.8 , p-31, August 1977.
3- Venecanin, S.D., "Influence of Thermal Incompatability of Concrete
Components on its Durability", The Arabian Journal of Science and
Engineering, Vol.11, No.2, 1986.
4- A.J.AI Tayyib, M.H.Baluch, Alfarabi Sharif and M.M.Mohammed, "The
Effect of Thermal Cycling on the Durability of Concrete made from local
Materials in the Arabian Gulf Countries", Cement and Concrete Research,
June 1988.
Alfarabi Sharif, M.H. Baluch and Khalid Khan, "Development of latex
modified concrete in Saudi Arabia - Material Aspect." Paper accepted
for publication in the Arabian Journal of Science and Engineering.
6- "Durability of Concrete Bridge Decks", National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Synthesis of Highway Practice 57, May 1979,
Washington, D.C.
7- Al-Tayyib, A.J., Abbasi, A.F., Azad, A.K., Baluch, M.H., Tawfik M.F.,
Mirza, W.H., Jang, S.D., Jung, H. J., and Kim, Y.H., "Development of
Building and Construction Materials Using Available Resources in Saudi
Arabia", Fifth Progress Report, April 1984.
609
8- Venecanin, S.D., "Experimental Study of Thermal Incompatability of

Concrete Components", Third International Conference on the Durability
of Building Materials and Components, Proc. Vol. Ill, pp. 510-520, 1984,
Helsinki.
9- Iqbal, K. K., "Latex Modified Concrete as a Bridge Deck Overlay". M.Sc
Thesis, Civil Engineering Dept., King Fahd University of Petroleum &
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia (1988).
610
RESTORATION OF CONCRETE FLOORS WITH STEEL-FIBRE CONCRETE FOR

AIRCRAFT AT FRANKFURT AIRPORT - WEST GERMANY
MARIAN GRONDZIEL
VICE PRESIDENT
VULKAN HAREX Stahlfasertechnik
Heerstr. 66, 4690 Herne 2, West-Germany
ABSTRACT
Tarmacs are exposed to extremely heavy loads. Reinforced concrete has been
used frequently in the design and construction of runways, taxiways and
other pavements. This is the case at the Frankfurt International Airport
too. The latest generation of airplanes, with respectively heavier tow
vehicles, exert wheel loads several times the magnitude that airplanes
used to give some decades ago. However, the original tarmax was never de
signed considering those conditions. Resulting damages were further com
pounded by freeze and thaw cycles. Nowadays, steel fibre reinforced con
crete is being used for the maintenance rehabilitation of all areas effec
ted. The experience gained with steel fibre reinforced concrete on test
areas at the Frankfurt International Airport has been of exceptional value
and benefit.
GENERAL
Proper placement of conventional reinforcing in concrete slab on grades

with varying thickness of 100 mm to 200 mm often poses difficulties. More
often, concrete cover is insufficient to eleviate corrosion of the rein
forcing mesh. The use of steel fibre reinforced concrete virtually elimi
nates these kinds of common construction problems. Steel fibres are added
and homogeneously mixed with the concrete aggregate. Steel fibres exposed
at or near the surface will in fact corrode. However, independent studies
(2), (3), (4), and (5) show that splitting forces due to voluminal changes
caused by steel corrosion are insufficient to split the cement paste sur
rounding the steel fibres. Henceforth, the concrete surface remains un
affected leaving no signs of spall offs. Rusty dots and spots which will
essentially develop do not disturb the overall appearance and astethics.
Steady traffic and a general housekeeping program ensures that these spots
and dots remain hardly noticable. According to research (2), (3), (4) and
(5) it is evident that steel fibres are effected by corrosion at or near
611
the surface to a depth of 2 mm only. At depthsgreater than 2 mm corrosion of

steel fibres is non-evident thus ensuring the functionality of the re
maining reinforcement. Steel fibres homogeneously disbursed with the
aggregate in concrete preform an integral part in the stress distribution.
Thereby, the steel fibres provide for a "bridge" type effect (6) due to
their unique behaviour under tensile stresses commonly not to be expected
from any other aggregate. Bending tensile strength, splitting tensile
strength and impact resistance are greatly increased. The development of
cracks in the concrete pavements is substantially reduced. Within the range
of elastic deformataion cracking is virtually eliminated.
SCENARIO
The reinforced concrete tarmac at the Frankfurt International Airport

failed to withstand the ever increasing traffic load. The latest design
of a 75 metric ton tandem axle tow vehicle exerts wheel loads of approxi
mately 18 metric tons with contact pressures of up to 4,5 MPa. The total
weight of a jumbo jet at take off is about 352 metric tons. Conclusively,
a McDonnel-Douglas DC 10 has been selected providing the governing design
criteria on account of the particular design of its under carriage. For a
given total load of 330 metric tons the wheel load is estimated at 32.5
metric tons with contact pressures of 2.0 MPa.
Figure 1. Damaged reinforced concrete pavement areas exposed to increasing

wheel loads.
Fig. (1) shows the type of damages presently experienced. Substantial

formation of cracks and deterioration due to fatique also effected and
damaged the vapour barrier and water membrane built up below the pavement
slabs.
612
Consequent water leakages resulted in disruption of services at the lower

level of the center terminal. The water proofing of the structural slab
below the concrete pavement slab had to be replaced. Fig. (2).
Existing road concrete slabs

2 x Q 377
Sealing
Ferroconcrete layer
Figure 2. Cross section: Existing Concrete pavement.
Steel fibre reinforced concrete for tarmacs and other concrete pavements
has been used for certain parts of the Frankfurt International Airport
ever since June 1983 given the positive experience gained. Engineers res
ponsible for the design, construction and maintenance decided to use steel
fibre reinforcement also for the concourse "A". In situ tests with con
ventional reinforced concrete pavements and concrete pavement reinforced
with steel fibres at a dosage of 60 kg/m were carried out at the end of
1983 to observe longterm behaviour. Respectively, preliminary investi
gations revealed that conventional reinforcing was inadequate to take care
of the relatively heavy loads.
A similar crack pattern was already evident after a half year in service,
closely matching the previously experienced pattern.
3
However, steel fibre reinforced concrete pavements with a dosage of 60kg/m
did not show any signs of damages and cracks. Hence, steel fibre rein
forced concrete with a dosage of 60 kg/m^ was then and therefore specified
for the entire maintenance program at the Frankfurt International Airport.
Preliminary investigations also revealed that savings could be realized in
terms of maintenance of the joints in comparison with conventionally rein
forced pavements alleviating spalling of the joints. The steel fibres
acting homogeneously with the concrete matrix also greatly improve the shear
strength of the concrete. Hence, joint shear failures could be virtually
eliminated. Fig. (3)
613
Figure 3. Steel fibres take part in the stress distribution at particular

ly sensitive joint areas. Spall offs can virtually be eliminated
CONSTRUCTION
The maintenance program to water proof the building and the concrete pave
ments was scheduled in several construction stages. Fig. (4). Construction
started with the demolition and removal of existing, reinforced pavement
slabs. This in particular is relatively time consuming because of the con
tinuous reinforcing bars. Fig. (5). The exposed reinforced concrete slabs
were thoroughly cleaned of debris after removal of the defunct water
proofing membrane. A new water proofing membrane was carefully placed by a
specialized subtrade. Fig. (6). A non-reinforced protective concrete top
ping (25 MPa) was placed on a double layer of 6 mil poly sheets to allow
horizontal movements. Two days later, steel fibre reinforced concrete was
placed Fig. (7) on this protective concrete topping covered with a further
layer of a 6 mil poly sheet. The steel fibre reinforced concrete pavement
is additionally reinforced with a 1 metre wide W.W.M. type Q377 (West
German classification) over existing expansion joints for additional crack
control and shear transfer to eliminate reinforcing of joints in these con
crete pavements areas.
Concrete pours are divided in areas of 16 m x 4 m. The slab in saw cut with
a diamond blade in three segments 24 hours after finishing. Steel fibre
reinforced concrete is placed and finished manually with conventional means.
To achieve proper concrete densities steel fibre reinforced concrete re

quires about a 10 % increase in time for proper compaction. Levelling
of the surface of the pavement is carried out by traditional means. A power
trowel finish is applied to avoid that steel fibres would remain visible at
the pavement surface. Surfacing fibres are thereby embedded sufficiently
614
within the cement paste prohibiting an early development of surface rust

spots. This is followed by a broom finish with the application of a seal
and cure compound to prevent exessive surface drying and shrinkage.
Normal construction traffic is allowed to cross the pavement after 7 days.

Joints are subsequently filled and finished. 28 days later the pavements
are commisssioned for normal airport operations. Fig. (11).
Figure 4. Layout: Frankfurt International Airport. The water proofing of

the building and the pavement areas are scheduled sequentially.
Figure 5. Demolition and removal of existing reinforced concrete pavements

615
Figure 7. The steel fibre reinforced concrete is placed on a 6 mil poly

sheet covering the non-reinforced protective topping.
616
1. Suspended structural slab

2. Water proofing membrane
and thermal insulation
3. PE (0.2mm) sheet, 2 layers
4. Protective concrete topping
5. PE (0.2 mm) sheet,1 layer
6. 220 mm steel fibre rein
forced concrete pavement
F'c=45 MPa 60 kg/cbm steel
fibre
Figure 8. Section: Pavement / structural slab
Figure 9: Power trowelling of the surface suppresses all surfacing steel

fibres.
617
Figure 10. Levelling of the freshly poured pavement slab.
Figure 11. Normal service reinstated 28 days after.
TESTING AND BATCHING OF THE STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
Steel fibres are added manually "en bloc" together with the concrete
aggregates in a stationary site mixing plant. Equipment to seperate steel
fibres and to provide for a proper dosage as typically required for wire
type steel fibres are not required for this mill cut type fibre. Balling
as well as clumping of steel fibres could not be experienced throughout
the entire construction period.
Steel fibre reinforced concrete requires slightly more energy to mix with
the other aggregates. However, it could also be observed that typical
mixing times for a batch of concrete were adequate.
Testing and production for the concrete was carried out in accordance with
the TV-Beton 72 (West German regulatory code for concrete testing). The
content of fines (cement and sand < 0.25 mm) shall not exeed 400 kg/m .
618
Aggregates for the concrete had to conform to the TV-Beton 72 code for top
pings, Class. 1. Portland cement type PZ 35 (West German classification)
was specified to have a minimum age of 6 days. The bending tensile strength
of the concrete shall be a mimimum of 6.5 MPa at 28 days. Only certified
concrete additives were to be used. Air entraining agents were to be added
to provide for micro pores of diameter < 0.3 mm, and a cummulative pore
volume of 3.5 % to 5 %. Accelerators were prohibited. The concrete mix de
sign is shown in Fig. (12). The basic mix design had not been changed for
the entire duration of construction except for steel fibre dosages. A total
set of test specimens consisting of 3 test cylinder 200 x 200 x 200 and 3
beams 150 x 150 x 700 for each working day was required. Storage, produc
tion and testing of the specimens is in accordance with DIN 1048. The com
pressive and bending tensile strength for 7 and 28 days strength's were
recorded. The 28 day compressive strength shall be a minimum of 45 MPa,
respectively, the bending tensile strength shall conform to a minimum of
6.5 MPa. Test values are presented in Table 1.
CONCLUSION
Tarmacs are repaired using steel fibre reinforced concrete at the Frankfurt
International Airport ever since 1983. The relatively simple application
and batching of steel fibres in concrete further contributes to increases
in strength. Due to the homogeneous distribution of steel fibres formation
of cracks in concrete pavements can be virtually eliminated. Steel fibre
reinforcing also greatly contributes to prevent joint spall offs.
Jack hammering of concrete relatively simplified and a possible source of

an all to common construction error (incorrect installation of reinforce
ment) eliminated. These advantages are particularly noticeable in all
corner areas. It is exactly those areas that are proned to damages because
conventional reinforcing is placed more often inadequately or inefficiently.
o
A steel fibre dosage of 60 kg/m has been proven effective and adequate to
take care of heavy traffic loads, dynamic loading (fork lift traffic) and
stresses due to temperature.
The addition of steel fibres to the concrete does not require special
equipment and additonal mixing/batching times. Steel fibres do exhibit
a similar behaviour like any other coarse aggregate during the batch. An
extensive number of cores taken from finished pavement areas has shown a
homogeneous distribution of the steel fibres despite the use of vibro/
compaction equipment. Steel fibres are not subject to gravitational sett
ling due to the use of such equipment. A slight increase in compaction
energy is required, however, this does not affect the normal course of con
crete placement.
Surfacing steel fibres do not cause corrosion spall offs. Present research
has shown that steel fibres are subject to corrosion to a depth of 2 mm
only. The surrounding cement paste effectively inhibits further corrosion.
Hence, steel fibres below that depth are not affected by corrosion and re
main fully effective.
Steel fibres in concrete pavements and slabs have achieved increasing im
portance over the last years. This is in part attributable to difficulties
still experienced in establishing accurate stress distribution patterns in
619
concrete pavements.
Henceforth, steel fibre reinforced concrete offers to be a building mate

rial specially homogenous stress (uncracked section) distribution. This
further ensures a relatively good measure of safety with the use of appro
priate factors of safety.
TABLE 1
Compressive strength and bending tensile strength
Non-reinforced/steel fibre reinforced concrete
Compressive strength MPa Bend'g tensile strength MPa

non-RC SFRC non-RC SFRC
3 days 40.00 42.83
7 days 42.10 49.58 5.00 6.76
28 days 53.00 66.83 6.61 8.64
TABLE 2
Concrete Mix Design
Portland cement: 340 kg/cmb PZ 35 F

Water: 136 ltr/cbm
W/C 0.4
Aggregates: 560 kg/cbm sand 0/2
520 kg/cbm gravel 2/32
220 kg/cbm basalt 8/16
560 kg/cbm basalt 16/32
1.860 kg/cbm total
AE: 4 %
Steel fibres: 60 kg/cbm (101 Lbs/cyd)
HAREX Type SF 01-32
LITERATURE
1. Grondziel,M.: Betonfahrbahnplatten mit Stahlfaserbeton,TIS 4/85

2. Zerna, W.: Korrosionsuntersuchungen an Stahlfaserbeton, Beton Nr.29/79
3. Batelle-Memorial-Institute: unveroffentlichte Versuche
4. Schroff, J.K.: The effect of a corrosive environment of the properties
of steel fibre reinforced cement mortar. Potsdam N.Y., 1966
5. Lankard, D.R.: Walker, A.J.: Laboratory and field investigation of the
durability of wirand concrete to various service environments, Batelle
Development Corporation, June 1978
6. Schnutgen, B.: Das Festigkeitsverhalten von/mit Stahlfasern bewehrtem
Beton unter Zugbeanspruchung. Techn.-wissenschaftl. Mitteilungen 75-8
620
ANALYSIS OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS BASED ON

INFINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
S.K. KAUSHIK R.M. VASAN P.N. GODBOLE

Professor Reader Professor
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India
S.K. KHANNA
Secretary
University Grants Commission
New Delhi, India
ABSTRACT
Infinite element analysis has been reported by several investigators

as a powerful tool to analyse the unlimited domain of layered system
problem. In the present investigation, semifull scale SFRC pavement
slabs were directly laid over compacted subgrade.SFRC mixes having varying
volume percentages of steel fibres, 0.5-2$ were used in the pavement
sections. Static plate load tests under central, edge and corner loading
conditions have established that SFRC pavements exhibit significant
improvements in load carrying capacity. Under the proposed numerical
modelling technique, the behaviour of layered pavement system under
static loading and axisymmetric formulation has been examined. The numeri
cal model has been validated from the semifull scale field investigations
on steel fibre reinforced concrete pavement slabs. The stresses, strains
and deflections under central loading conditions have been compared
with the results obtained from infinite element solutions.
INTRODUCTION
The analysis of rigid pavements involves the evaluation of stresses

and deflections in a layered pavement system from the material character
istics in the pavement layers i.e. , Modulus of elasticity and Poisson's
Ratio under different loading conditions. Finite element m e t h o d [1] has
been used by Sargious and Wang [2] for the design of rigid pavements
under central and edge loading conditions. Sargious considered the subgrade
as an elastic continuum under central loading condition in view of the
fact that a vertical load acting at the centre of the pavement produces
deflections at the neighbouring points and the deflected surface takes
the shape of a basin. In the case of an edge load the Winkler type
foundation model was assumed by Sargious in view of the limited extent
621
of deflections produced at the neighbouring points due to the load acting

at or near to the edge. Tatasou Nishizawa [3] used the F.E.M. method
in the analysis of rigid pavements for the edge and corner loading condi
tions using both types of foundation models i.e., elastic continuum
and the Winkler model. Tatasou, however recommended more refinement
of the model.
In any continuum, the actual number of degrees of freedom is infinite

and unless a closed form solution is available an exact analysis is
impossible within the assumptions made. In finite element method, there
fore, an approximate solution is attempted by assuming that the behaviour
of the continuum can be represented by a finite number of unknowns.
The solution by the finite element method is obtained by a substantial
number of elements and nodes and in order to approach a solution closely
within acceptable true continuum solution, a refinement of the mesh
size is required. The incorporation of Infinite elements alongwith finite
elements reduces the uncertainity in respect of the exact refinement
of the mesh and the accuracy of results. In the present investigation, a
finite element software incorporating numerically integrated finite
and infinite elements has been employed to evaluate the stresses and
deflections in plain cement concrete and steel fibre reinforced concrete
pavements under central loading conditions. A comparison of the results
of an experimental investigation on semi full scale pavement sections
with those obtained from the infinite element method showed a good
comparison. SFRC pavements exhibited an excellent performance at higher
loads showing relatively lower stresses, strains and deflections than
the analytical values.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
One plain cement concrete pavement slab SPCi (1.8m x 1.8m x 0.1m) was
laid directly over a well compacted subgrade. Six SFRC pavement slabs
SFC , SFC , S F C ^ , SFC ,S F C 6 (1.8m x 1.8m x 0.1m) containing 0.5$, 1.0%,
'I. 2 5 % , 1.5% and 2 . 0 % steel fibre by volume respectively were laid
directly over a well compacted subgrade. PCC and SFRC mixes were developed
using conventional ACI mix design method (4).The mixes were evolved
by selection of fine and coarse aggregates (passing 10 mm) having fineness
moduli 2.43 and 5-99 respectively. A mix proportion of 1:1.95:1.95 by
w eight and water cement ratio 0*6, cement content 417 kg per cubic meter
of concrete were used in this study. Hooked steel fibres, 26 SWG, with
an aspect ratio 80 were used in volume fractions of 0 . 5 % , 1.055, 1.2555,
1 .555 and 255. The pavement slabs were subjected to a plate load test using
300 mm diameter plate at the central, edge and corner locations.
PERFORMANCE OF SEMI FULL SCALE PCC AND SFRC PAVEMENT SLABS
The performance of the pavement slabs was evaluated by measuring deflec

tions and determining stresses from the measured strains obtained from
static plate load tests under central, edge and corner loading conditions.
The characteristics of pavements and subgrade are given in Table 1.
The comparative performance of P.C.C. and SFRC pavements is given in
Table 2. The test results show that SFRC pavements exhibited signifi
cant improvements in the load carrying capacity.
622
TABLE 1
Characteristics of PCC, SFRC pavements and subgrade
SI. Pavement Subgrade

Type
No.
Modulus Poisson's Modulus Poisson's
of Ra tio of Ra tio
Elasticity Elasticity
kN/mm2 N/m m 2
1. PCC
Pavement 27. 31 0.1514 16.97 0.250
SPC 1
2. SFRC
Pavement 29. 15 0.1587 28.41 0.305
SFC 2
3. SFRC
Pavement 30. 21 0.1668 25. 46 0.305
SFC 3
4. SFRC
Pavement 30. 68 0.1700 28.76 0.305
SFC 4
5. SFRC
Pavement 31.05 0.1709 20. 96 0.305
SFC 5
6. SFRC
Pavement 28.54 0.1698 40.71 0.305
SFC 6
TABLE 2
Comparative performance of PCC and SFRC pavements under static plate load tests
Pavement Central Loading Edge Loading Corner Loading
Type load Deflec S train Stress load Deflec Strain Stress L oad Deflec Strain Stress
kN t io n kN tion kN ti o n
x10“6 N/mm^ x 1 0 -6 N/mm^ x 1 0 -6 N/mm^
(mm) (mn) (mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)
41.50 1.735 178.29 6.298 *40.65 4.68 210.775 6.162 *29.35 3.95 215.04 6.162
PCC, *45.11 1.786 208.40 6.162 41.00 4.708 212.48 5.998 40.50 5.67 293.08 8.398
I
67.50 2.345 274.15 8.192 82.00 8.126 - 41.00 - - -
41.00 1.543 161.19 5.116 41.00 3.45 185.61 5.67 *39.00 4.822 262.55 8.020
SFCoCL *80.00 2.600 256.44 8.132 *70.00 7.35 256.44 8.020 41.00 4.992 271.09 8.286
87.50 2.807 265.60 8.723 82.00 8.216 283.30 8.904 82.00 10.720 405.42 12.788
100.00 3.400 280.86 8.920 - - - - - - - -
41.00 1.161 148.37 4.864 41.00 3.749 161.192 5.180 41.00 4.05 247.89 7.842
ax?rt 82.00 2.020 234.46 7.615 *78.81 6.610 250.60 9.850 *59.82 7.02 304.85 9.850
3 90.00 2.200 244.23 8.122 82.00 6.812 208.95 8.911 82.00 9.016 360.78 12.017
*120.00 2.710 305.28 9.93 - - - - - - - -
41.00 0.815 125.78 4.105 41.00 1.087 137.99 4.491 41.00 1.675 174.62 5.654
82.00 1.614 197.82 6.511 82.00 2.108 210.04 6.905 *69.84 2.957 292.30 9.950
SFC4 100.00 2.050 219.81 7.272 *100.00 - 244.23 8.044 82.00 4.634 322.38 10.845
*180.00 3.900 280.86 9.595 - - - - - - - -
41.00 1.115 136.77 4.445 41.00 3.26 147.76 4.905 41.00 6.728 22.25 7.249
82.00 1.914 212.48 7.-0096 82.00 4.89 235.68 7.343 *74.46 11.180 303.97 9.99
SFC5 100.00 2.150 256.44 6.907 *120.00 7.27 - 9.060 82.00 12.670 324.83 10.546
*150.00 3.110 286.97 9.779
(Gontd.
Table 2 (Gbntd )
Pavement C e n tr a l lo a d in g Edge lo a d in g Oorner lo a d in g

Type lo a d D eflec S t r a i n S t r e s s lo a d D e fle c S t r a i n S tress lo a d D eflec - S t r a i n S tress
kN tio n kN tio n kN tio n
x10"6 N/irm2 x10~6 N/ran^ x10~6 N/mm2
(ran) (ran) (ran)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)
624
41.00 1.063 124.56 3.724 41.00 2.512 197.21 6.844 41.50 7.407 236.91 7.3275
82.00 1.690 197.82 6.069 82.00 3.98 264.98 7.790 *50.00 7.830 280.87 8.610
SFC6 95.00 2.070 213.70 6.569 *90.94 4.14 303.198 8.610 82.00 9.506 373.68 11.367
*145.00 8.605
lo a d a t F l e x u r a l S tre n g th Level
625
Under central loading condition, the 100 mm P.C.C. pavement developed

first crack a t 45.11 kN load and resulted in a disintegration on further
application of load, whereas all the SFRC pavement slabs showed excellent
performance and could sustain loads upto a maximum of 180 kN without
any cracking. The test results showing d e f l e c t i o n s ,strains and stresses
under central loading condition have been plotted in Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
Figure 1. Deflections in PCC and SFRC pavements under central loading

conditions (observed values)
The SFRC pavements S FCpj S F C v sfcv SFC5 and S F C 6 containing fibre

volumes 0.5?, 1.0?, 1.2^?, 1.5? and 2? respectively could
sustain loads 2.508, 3.76, 5.65, 4.70 and 4.55 times the load carried
by the PCC pavement at the level of their flexural strength.
Under edge loading conditions, the SFRC pavements sustained 1.72,

1.94, 2.46, 2.95 and 2.21 times the load sustained by P.C.C. pavements
at the level of their flexural strength, while under corner loading
condition, the load sustained by the S.F.R.C. pavements were 1.33, 2.01,
2.35, 2.54 and 1.57 times the load carried by P.C.C. pavement at the
flexural strength level of the mixes. The significant points of diffe
rence observed in the performance of P.C.C. and S.F.R.C. pavements
were as follows:
(i) 100 jnm thick plain cement concrete pavement laid directly over
the subgrade showed a sudden failure, immediately after the occurence
of the first crack.
(ii) Under central loading condition, the P.C.C. pavement slab failed at
626
Figure 2. Strains in PCC and SFRC pavements under central loading

condition (observed values)
67-50 kN load, whereas, the SFRC pavement slabs could sustain a

maximum load of 180 kN without failure.
(iii)Under corner loading condition, P.C.C. pavement failed at 40 kN

load, whereas all the SFRC pavement slabs could sustain more than
8 0 kN load. A factor of safety 2 is available in SFRC pavements
considering 41 kN as the allowable equivalent single wheel load.
(iv) A fibre addition between 0.5? - 2 . 0 % by volume yields a significant

improvement in the load carrying capacity of the SFRC pavements.
The rate of increase in the load carrying capacity is significant
upto a fibre volume of 1.25? beyond which the rate of gain in
strength is not substantial. Fibre volume 1.25? has therefore
been observed to be a n optimum fibre volume.
Analysis by Infinite Elements

Analysis with infinite elements was first introduced by Bettes and
Zienkiewicz (5),.^ and reported by several investigators (6,7) to analyse
the unlimited bomain of the layered system problems. The method may
be used to evaluate the deflections, strains and stresses in rigid pave
ments and overlays under central loading condition. The various para
meters considered in the analysis are the modulus of elasticity and
Poisson's ratio of the pavement ^slabs and the subgrade. For the present
analysis, infinite elements w i t h — (n = 0 .5, 1) type decay have been
627
Figure 3- Stresses in PCC and SFRC pavements under central loading

condition (observed values)
employed which have been reported to perform excellently for axisymmetric

problems (7). The infinite element mesh for the two layered system
consisting of PCC/SFRC slab over the subgrade is shown in Fig. 4.
The computerised results have been presented in Table 3 and compared with
Figure 4. Infinite element mesh for 100 mm SFRC pavement SFC^

TABLE 3
Deflections, strains and stresses In PCC and SFRC pavements under central loading condition ^comparison of
results of experimental investigation and Infinite element analysis
-6
Load Deflec tions Strains x 10 Wheel Load Stresses
Type
in N/mm
kN Observed FEM Ratio Observed FEM Ratio Observed FE M Ratio
PCC 41. 00 1.735 1.11 1.56 178.29 130.40 1.37 5.298 4.301 1.23
Pavement 45. 11 1.786 1. 22 1.46 208.40 143.47 1.45 6. 162 4.732 1. 30
SPC1 67-50 2.345 1.83 1. 28 274.15 213.00 1.29 8. 192 7. 028 1. 17
SFRC 41. 00 1. 543 0. 81 1.90 161.19 111. 40 1.45 5-116 3-972 1.29
Pavement 80.00 2.600 1. 58 1. 65 256.44 217.36 1. 18 8. 132 7. 944 1.02
SFC2 87.50 2. 807 1.73 1.62 265.60 237.75 1. 12 8.723 8.475 1.03
100.00 3. 400 1. 98 1.72 280.86 271. 71 1.03 8.92 9.688 0.92
SFRC 41. 00 1.161 0.84 1. 38 148.37 110.20 1.35 4.864 4. 112 1. 18

Pavement 82. 00 2. 020 1.68 1. 20 234.46 220. 40 1. 06 7.615 8.224 0.93
SFC3 90.00 2.200 1.84 1.20 244.23 241.70 1.01 8. 122 9.022 0.90
120.00 2.710 2.46 1. 10 305.28 322.54 0.95 9-93 12.035 0.83
SFRC 41. 00 0.815 0.77 1.06 125.78 106. 10 1. 19 4. 105 4. 043 1. 02
Pavement 82.00 1.614 1. 54 1.05 197.82 212.20 0.93 6. 511 8.086 0. 81
SFC4 100.00 2.050 1.88 1. 09 219.81 258.78 0.85 7.272 9.86 0.74
180.00 3. 900 3- 58 1. 09 280.86 465.80 0. 60 9.595 17.749 0. 54
SFRC 41. 00 1.115 0.93 1. 20 136.77 11.1. 11 1.23 4. 445 4.288 1. 04

Pavement 82. 00 1.914 1.86 1.03 213-48 222.22 0.96 7.0096 8.576 0. 82
SFC5 100.00 2. 150 2. 27 0.95 256.44 271.00 0.95 6.907 10. 461 0. 66
150. 00 3. 110 3. 40 0. 91 286. 97 406. 50 0.71 9-779 15.688 0. 62
SFRC 41. 00 1.063 0.64 1.66 124. 56 104.70 1. 19 3-724 3-72 1.00
Pavement 82.00 1. 690 1.28 1. 32 197-82 209. 40 0.94 6.069 7. 44 0.82
SFC6 95.00 2. 070 1.48 1. 40 213-70 242. 70 0.88 6. 569 8. 622 0. 76
8. 605 13-156 0.65
629
the results obtained from the static plate load tests on semifull scale
PCC and SFRC pavement slabs, resting over the subgrade of known proper
ties. A comparison of the experimental and analytical values of strains
and stresses indicates that the ratios of test v/s predicted values
lie between 0.85 and 1.45 for loads upto 100 kN. However, for loads
beyond 100 kN, the observed strains and stresses in the SFRC pavements
were substantially low. The SFRC pavement slabs having an optimum fibre
volume of 1.25% showed the observed strain to be 60$ of the predicted
values. This indicates that the relative improvements in the load carry
ing capacity and the reduction in the strains in SFRC pavements are
much higher than the predicted values.
CONCLUSIONS
The test results of the static plate load tests indicate that SFRC
pavements laid directly over well compacted subgrades exhibit an excellent
performance with significant improvements in their load carrying capacity
for fibre volume between 0.5$ to 2.0$. Fibre volume 1.25$ has been
found to be the optimum fibre content beyond which the rate of gain
in strength is not appreciable. SFRC can be advantagenusly used in
highway pavements. The composite matrix offers the possibility of laying
the pavements directly over well compacted subgrades. The material
possesses an appreciable capacity to bear much higher strains and stresses
than the flexural strength and is expected to give better performance
as well as longer life due to a substantially greater factor of safety.
REFERENCES
1. Zienkiewicz, O.C. , Finite Element Method in Engineering Sci-

nce, McGraw-Hill Book Co, London. (1971)
2. Sargious Michael, and Wang, S.K., Rigid Pavement Design

Charts Based on Finite Element Analysis, ACI Publication SP-51,
Detroit,Michigan, U.S.A. ( 1974 ).
3. Tatasuo Mishizawa and Saburo Matsuno Applicability of Finite

Element Method for Mechanical Analysis of Concrete Pavements,
Transactions of Journal of J. A. S. C. E. No. 338, ( 1933) ,pp. 207-215, Japan.
4. ACI Committee 613, Standard Method for Concrete Mix Design, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A., 1954.
5. Zienkiewicz, O.C., Emson, C. and Bettes, P., A Novel Boundary

Infinite Element, International Journal of Numerical Methods in
Engineering, V o l . 19, (1983), pp. 393-404.
6. Chow, Y.K. , Smith, I.M. , Static and Periodic Infinite Solid

Elements, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering,
Vol. 17, (1981), pp. 503-526.
7. Goel, D.C. , Elasto Static Analysis by Infinite Elements,

Indian Geo technical Journal, Vol. 18(3), India. ( 1988).
630
PLASTICS FIBRE REINFORCED CONCERETE (PFRC) COMPOSITE

MANHOLE COVER TECHNOLOGY
O.P. RATRA
Developer and P rom oter of Polycrete - PFRC
B-5, Institute of Hotel Management, Pusa
New Delhi 110 012, India
ABSTRACT
Traditionally, manhole cover system for sewerage and drainage is designed

in cast-iron. Steel reinforced ce m e nt co ncrete, and concrete filled cast-
-iron tra y system have been in use, besides red-sandstone and tim ber covers
have been tried as tem p orary measures in developing countries. The author
has developed plastics fibre reinforced co ncrete composite, designed and
m a n ufactu red the whole range of manhole covers and the system in various
types, grades and dimensions. These have been successfully field evalu
a ted under vehicular tr a f f ic im pact load on busy city roads in India during
the period 1982-89.
The com posite advocates as rein fo rcem en t, the use of polypropylene fibrilla
ted film fibre specifically tw isted to reguired breaking strength as chopped
fibres distributed randomly to g e th er with fabricated wide-mesh mat of
th e same type of fibre, in cem ent concrete mix. It has been observed
t h a t this method of orientation of the plastics fibres of the type in the
ce m e nt co n c rete provides for improved ductility and g r e a te r resilience
to the PFR C com posite. The composite so developed has been accepted
for adoption as a lte rn a tiv e m aterial for the m anufacture of manhole covers
and the system in India.
The process for m anufacture of precast load-bearing manhole cover assembly

using the PFRC com posite of the type, is based on an Indian P a te n t, and the
product PFRC is registered under the Trade Mark of ’POLYCRETE1 by the
author.
INTRODUCTION
The development and the use of fibre reinforced co nc rete , incorporating various
types of fibres like th a t of steel, plastics and glass, have been reported in
the lite r a tu r e since mid-sixties (1,2). Depending upon the type and loading
of the fibres in ce m e n t m atrix, as also the shape of the cast articles, the
fibre reinforced c o n c rete composite displays improved crack and im pact resistance,
631
and g r e a te r ductility. Though considerable developmental work on the use

of plastics fibres as rein fo rcem en t, mainly of polypropylene fibrillated film
type has been rep orted for use in cem ent matrix, however, volume potential
for these has not been fully exploited, P a te n ts available (3,4,5) in the field
have followed diffe ren t routes, the type and the shape of the plastics fibres,
besides style of th e ir orientation in the co n c rete composite. Only a limited
range of useful products for the p rec ast conc rete industry has appeared in
the m a rke t.
MANHOLE COVER SYSTEM
Manhole cover system for sewers and drains is conventionally designed

using ca st-iro n. These covers are rec tangula r, square, or circular in shapes,
of diffe ren t grades depending upon their placem ent in locations on city roads/
pavem ents, under pedestrain as well as vehicular tr a f f ic . Frequent 'th e f ts '/
'P ilfe rg e ' of cast-iron manhole covers are reported in localities of towns and
cities in developing countries, because these covers have scrap/resale value.
To obviate these frequ ent th e fts, various alternatives like covers made of
ste el reinforced c o n c rete (RCC), red-sandstone, even tim ber have been tried
and used by the local authorities. Most of these altern ativ es have dem onstrated
th e ir lim ited service life under conditions of use, however, their adoption
has served as sh o r t- te r m measures for repla ce m en t covers as and when required.
PFRC Com posite as A ltern a tiv e M aterial
During the period 1980-81, the author undertook the work independently,
of developing suitable type of polypropylene fibrillated film fibre as rein fo rce
ment for c e m e n t con c rete . The composite m a terial so developed has been
used in the design and m a n ufa cture of manhole covers and the system as an
alte rn a tiv e to conventional cast-iron and the RCC covers. The PFRC composite
in this case consists of Portland or Portland slag C e m e nt, 6 and 10 mm stone
ag g re g ate and the stone dust (M 15 and M 20 grade), with rein forcem ent
of polypropylene fibrillated film fibre suitably tw isted, into single and double
tw ist (ST and DT) of the required breaking strength. The single tw ist fibre
of the type is used as chopped strands of 50-75 mm lengths randomly distributed
in the co n c re te mix, to g e th e r with the double tw ist fibre which is made into
fa b ric a te d wide-mesh m at (30-50 sq. openings), and placed at an appropriate
level in the co n c rete mix while casting a product. The plastics fibre reinforced
mix of the type is te rm e d as P FR C com posite. Because of the flexibility
of the plastics fibres, th eir use as reinfo rcem ent perm its flexibility in the
632
design of p rec ast co n c re te product.
Design and M anufacture
The P FRC mix described above has been used in the design and m anufacture
of manhole covers and the system of different shapes, types /grades and dimensions,
The P FRC mix is used for casting in MS rims of the desired dimensions of
manhole cover, with provision of two lifting handles of 12 nrm dia Tor steel welded
at each end with the MS rim which is retained as protective edging for the
P FRC ca st manhole cover. The MS rim is usually fabricated out of 2.5 to
3.0 mm thick MS sheet depending upon the dimensions and seating depths of
the required manhole covers. During casting in the MS rim, cavities for the
lifting handles are provided with plastics cups/rings of the required diam eters
which fa c ilita te pro tectio n to the edges around the handles during m aintenance.
Manhole covers ranging from 45 mm to 145 mm thickness (corresponding to
the depths in the frames) have been designed and manufactured, as matching
r ep la ce m en ts in conventional cast-iron fram es, as also for new sewerage projects
alongwith p rec ast PFRC slab and integral fram e of required clear opening.
The P FR C manhole covers are graded according to their placem ent in the
field, suitably coloured/painted for codification and identification other than
the common black/grey colour as evident with cast-iron covers. PFRC mahole
covers have been designed for various clear openings ranging from 350 to 600
mm dia or square, and 600 x 450 mm for rectangular covers, including SW traps
measuring 300 x 300 mm with clear opening of 250 x 250 mm and cover thickness
of 25 mm. The P FR C composite manhole covers have been designed with effec tive
thickness in the middle less than th a t alongwith the edges seating in the fram e,
in o ther words the manhole covers have arch e f f e c t, on its underside which
helps in reducing th e weight of the cover, while simultaneouly ensuring desired
load carrying ca pac ity (6,7,8). Figures 1 to 4 display the range of PFRC -
P o lycrete manhole covers and the system in various shapes and dimensions.
Load Testing and P erfo rm a n ce Evaluation
P FR C com posite manhole covers so designed and m anufactured have been

found to dem o n strate sa tisfac to ry u ltim ate breaking load matching the req uire
ments of th e im pact load of vehicular tr a f f ic , both for medium and heavy duty
t r a f f ic , based on 10-tonne axle load. D ifferen t types and shapes of these manhole
covers with or w ithout p rec ast slab of integral fram e have been load te ste d
using 300 mm dia block as per the method described in IS:1726-1974 (for cast-
iron manhole covers) for u ltim ate breaking load as shown in Figure 5. Typical
633
f r a c tu r e p a tte r n due to load testing of a ventilated manhole cover is shown

in Figure 6. P F R C - P o ly c r e te manhole covers have been field evaluated on
busy city roads in diffe ren t parts of India during the period 1982-89. Figures
7 to 20 illu strate th eir perform ance under conditions of use. The covers have
been found to display improved im pact strength, crack resistance, g r e a te r ductility
and resilience, and recovery to the product in the post cracking regionTable below
indicates u ltim ate breaking load values for various types and dimensions of
P F R C -P o ly c re te manhole covers designed and manufactured.
Table : U ltim ate Load of PFRC - Polycrete Manhole Covers
S.No. Dimensions Shape E ffective t h i c k U ltim ate Load

ness in the
middle
(mm) (mm) (Tonnes)
1. 440 (45) Circular 40 4 .5

It
2. 575 (50) 43 5.0
3. 645 x 500 v An Rectangular 50 6.5
590 x 440
4. 540 (70) Circular 60 8.5
it
5. 585 (70) 60 9.5
n
6. 575/550 (75) 65 11.0
7. 550 (75) m
65 13.5
it
8. 585 (80) 70 15.5
9. 645 (80) C ircular - Ventilated 65 12.0
with one hole
10. 645/620 (80) C ircular 65 10.5
11. 670 x 520 v pn
R ectangu lar 70 10.0
590 x 440
12. 460 (90) C ircular 75 17.0
13. 550 (90) Circular 75 12.6
ti
14. 625/612 (95) 80 13.25
15. 645/600 (100) ii
85 16.5
16. 685/660 (100) ii
85 19.5^0.0
17. 615/590 (110) ii
90 17.5
ti
18. 650/600 (110) 90 15.0
it
19. 735/710 (110) 90 18.0
20.2
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.25
20. 630/580 (145) Circular 80 30.75
32.00
21. 460/430 (130) C ircular 80 38.0
Note : The figures in the brack ets correspond to the depth of th e cover in
the fram e.
The fibre content in PFRC composite was up to 0.5% by weight.
634
CONCLUSION
From what has been observed and experienced with the development of
PFRC com posite technology for manhole covers and the system, it can be conclu
ded th a t this is an excellent a ltern ativ e m aterial with com m ercial potential
for the manhole covers m an ufactu re. These manhole covers have been in produc
tion in India, based on the technology licensed by the author and their adoption
has been ac ce p te d with confidence by the local authorities for two basic reasons:
social, because PFRC composite manhole covers have no resale value thus
no fear of 'pilferge', and technical, th a t these covers have dem onstrated sa tis
fac to ry field perform ance on busy city roads in India for a period of 7 years.
As a result, these manhole covers have proved to be economical for the local
a u thorities initially and on long te rm basis. And most im portant has been the
chemical and corrosion resistance of plastics fibres used as reinfo rcem ent,
which prevent its debonding from the con c rete composite unlike the conventional
steel r ein fo rcem en t, even under ex tre m e dam aged/cracked circum stances and
im pact load conditions of moving vehicular tra ffic . This is a unique fea ture
of P FR C composite in this particular application. This manhole cover technology
would be suitable for adoption both in developing and developed countries.
REFERENCES
1. Fibre Reinforced C onc re te : Publication SP-44, American C oncrete Institute,
D etro it (1979).
2. H annant, D .J., Fibre C em ents & Fibre C o n c re te , John Wiley & Sons, London,
1978.
3. British P a te n t N o.1,130,612 of 1968, Zonsveld and others.
4. US P a te n t No. 4,261,754 of 1981, Krenchel, Ottosen and Balslev
5. British P a te n t No. 1,582,945 of 1981, D J Hannant, & University of Surrey.
6. R a tr a , O.P., P olycrete (PFRC) - A New Material for Manhole Cover S y s te m ,
International RILEM Symposium : 'Future for P lastics in Building & Civil
Engineering', Liege, 4-5 June, 1984.
7. R a tr a , O.P., Polymer C o n c re te - A New Concept in System Technology,
K'86 Pre-Show C o nferen ce' The Economics of the New Technologies :
Materials and Equipment ', November 4-5, 1986, Dusseldorf, Modern Plastics
International.
8. Indian P a te n t No. 1,64,486 of 1989, O.P. R a tra.
Editor* s note:- Due to lack of space Figures 1 1 - 2 0 ,

which illustrate the performance of the manhole covers
in use, have been deleted.
635
Figure 1. P re c a st Polycrete Slab 1000 x 1000 x 160 mm with integral fram e

of 600 mm dia clear opening and matching P olycrete manhole cover
Design Regn No. 157751
Figure 2. P re c a st P olycrete slab 1000 x 1000 x 160 mm with integral fram e of

clear opening of 600 mm dia and matching Polycrete manhole cover.
636
Figure 3.
P recast P o ly crete slab

1000mm dia x 160mm with
integral fram e of 360mm
dia clear opening and matching
P o ly crete manhole cover.
Figure 4. P re c a st PFRC - Poly crete manhole covers; circular, rectangular,

including SW traps of various dimensions & thickness.
637
Figure 5. Load testing of p rec ast PFRC - Polycrete manhole cover system:
pre c a st slab with intergral fram e and the matching cover.
Figure 6. Typical f ra c tu r e p a tte r n of ventilated Polycrete manhole cover due

to load testing.
Figure 7 & 8 Survival of P F R C P olycrete manhole cover: 630 (73) mm dia seen used in matching
cast-iron fra m e at a Bus stop New Delhi since 23rd Nov. 1982, against th e conventional
RC C cham ber slab seen dam aged six tim e s during the period 1982-89, and repaired. (8)
10
639
Figure 9. S u rv iv a l of P o ly crete manhole Figure 10. P o ly crete m anhole cover: 640(80)mm

cover 64Q(80)mm dia on busy dia seen used on city trunk road in
city road in Delhi, inspite of manual Delhi since Jan.1985, as evaluated during
damage seen done to it.(D e c .1985) February 1989.
640
PU NCHIN G SHEAR BEHAVIOUR O F LIGHTW EIGHT

C O N C R E T E SLABS WITH S T E E L F IB R E S
D. D. T H EO DO RA K OPOU LO S
D e p a r t m e n t of Civil E n g in e e r in g , U n i v e r s i t y of P a t r a s ,
G R-261 10 P a t r a s , G r e e c e ,
an d
R . N . SWAMY
D e p a r t m e n t of M e c h a n i c a l an d P r o c e s s E n g in e e r in g ,
U n i v e r s i t y of S heffield, Sheffield, E n g la n d .
A B STR A C T
F i b r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t is p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e and b e n e f i c ia l to lig h tw e ig h t
a g g r e g a t e c o n c r e t e , e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e s h e a r s t r e s s e s a r e invo lv ed. T h i s is
b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d in th e s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v io u r of s l a b - c o l u m n c o n n e c tio n s .
T e s t s a r e r e p o r t e d on s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d l a r g e s c a l e s l a b s lo a d e d th r o u g h
a stu b c o lu m n . D a ta a r e p r e s e n t e d on d e fle c tio n , r o t a tio n , s t e e l and
c o n c r e t e s t r a i n s to id e n tify th e r o l e an d e f f e c t i v e n e s s of th e f i b r e s in
r e s i s t i n g d e f o r m a t i o n s . It is show n th a t f i b r e s e n h a n c e the s la b s t if f n e s s ,
th r o u g h c o n tr o l of c r a c k i n g , and t h e r e b y i n c r e a s e th e c r i t i c a l s t r e n g t h s at
f i r s t c r a c k , s h e a r c r a c k i n g a nd f a i l u r e . T h e o v e r a l l e ffe c t of t h e s e tw o
b e h a v i o u r s i s to i n c r e a s e th e d u c tili ty and e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of
the s l a b s . F i b r e s a r e show n to hav e a s ig n if i c a n t e ffe c t on the s t r u c t u r a l
r e s p o n s e of lig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e t e s l a b s to lo a d s .
INTROD U CTION
S t r u c t u r a l lig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e t e can p r o v id e a n a l t e r n a t i v e c o n s tr u c ti o n
m a t e r i a l bo th in t e r m s of e c o n o m ic c o s t an d e n g in e e r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e f o r
r e i n f o r c e d a n d p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e a p p li c a tio n s ( 1 ,2 ) . F o r e x a m p le ,w ith
a c e m e n t c o n te n t of 450 k g / m 3 , cube s t r e n g t h s of 40 to 50 M P a a t 5 d ay s
a n d s t r e n g t h s of 55 to 65 M P a a t 28 d a y s, w ithout and w ith s t e e l f ib r e
i n c l u s i o n s , c a n be r e a d i l y a c h ie v e d . F l y a s h r e p l a c e m e n t of c e m e n t can
a l s o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d out w ith lig h tw e ig h t a g g r e g a t e s , an d su c h
m i x e s c a n b e d e s ig n e d f o r 28 day s t r e n g t h s of 45 to 55 M P a w ith a high
d e g r e e of w o r k a b il ity . W ith fly a s h and s t e e l f i b r e s , c o h e s iv e an d w o rk a b le
m i x e s th a t e n a b le e a s y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , p u m ping , c o m p a c tio n a nd fin is h in g
641
can be e c o n o m i c a l l y d e s ig n e d . Such c o n c r e t e s have b e e n show n to have

e x c e l l e n t e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s , w ith high e a r l y s t r e n g t h and e l a s t i c i t y
p r o p e r t i e s , and s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r s i m i l a r to n o r m a l w e ight a g g r e g a t e
c o n c r e t e (3-5).
F i b r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t is p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e and b e n e f ic ia l to l i g h t
w e ig h t a g g r e g a t e c o n c r e t e , e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e s h e a r s t r e s s e s a r e in vo lv ed .
A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e no s ig n if i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n d e n se and lig h tw e ig h t
a g g r e g a t e c o n c r e t e s s o f a r a s th e m e c h a n i s m of s h e a r f a i l u r e is co ncern ed ,
d i f f e r e n c e s do e x i s t c o n c e r n in g the m a g n itu d e of d ia g o n al te n s io n r e s i s t
a n c e . T h e s e d if f e r e n c e s r e l a t e to bond s t r e s s , s t r e n g t h u n d e r c o m b in e d
s t r e s s e s , a n d m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , the s h e a r c o n tr ib u tio n th r o u g h a g g r e g a t e
i n t e r l o c k (6). With m o s t ty p e s of lig h tw e ig h t a g g r e g a t e s , the d ia g o n a l c r a c k
f r a c t u r e s a m u c h h ig h e r p r o p o r t i o n of a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e s c o m p a r e d to
g r a v e l a nd c r u s h e d r o c k a g g r e g a t e s , r e s u l t i n g in a r e d u c t io n of a g g r e g a t e
i n t e r f a c e s h e a r t r a n s f e r (6, 7), s o th a t the u l tim a te s h e a r s t r e n g t h of
l ig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e t e is i n h e r e n t l y l e s s th a n th a t of n o r m a l w eight c o n c re te .
It is in th i s r e s p e c t th a t i n c o r p o r a t i o n of s t e e l f i b r e s can i m p a r t
s i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f its to the s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e of lig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e te
s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s . S te el f i b r e s p e r f o r m tw o s ig n if ic a n t r o l e s in su c h
c o n c r e t e s ( 7 ,8 ) . O n c e c r a c k s a r e f o r m e d , the f i b r e s a r e e ffe c tiv e in
b r i d g i n g th e c r a c k s , p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e o p ening of th e c r a c k s , a n d c o n
t r i b u t e s i g n if ic a n tly to the p o s t - m a x i m u m lo a d d e f o r m a tio n and s t r a i n
s o fte n in g . M o r e i m p o r ta n tly , h o w e v e r , the in c lu s io n of f i b r e s a p p e a r s to
r a i s e th e t h r e s h o l d of th e u l t i m a t e s h e a r t r a n s f e r s t r e n g t h of lig h tw e ig h t
c o n c r e t e to a v a lu e a p p r o a c h in g th a t of g r a v e l c o n c r e t e . A t h r e s h o l d le v e l
i s l e s s a p p a r e n t in g r a v e l c o n c r e t e (8).
E x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c a r r i e d out a t S heffield U n i v e r s i t y on the

s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e of lig h tw e ig h t r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b e a m s and s l a b s
w ith o u t a n d w ith s t e e l f i b r e s (6 -8 ). T h e r e is only l i m i t e d p u b lis h e d d a ta
a v a i l a b l e on th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s t e e l f i b r e s on the p unching s h e a r
r e s i s t a n c e of lig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e t e s l a b s c o m p a r e d to th a t on n o r m a l
w e ig h t a g g r e g a t e s l a b s (5, 9, 10). In s l a b - c o l u m n c o n n e c tio n s, in a d d itio n
to th e b e n e f its d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , the u s e of a high m o d u lu s f ib r e can
s ig n i f i c a n t l y c o m p e n s a te th e r e d u c e d e l a s t i c m o d u lu s and l o w e r s p litt in g
s t r e n g t h of th e lig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e t e . T h i s p a p e r , w hich f o r m s p a r t of a
m o r e s y s t e m a t i c in v e s tig a tio n , i l l u s t r a t e s the e f f e c tiv e n e s s of s t e e l f i b r e s
on th e d e f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r a n d s t r e n g t h of lig h tw e ig h t c o n c r e t e s l a b -
c o lu m n c o n n e c t io n s , (11). O nly r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e
to i l l u s t r a t e the r o l e of f i b r e s in s e c t i o n s s u b je c te d to p u nc hing s h e a r
fa ilu res.
E X P E R I M E N T A L BASIS
T h e s l a b - c o l u m n c o n n e c tio n s t e s t e d in t h i s p r o j e c t w e r e 1800 x 1800 x
125 m m , w ith a s q u a r e c o lu m n stu b 250 m m high, lo c a t e d c e n t r a l l y an d
c a s t m o n o lit h i c a lly , with th e s la b . T h e s l a b s w e r e d e s ig n e d to fail in
642
s h e a r , a nd h a d a te n s i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t of 12-1 0 m m d i a m e t e r b a r s in both
d i r e c t i o n s a t an a v e r a g e e ff e c tiv e depth of 100 m m , a n d 7-8 m m d i a m e t e r
b a r s c o m p r e s s i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t , a g a in in both d i r e c t i o n s . A ll th e s t e e l
b a r s w e r e of high t e n s i l e s t e e l w ith a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h of 460 M P a .
T h e s l a b s a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d 0. 50 x 50 m m c r i m p e d s t e e l f i b r e s , a t v o lu m e s
of 0% ( sla b F S - 1 ) , 0 .5 % ( sla b F S -2 ) and 1.0% (s la b F S - 3 ) .
T he lig h tw e ig h t a g g r e g a t e u s e d w a s a s i n t e r e d fly a s h a g g r e g a t e ( tr a d e
n a m e : L y ta g ), and 30% of th e c e m e n t w as r e p l a c e d , w e ig ht f o r w eight, b y a
q u a lity c o n t r o l l e d low c a lc iu m typ e F fly a s h .T h e m ix p r o p o r t i o n s w e r e
287: 123: 560: 696 k g / m ^ (c e m e n t: fly a s h : sand: L ytag) w ith a w a t e r - b i n d e r
r a t i o of 0 . 4 0 . A p l a s t i c i z i n g a d m i x t u r e w a s u s e d to give a good w o rk a b le
m i x . T h e c e m e n t w as o r d i n a r y p o r tl a n d , with w a s h e d r i v e r sa n d and 14 m m
m a x i m u m c o a r s e a g g r e g a t e s i z e . T h e c o n c r e t e m ix w as b a s e d on e x t e n s iv e
s t u d i e s e a r l i e r w hich had show n an e x c e lle n t a g g r e g a t e - m a t r i x bond
b e tw e e n fly a s h a g g r e g a t e s and fly a s h c o m p o s ite c e m e n ts (12, 13).
T h e s l a b s w e r e s i m p l y s u p p o r te d a lo n g a ll fo u r e d g e s , w ith s p a n s of
a b o u t 1690 m m , and th e c o r n e r s f r e e to lift; th e y w e r e lo a d e d t h ro u g h th e
c o lu m n stu b o v e r a n a r e a of 150 x 150 m m . T h e g e o m e t r y of the s la b w as
c h o s e n to r e p r e s e n t , a p p r o x i m a t e l y , th e r e g io n of n e g a tiv e b en d in g m o m ent
a r o u n d a n i n t e r i o r s u p p o r tin g c olum n, and in s id e the lin e of c o n t r a f l e x u r e .
E x t e n s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m a d e d u r in g the t e s t i n g to e v a lu a te the
in c lu s i o n of f i b r e s on d e f o r m a t i o n an d s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T E S T R E S U L T S AND DISCUSSION
T he a i m of t h i s p a p e r is to id e n tify the r o l e of f i b r e s in r e s i s t i n g d e f o r m
a tio n an d e n h a n c in g th e s t r e n g t h of th e c o n t r o l s l a b . T o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e , the
p r o p e r t i e s of th e p la in a n d f i b r e c o n c r e t e w e r e f i r s t d e t e r m i n e d . It w as
found t h a t th e p r e s e n c e of f i b r e s e n h a n c e d the t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of the c o n
c r e t e , an d i t s e l a s t i c m o d u lu s a s show n in T a b l e 1. T h e f i b r e s had l i t t l e
e ff e c t on c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h , a s would be e x p e c te d . H o w e v e r, ev e n a t 0.5%
f i b r e v o lu m e , t h e r e w a s a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e in t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h but n e g
l ig ib le e f f e c t on e l a s t i c m o d u lu s . At 1 .0 % f i b r e v o lu m e , the i n c r e a s e in t e n
s i l e s t r e n g t h w a s m a r g i n a l , but th e e l a s t i c m o d u lu s sho w e d a d i s ti n c t e n
h a n c e m e n t . B a s e d on th e p r o p e r t i e s of the c o n tr o l c o n c r e t e s p e c i m e n s , b o t h
the s t r e n g t h a n d r e s i s t a n c e to d e f o r m a t io n of th e s l a b s sh o u ld show a good
i m p r o v e m e n t due to th e p r e s e n c e of f i b r e s , a s in d e e d w a s found a s show n
b e lo w .
TABLE 1
P r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e te : 28 day s
Slab F ib re Cube s t. F l e x s t. Split s t. E l. mod,
v o lu m e % M Pa M Pa M Pa GPa
FS-1 0 .0 4 4 .2 3. 24 2 .8 5 17. 35
F S-2 0. 5 42. 5 6 .0 4 4.0 6 17. 15
FS-3 1 .0 44. 6 6 .1 5 4. 36 1 9 .4 0
643
D E F O R M A T IO N CH A RA CTERISTICS
F i g s . 1 a n d 2 sh o w the lo a d - d e f l e c t i o n and l o a d - r o t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of the s l a b s . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b e h a v i o u r of n o r m a l w eig ht a g g r e g a te
s l a b s is a l s o in c lu d e d in F i g . 1. T h e c u r v e s show th a t the p r e s e n c e of
f i b r e s e n h a n c e s b o th the s t i f f n e s s of th e s l a b s a s w ell a s t h e i r d u c tility .
T h e n o r m a l w e ig h t a g g r e g a t e c o n c r e t e s la b s a r e i n h e r e n t l y s t i f f e r than the
lig h tw e i g h t c o n c r e t e s l a b s b e c a u s e of the d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e i r e l a s t i c
m o d u l u s , a s show n in F ig . 1. D e fle c tio n a nd r o t a t i o n b oth show s i m i l a r
p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o u r f o r b oth ty p e s of s l a b s , b ut th e b e n e f it s of f i b r e
r e i n f o r c e m e n t a r e c l e a r l y d e p ic te d .
F i g s . 3 a n d 4 show l o a d - s t e e l s t r a i n b e h a v i o u r of the te n s io n and

c o m p r e s s i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t . F i b r e s d e c id e d ly c o n tr o l the t e n s i l e s t e e l
s t r a i n , o b v io u s ly t h r o u g h c o n t r o ll in g th e c r a c k width, in both lig h tw e ig h t
a n d n o r m a l w e ig h t c o n c r e t e s l a b s . T h e s t r a i n s in th e c o m p r e s s i o n s t e e l
w e r e i n i t i a l l y c o m p r e s s i v e w hich g r a d u a l l y c h a n g e d in to t e n s io n with
i n c r e a s e in lo a d . W hat is i m p o r t a n t to n o tic e h e r e is th a t, with a d e q u a te
a m o u n t of f i b r e s , th e f i b r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t is a b le t o c o n tr o l the u p w a rd
m o v e m e n t of th e n e u t r a l a x is . T h u s , m o r e of th e te n s io n zone is m o b ilise d
in r e s i s t i n g th e lo a d a nd its e f f e c t s , r e s u l t i n g in v e r y l a r g e i n c r e a s e s in
t h e t e n s i l e s t e e l s t r a i n , w hich a p p r o a c h e s s t r a i n h a r d e n in g , w h e r e a s the
c o m p r e s s i o n s t e e l r e m a i n e d l a r g e l y e l a s t i c . T h e f i b r e s th u s change the
p a t t e r n of b e h a v i o u r of th e s l a b s , t h e r e b y e f f e c tin g c h a n g e s in both the
l o a d c a p a c i t y a n d f a i l u r e m o d e s of th e f i b r e c o n c r e t e s l a b s . Both the
c o n t r o l of c r a c k i n g a nd s t e e l s t r a i n th r o u g h o u t the s l a b s a n d th e e n h a n c e
m e n t of th e lo a d c a p a c i ty a r e c o n f ir m e d b y th e te n s i l e s t e e l s t r a i n
d i s t r i b u t i o n th r o u g h o u t the s la b a s show n in F i g . 5.
T h i s c h ang e in s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e w a s a l s o r e f l e c t e d in th e v a r i a t i o n
of th e c o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n s a s show n in F ig . 6. A p a r t f r o m c o n
f i r m i n g th e s tif f e n in g e f f e c t of th e f i b r e s , th e i n t e r e s t i n g b e h a v i o u r h e r e
w a s t h a t w h ils t th e p la in c o n c r e t e s l a b s r e c o r d e d s t r a i n s b elow 3500 jus ,
th e f i b r e c o n c r e t e s l a b s w e r e a b le to s u s t a i n s t r a i n s of 4500 to 5200 j l u s ,
w e ll in e x c e s s of th e d e s ig n u l t i m a t e s t r a i n s s p e c i f ie d in c o d e s . T h is
p h e n o m e n o n is i m p o r t a n t to be r e c o g n i s e d a s it w ill in flu e n c e the m odellin g
of th e f i b r e c o n c r e t e b e h a v io u r .
F A IL U R E CH ARA CTERISTICS
T h e n e t e f fe c t of th e d a ta p r e s e n t e d in F i g s . 1 to 6 is t h a t fi b r e r e i n f o r c e
m e n t h a s a dual r o l e in s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s . On the one hand it c o n tr o ls
th e d e f o r m a t i o n s a t a ll l o a d s , s o t h a t th e f i r s t c r a c k lo a d , th e s h e a r
c r a c k i n g lo a d a nd th e f a i l u r e l o a d a r e a l l i n c r e a s e d . F u r t h e r , th e c o n tro l
of d e f o r m a t i o n s i m p l i e s th a t, f o r a g iv en d e f o r m a t io n c r i t e r i o n , the
s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l o a d s in a m e m b e r can a l s o be i n c r e a s e d . On the o th e r hand,
th e a b i l i t y to s u s t a i n m u c h h i g h e r d e f o r m a t i o n s , p r i o r to f a i l u r e , is al so
i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h i n c r e a s e d lo a d c a p a c ity . T h is l a t t e r p r o p e r t y c o n s e
q u e n tly c o n t r i b u t e s to the i n c r e a s e in th e d u c t ility and e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n
644
Load , kN
Centre deflection, mm
FIGURE 1 Load deflection behaviour
R o t a t io n , degrees
FIGURE 2 Load rotation characteristics
645
Max. load = 173-5 kN
FIGURE 5 Load steel strain distribution

647
Load , kN
FIGURE 7 S teel fib r e s b r id g in g cracks

648
c a p a b ility of the fib re c o n c re te s la b s . T h e se stru ctu ra l im p lic a tio n s are

quantified in T a b le s 2 and 3.
T A BLE 2
Strength p r o p e r tie s
Slab L oad s, kN
A B C D
F S -1 3 2 .0 105. 0 129. 0 173.
F S -2 42. 5 1 2 0 .0 1 6 2 .0 225.
F S -3 4 6 .8 1 3 5 .0 1 7 4 .0 247.
A - F ir s t cra ck load; B - Shear cra ck load
C - Y ield load; D - F a ilu r e load.
T he data in T ab le 2 em p h a size the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of the fib r e s in e n

h an cin g the str u c tu r a l p erfo rm a n ce of the fib re co n crete s la b s . At 1%
fib r e v o lu m e, the fa ilu r e punching sh e a r load, for exam p le, is in c r e a se d
b y o v er 40%. At the sa m e tim e , it is im portant to note that the fir s t crack
lo a d , the sh e a r cra ck in g load and the y ield load a ll occu rred at a p p ro x i
m a te ly the sa m e prop ortion of the m axim um load - i . e . at about 18-19%,
50-50% and 70-75% of the m axim um load for both typ es of s la b s . H ow ever,
the p o st-m a x im u m load b ehaviour w as d r a m a tic a lly d ifferen t, a s shown in
T a b le 3 w hich q u a n tifies the r e sid u a l load a fter fa ilu re and the load at
w hich the r e in fo r c e m e n t d isp la cem en t sta r te d . It is c le a r that fib r e s have
v e r y d ra m a tic b e n e fits at the p o st fa ilu r e sta g e through b rid gin g of cracks.
A t 1% fib re v o lu m e, for ex am p le, the r e sid u a l load cap acity w as about
80% of the fa ilu r e load for the fib re c o n cre te slab com pared to about 30%
fo r the con tro l sla b . The o v e r a ll e ffect of th e se load s is the enhancem ent
of d u c tility and e n e r g y ab sorp tion p r o p e r tie s which averaged in c r e a s e s of
beyond 100% and 200% r e s p e c tiv e ly . F ig . 7 show s the b ridging effec t of
fib r e s in con trib u tin g to a ll the above stru ctu ra l p r o p e r tie s.
TA BLE 3
P o st-m a x im u m load behaviour
Slab R esid u a l r e s is t . R ein f. d isp l.
kN kN
F S -1 5 3 .5 5 3 .5
F S -2 1 4 2 .6 9 2 .7
F S -3 2 0 0 .9 1 2 2 .5
CONCLUSIONS
T h is p aper d is c u s s e s the d e s ir a b ility and advantages of in corp oratin g s te d
fib r e s in str u c tu r a l lig h tw eigh t co n c r e te . T e s ts are then rep orted on la r g e
s c a le s la b -c o lu m n con n ection s to e sta b lish the r o le and e ffe c tiv e n e s s of
s t e e l fib r e s in m od ify in g the stru ctu ra l r e sp o n se of the s la b s . It is shown
that fib r e s have a p o s itiv e r o le in co n tro llin g a ll the d eform ation s through
649
c o n tro l of crack in g; a s a r e s u lt of th is, the fir s t crack load, the sh ea r

cra ck in g load and the fa ilu re load are a ll su b sta n tia lly enhanced. F u rth er,
th e s e im p r o v e m e n ts, in turn, help to enhance the d u ctility and en erg y
a b so rp tio n p r o p e r tie s of the s la b s . In a way, fib re re in fo rcem en t can be
s e e n to co m p en sa te for the lo w er e la s t ic m odulus and lo w e r te n s ile
stren g th of lig h tw eig h t a g g reg a te con crete; but the bridging of cra ck s after
fa ilu r e p ro d u ces d ra m a tic p o s t-fa ilu r e b ehaviour. The e ffec t of fib r e s is
m u ch m o r e pronounced in lig h tw eigh t c o n crete than in n orm al w eight
c o n c r e te .
R EFERENCES
1. Swam y, R .N . , P r e s t r e s s e d ligh tw eigh t co n cr ete, in D evelop m en ts in
P r e s t r e s s e d C on crete - 1 , ed. F . Sawko, A pplied S cien ce P u b lish e r s
L t d ., London, 1978, pp. 1 4 9 -1 9 1 .
2. Sw am y, R .N ., Sittam palam , K ., T h eodorakopoulos, D. D . ,

A jib ad e, A .O ., and W inata, R . , U se of ligh tw eigh t a g gregate
c o n c r e te for str u c tu ra l a p p lica tio n s, A dvances in C oncrete Slab
T ech n o lo g y , ed. R .K . D hir and J. G. L. Munday, P ergam on P r e s s ,
1979, p p .4 0 -4 8 .
3. Sw am y, R .N ., A li, S .A .R ., and T heodorakopoulos, D. D. ,

E n g in eerin g p r o p e r tie s of co n crete com p o site m a te r ia ls in c o r p o r
a tin g fly ash and s t e e l fib r e s, ACI P u b lication S P -7 9 , 1983, pp. 559-
588.
4. B alagu ru, P . and R am akrishnan, V . , P r o p e r tie s of ligh tw eigh t fib re

r e in fo r c e d c o n c r e te , ACI P u b lication S P -1 0 5 , 1987, pp. 3 0 5 -3 2 2 .
5. C raig, R . J . , L ightw eight r ein fo rc ed fib re c o n crete behaviour and

u s e s , D ev elo p m en ts in F ib r e R ein fo rced C oncrete and Cem ent,
ed. R .N . Sw am y, R. L . W agstaffe and D. R. O akley, V ol. 2, 1986,
P a p e r 8 .2 .
6. Sw am y, R . N . , and L am b ert, G. H. , Shear stren gth of ligh tw eigh t

c o n c r e te T -b e a m s without web r e in fo r c e m e n t,The Structural
E n g in e e r , 1983, 61B, 6 9 -7 8 .
7. Sw am y, R . N . , J o n e s, R . , and Chiam, T . P . , The in flu en ce of s te e l

fib r e s on the sh ea r r e s is ta n c e of ligh tw eigh t c o n crete b ea m s,
U npublished R ep ort.
8. Sw am y, R. N. , J o n e s, R . , and Chiam, T. P . , Shear tr a n sfe r in s te e l

fib r e r e in fo r c e d co n c re te , ACI P u b lication S P -1 0 5 , 1987, pp. 565 -5 9 2 .
9. W alraven, J . , P a t, T . , and M arkov, I. , The punching sh ea r r e s is ta n c e
of fib re r e in fo r c e d c o n crete sla b s, D ev elop m en ts in F ib re R einforced
C em ent and C o n c r e te , ed. R. N. Swam y, R. L. W agstaffe and D. R. Oaktey
650
V o l. 2, 1986, P a p er 8. 9.
10. Swam y, R. N. , and A li, S . A . R . , Punching sh e a r behaviour of

r e in fo r c e d sla b -c o lu m n con n ection s m ade with s te e l fib re co n crete,
ACI Jou rn a l, 1 9 8 2 ,7 9 , 3 9 2 -4 0 6 .
11. T h eod orak op ou los, D .D ., Punching sh e a r stren gth of s te e l fib re

r e in fo r c e d lig h tw eigh t co n crete sla b s, P h .D . T h e s is , U n iv e r sity of
S h effield , Sept. 1980.
12. Swam y, R. N. , and L am bert, G. H ., The m ic r o str u c tu r e of Lytag

a g g r e g a te , Int. J. C em ent C o m p o sites and L ightw eight C o n crete,
1981, 3, p p .2 7 3 -2 8 2 .
13. Swam y, R. N. , and L am b ert, G. H ., M ix d esig n and p r o p e r tie s of

c o n c r e te m ade from P F A c o a r se a g g r e g a te s and sand, Int. J.
C em ent C o m p o sites and L ightw eight C o n crete, 1983 5, pp. 2 6 3 -2 7 5 .
651
EXPERIENCES WITH STEEL FIBRES IN CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS
DR. ERHARD GF. CHORINSKY

CHEMOTECHNIK ABSTATT GMBH
Germany
ABSTRACT
Steel fibre reinforced concrete has got much attention in West Germany for the
construction of industrial floor slabs. Although the amounts of added steel fibres
are in the range of 20 - 60 kg per m^ of concrete, where they should not have
a reasonible effect on the static load characteristics, good results in practice
are reported for the new technique. Together with the application of steel fibres
more attention is given to the mix design of the concrete and the job sites are
controlled more intensively. Due to careful preparation and placement of the
concrete, use of better aggregate gradings, sufficient cement contents and highly
effective super-plasticizers the success of the steel fibres can be explained with
many side effects which do not relate to the steel fibre itself. Furthermore dry
shake cementicious hard aggregate toppings are used to provide a fibre-free and
moreover an extremely wear-resistant surface. Many contractors intend to acti
vate their flooring business and encouraged by the steel fibre suppliers and the
intensive service of the admixture producers they are getting growing knowledge
and experience with this low cost and high quality technique.
INTRODUCTION
There is a continuous discussion in West Germany whether industrial floor slabs

should be reinforced or not. Although it is evident that the most important cri
teria for a crack-free and a long-lasting industrial floor with good wear-resi-
stance are the accurate soil compaction, the conditions of placement and the
post-treatment, many civil engineers still recommend double layer reinforcement
to compensate shortcomings at the job site. On the other hand concrete experts
related to the cement industry recommend plain concrete, non reinforced, but
enlarged thickness of the floor slabs.
Since three years steel fibre suppliers try to invade the market of indust
rial floor slabs with the argument that they could replace steel rebars in heavy
duty floor slabs at a very reasonible price.
652
Specially the low price orientated contractors like this argumentation be
cause the savings are tremendous if the steel fibre addition is compared with a
well calculated steel reinforcement. As not many civil engineers have already
enough knowledge about advantages and disadvantages of steel fibre reinforce
ment in concrete they are not able to separate the effects of the incorporated
steel fibres from those of changes in the concrete technology itself. Many steel
fibre suppliers exaggerate when they declare that their very specially designed
and fabricated fibres improve almost all important characteristics of a concrete
produced with their products.
CLAIMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Of course there are differences in the claims and recommendations of steel

fibre suppliers in West Germany, but in generally all companies which are on
the market exaggerate in respect of the properties and possibilities of the steel
fibre reinforced concrete. The most frequently used arguments for the use of
steel fibres in industrial concrete floor slabs are the following:
1. If steel fibres are added to an ordinary well designed concrete the normally
calculated steel reinforcement can be replaced by a homogeneous fibre rein
forcement. This is much cheaper and less fibres are necessary by weight in
comparison to steel rebars.
Comment: Steel reinforcement is usually not necessary at all for the con
struction of concrete floor slabs and therefore it is of course true that ad
ditional steel fibre can help either for technical or for commercial purposes.
2. Tensile and flexible strength are considerably increased, therefore the thick
ness of floor slabs can be reduced by about 25 % without any disadvantages
to static or dynamic loadings.
Comment: The tests of large numbers of specimen from different job sites
and laboratory investigations have shown that tensile as well as flexible
strength can be remarkably increased above an addition of 1 % by volume of
steel fibres. At the recommended 30 - 60 kg per m^ reasonible effects are
mainly due to addition of superplasticizers which are of course mandatory for
the preparation of any concrete floor slabs.
The recommendations for concrete floor thickness are, influenced in West
Germany by the cement and concrete industry, usually 20 - 25 cm, but even
30 cm are recommended for better performance and extreme service condi
tions. In comparison with international standards usually at least 20 % of
concrete is placed more than necessary and statically calculated. The figure
might be even in the range of 30 % for smaller panels and these precautious
amounts can be reduced without any negative effect.
3. Higher impact resistance and better shock absorption is claimed and reported
together with the effect of less damage from extreme traffic and impact
loads.
Comment: These characteristics can be reproduced in the laboratory when
steel fibre reinforced concrete is directly exposed to impact testing facili
ties. The effect depends very much on the amount of steel fibres applied to
653
the concrete and is not comparable to the effect of dry shake cementicious
toppings formulated with metallic aggregates.
4. The most stressed sales argument for steel fibres in concrete floor slabs is
the reduced shrinkage cracking and thereby lower permeability and better
frost resistance.
Comment: The inspection of thousands of square meters of concrete floors
has shown that actually the crack formation can be limited by the steel
fibre technique. Obviously even at low fibre concentrations less cracking can
be observed under unfavourable conditions. Of course severe structual
cracking, due to failures in the soil compaction, wrong panel dimensions,
construction defects or thermal stresses can not be diminished.
5. Better abrasion resistance is another argument which is used during the plan
ning stage of industrial floors.
Comment: As steel fibre technique is not acceptable for the German industry
if fibres are visible on the surface, all fibre reinforced concrete floor slabs
are usually placed with an additional overlay of either dry shake mineral ag
gregate or metallique topping to provide a steel fibre free surface. Also the
technique of cementicious hard aggregate screeds, which are directly applied
over the fresh concrete surface in the thickness of about 10 mm, is fre
quently used. All wear-resistance requirements are covered by these toppings.
And as the overlay materials are usually applied with a very effective curing,
surface cracking is only a question of site conditions and the endeavours of
the craftsman on the job.
6. Larger bays and less joints are possible because the randomly dispersed steel
fibres guarantee a uniform reinforcement and help to avoid cracking at early
stages after placing.
Comment: As steel fibre addition is a very new technique an intensive service
is practised at any larger job site. And the instructors from the steel fibre
supplying companies as well as the admixture experts strictly control short
comings which might cause cracking. Therefore indeed the concrete bays can
be placed in larger dimensions as they always can when the site conditions
are optimized. The early cutting of contraction joints is nevertheless highly
recommendable and also practised.
7. Other properties are increased compressive strength, better thermal conduct
ivity, greater toughness and lower maintenance costs due to an extended ser
vice life.
Comment: All these improvements can more easily be achieved by other
means and the effect of steel fibres are rather poor in this respect. To im
prove compressive strength without changing of workability, synthetic plasti-
cizers are favourable. Thermal conductivity which might be desired for floor
heating devices can not be changed remarkably by steel fibres and finally it
is probably cheaper and easier to extend the life span of an industrial floor
by application of heavy duty toppings.
654
FIELD APPLICATIONS
As mentioned before the conditions to produce a crack-free and long-lasting

concrete floor are well known but not easy to practise. The know-how includes
the concrete mix design, placement and curing methods. But the use of steel
fibres makes everything a little bit easier, because many details get more atten
tion when a flowing concrete by addition of steel fibres turns into a stiff and
hardly workable material.
These difficulties intensifiy the endeavours of all people who are connected
with the processing, but specially those of the responsible civil engineers. As the
slab thickness is usually reduced by 4 - 5 cm, placing is easier and less hydra
tion heat is developed. This again helps in the first night, when early shrinkage
cracking is most dangerous for the young concrete.
The dosage of steel fibres is usually not more than 30 kg with declining
trend, but the workability for the concrete requires the addition of highly ef
fective superplasticizers to assure a water/cement ratio of about 0,45. Most of
the fibres on the market are produced and designed to avoid difficulties in
mixing, but usually they demand an increased cement content. As steel fibre
concretes are usually placed at highly plastic consistency but not as flowing
concrete no problems of segregation occur. To get sufficient distribution of the
fibres in the concrete, intensive mixing is obligatory. The minimum mixing time
of 5 minutes which is also necessary to get an optimized plasticizing effect is
no longer a problem. This results in more efficient utilization of the cement and
provides better homogenity together with improved stability of the concrete
against segregation and bleeding.
The better mixing together with the effect of highly effective synthetic
plasticizers used in a dosage of 1,5 - 3 % of cement weight are also responsible
for the stability against internal bleeding. By this means even the frost/thaw
resistance might be improved, because the destruction of concrete by frost
usually starts at the micro cracks at the surface of the aggregates where
bleeding water usually collects.
Even with very thorough surface finishing methods by rotating steel trowel
ing it is impossible to avoid that steel fibres are in the surface and this could
of course cause severe trouble for the industrial use of the floor. The applica
tion of cementicious overlays as described before is therefore mandatory
whenever concrete floor slabs are processed with steel fibre addition.
CONCLUSION
It is very important that the abilities of steel fibre reinforced concrete are
more intensively evaluated under practical conditions. As part of the properties
are advantageous both for technical and economical reasons, progress will
certainly be made in this field.
It seems that steel fibre reinforcement of concrete floor slabs even at low
dosages of about 0,5 % by volume improves the concrete construction. Certainly
the fibres cannot protect concrete from shrinkage and cracking but contrary to
the conventional steel reinforcement they help to reduce early shrinkage
655
cracking. This ability might be caused by the large fibre surface in comparison
with steel rebars. Together with a greater care in placement and easier handling
at the job site steel fibres provide more safety to a floor construction than or
dinary mesh reinforcement usually does.
To prohibit dry shrinkage and structual cracking in concrete floor slabs the
minimum demand of steel fibre dosage, related to those which are on the mar
ket now, should not be less than 1 % by volume. This of course could help the
construction even after cracking to bear static loads. Because the crack width is
reduced by a larger distribution the repair of cracked concrete panels, which is
usually done with epoxy resins, will be more difficult.
We have to acknowledge that the steel fibre technology has brought new
activities to the industrial flooring business and as side effect increases utiliza
tion of super-plasticizers and dry shake surface toppings. More attention has
been given to the construction itself and more care is contributed to the pro
cessing of the concrete in a way that reduction of slab thickness, saving of la
bour cost and less shrinkage cracking has ocurred in the field which could not
be foreseen from theory and laboratory testings.
REFERENCES
1. Bekaert, Dramix, Stahlfasern - die neuzeitliche Betonbewehrung, 05/1987

2. Vulkan Harex, Die gefraste Stahlfaser fur Qualitatsbeton, 9/1988
3. FIBRETECH, Steel Fibres for Concrete and Cement Reinforcement, 1986
4. Schmidt, Dr.-Ing. M., Allgemeines uber Stahlfaserbeton, Technische Akademie
Esslingen, 10/1988
5. Schniitgen, Dr.-Ing. B., Eigenschaften, Bemessung und Giitenachweis von
Stahlfaserbeton, Technische Akademie Esslingen, 10/1988
6. Vandewalle, M., Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete, RILEM Symposium FRC 86,
7/1986
656
A STUDY ON THE IN F L U E N C E OF F IB R E R E IN F O R C E M E N T IN CONCRETE
R . S R ID H A R A N K. R AJA G U R U V. A R U M U G A M
C h ie f E n g in e e r D e p u ty C h ie f E n g in e e r R e s e a rc h O ffic e r
P U B L IC W O R K S D E P A R T M E N T
G O V E R N M E N T O F T A M IL N A D U , M A D R A S -5 , I N D IA
ABSTRACT
T h e p a p e r d e s c r ib e s a s e rie s o f L a b o ra to ry e x p e r im e n t s c o n d u c te d by th e
S o il M e c h a n ic s an d R e s e a rc h D iv is io n , C hepauk, M a d r a s -5 , In d ia to s tu d y th e
in flu e n c e o f r a n d o m ly o r ie n t e d f ib r e s on th e s t r e n g th c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f
c o n c r e t e . T h e s tu d y has b e e n c o n fin e d m o s tly to s te e l fib r e s o f d i f f e r e n t
d i a m e t e r s , g e o m e t r ic a l fo r m s an d a s p e c t r a tio s , h a v in g th e f ib r e c o n te n t
b e tw e e n 2 an d 6 p e r c e n t by w e ig h t o f c o n c r e t e . A n a ly s is o f te s t re s u lts r e v e a l
th a t s te e l fib r e r e in f o r c e m e n t c a u s e s a g e n e r a l im p r o v e m e n t in th e s tr e n g th
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e c o n c r e t e c o m p a r e d to p la in o r r e in f o r c e d c o n c re te .
T h e a d d it io n of fib r e s r a n d o m ly d is t r ib u t e d , im p ro v e s m a n y p r o p e r tie s o f
c o n c re te such as fra c tu re to u g h n e s s , im p a c t r e s is ta n c e , f le x u r a l s tr e n g th and
r e s is ta n c e t o f a t ig u e . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e r e has b e e n a s p u r t in re s e a rc h and
d e v e lo p m e n t in t h e f ie ld o f f ib r e r e in f o r c e d c o n c re te in r e c e n t y e a r s . T h e s e
in v e s t ig a tio n s h a v e m a d e p o s s ib le d e v e lo p m e n t o f f ib r e c o m p o s ite s in c e m e n t
c o n c r e t e an d t h e ir a p p lic a t io n to m e e t s p e c ia l r e q u ir e m e n t in p r a c t ic e .
H o w e v e r, th e re a r e s t ill m a n y t e c h n ic a l an d p r a c t ic a l p r o b le m s to b e s o lv e d
in o r d e r t o w id e n its a p p lic a tio n in th e f i e l d . T h e fib r e s g e n e r a lly in use
a re v e g e t a b le fib r e s lik e c o ir f ib r e an d p a lm y r r a h f ib r e s , s y n th e tic fib r e s
su ch as n y lo n , p o ly p r o p y le n e an d s t e e l. In t h e p r e s e n t s tu d ie s , s te e l an d n y lo n
fib r e s o n ly h a v e b e e n us ed .
The m a jo r p r o b le m in s te e l f ib r e r e in f o r c e d c o n c re te is, n o n - a v a ila b ilit y
of s te e l f ib r e s of r e q u ir e d sh ap e s an d s iz e s in b u lk q u a n t it ie s . H a n d lin g of
f ib r e s an d lo w w o r k a b ilit y o f th e c o n c r e t e m a t r ix a r e o t h e r p r a c t ic a l p ro b le m s .
657
It is n e c e s s a ry t o a c h ie v e a d e q u a te c o m p a c t a b il it y o f th e fr e s h f ib r e c o n c r e t e
b y e n s u r in g u n ifo r m d is t r ib u t io n o f th e f ib r e s w it h o u t b a llin g o r c u r lin g up
o f th e fib r e s . T h e fo llo w in g p a g e s d e s c r ib e th e s tu d y c o n d u c te d to o v e r c o m e
th e a b o v e s a id p r o b le m s an d d i f f i c u l t i e s .
M A T E R IA L S AND M ETHODS
F ib r e s
In t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f t h e s tu d y , p la in ro u n d s te e l fib r e s w e r e u s ed . S te e l w ir e s
w it h d ia m e t e r s ra n g in g fr o m 0 .3 m m to 1 .9 5 m m an d h a v in g a t e n s ile s tr e n g th
o f 2 ,0 0 0 to 2 ,5 0 0 N /m m 2 w e re chopped in to s t r a ig h t p ie c e s . T h e p r o d u c tio n
o f s t r a i g h t s te e l fib r e s w as r e la tiv e ly s im p le an d th e y a ls o m ix e d w it h c o n c re te
w it h o u t d i f f i c u l t y , e x c e p tin g t h a t f ib r e s o f s m a lle r d i a m e t e r w ir e s 0 .3 m m
a n d b e lo w te n d e d to b a ll- u p d u rin g m ix in g . B u t th e te s ts w it h s t r a ig h t fib r e s
show ed th a t th e in te r fa c ia l bo nd b e tw e e n th e fib r e s an d th e c o n c r e t e m a t r ix
w a s g e n e r a lly w eak. The fra c tu re s tre n g th o f th e s te e l fib r e s in s t r a ig h t sh ap e
w a s n o t u t ilis e d as t h e f ib r e s g o t p u lle d o u t o r s lip p e d -o u t w it h th e f a ilu r e
o f c o n c re te . C o n s e q u e n tly , d i f f e r e n t g e o m e t r ic a l sh ap e s w e r e th o u g h t o f and
fo llo w in g a re th e fiv e g e o m e t r ic a l sh apes o f fib r e s a d o p te d , in c lu d in g th e
s tra ig h t one an d e a c h s h a p e is g iv e n th e f o llo w in g In d e x n u m b e r *
A spect r a t io and fib r e c o n te n t
B e s id e s g e o m e t r y o f s te e l fib r e s , a s p e c t r a t io (t h e r a t io of le n g th ' I 1 o f f ib r e
to its d i a m e t e r 'd ') is th e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r w h ic h has s ig n if ic a n t in flu e n c e
on t h e s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f c o n c r e t e m a t r ix . So, a s p e c t r a tio s o f 10,
1 5 , 2 0 , 3 0 , 4 0 , 5 5 an d 1 0 0 w e r e s tu d ie d in th e s e in v e s tig a tio n s . In th e c a s e
of n y lo n fib r e s , t h e a s p e c t r a t io a d o p te d v a r ie d fr o m 2 5 to 50 . These w e re
tw is te d th re a d -ty p e , h a v in g a m ean d ia m e te r o f 1m m .
The fib r e c o n t e n t used in c o n c r e t e in t h e c a s e o f s te e l fib r e s w a s 2 % ,
4 % , an d 6 % by w e ig h t o f c o n c r e t e w h ic h c o rre s p o n d to 0 .5 8 6 % , 1 .1 7 2 % and
1 .7 5 6 % b y v o lu m e . In th e c a s e o f n y lo n , th e f ib r e c o n te n t w a s 1 .0 p e r c e n t
b y w e ig h t o f c o n c r e t e .
CONCRETE M IX
P o r tla n d cem ent c o n fo r m in g to I.S . 2 6 9 -1 9 7 6 w as used in th e s tu d y . C o a rs e

658
a g g r e g a t e had a m a x im u m s iz e o f 1 8 m m w i th a fin e n e s s m o d u lu s o f 8 .5 . R iv e r
sa n d w it h a fin e n e s s m o d u lu s o f 2 .2 8 w a s used as th e f in e a g g r e g a te . D esig n
m ix o f M 15 an d M 1 0 , w it h a w a te r c e m e n t r a t io 0 .6 0 w as e m p lo y e d fo r
th e s p e c im e n s .
B a tc h in g an d m ix in g
A ll th e m a t e r ia l s w e r e b a tc h e d by w e ig h t an d hand m ix e d . C e m e n t an d sand
w e re m ix e d fir s t . T h e fib r e s w e r e th e n s lo w ly s p rin k le d by hand in to th is
an d m ix e d th o r o u g h ly . T h e d r y m ix o f c e m e n t , sand an d fib r e s w a s th e n ad d e d
to th e c o a rs e a g rre g a te an d m ix e d a g a in th o r o u g h ly . W a te r w as added in
th e f in a l s ta g e an d u n if o r m ly d is t r ib u t e d m a t r ix w a s a c h ie v e d .
T E S T S P E C IM E N
S p e c im e n s w e r e c a s t to assess th e s t r e n g t h of FRC ( F ib r e R e in fo r c e d
C o n c re te ) in c o m p re s s io n , f le x u r e , te n s io n an d im p a c t. For c o rn p a r is io n , c o n tr o l
s p e c im e n s in p la in c o n c re te w e re cast w it h th e sam e m ix p r o p o r tio n . For
f le x u r a l t e s t , b o th b e a m an d s la b s p e c im e n s w e r e c a s t. F o r te n s ile s t r e n g t h ,
c y lin d r ic a l s p e c im e n s , 3 0 0 m m lo ng an d 150m m d ia , w e r e c a s t.
T E S T IN G
T e s ts w e r e c o n d u c te d in a u n iv e rs a l t e s tin g m a c h in e o f 13 6 to n n e s c a p a c ity
u s in g s ta n d a r d t e s t p r o c e d u re s . T h e r e f e r e n c e s p e c im e n s (p la in c o n c r e t e ) w e r e
a ls o te s te d a lo n g s id e . The s tr e n g t h in c o m p re s s io n , f le x u r e an d s p lit te n s io n
w e r e d e t e r m in e d . Im p a c t te s ts w e r e a ls o c o n d u c te d to s tu d y t h e im p a c t
r e s is ta n c e of f ib r e r e in f o r c e d c o n c re te ( F R C ) as c o m p a r e d to p la in c o n c re te .
These w e re c a r r ie d out on beam m e m b e rs cast w it h 2% of tr o u g h sh ap e d
(In d e x No. 4) an d c r ir n p e d (In d e x No. 2) s te e l f ib r e s h a v in g an aspect r a t io
o f 3 0 an d w it h a 20 mm fV f n o tc h on o n e fa c e in o r d e r to have a p r e fe re n tia l
lin e o f c r a c k under im p a c t lo a d .
RESULTS
The r e s u lts o f t h e s tu d y c a r r ie d o u t on t h e in flu e n c e o f fib r e s o f v a rio u s
p a r a m e t e r s , such as a s p e c t r a t io , f ib r e s h a p e an d f ib r e c o n te n t on t h e c o n c r e t e
an d t h e p e r c e n t a g e im p r o v e m e n t in s t r e n g t h o v e r p la in c o n c r e t e a r e p r e s e n te d
T a b le 1 to 6.
659
TABLE 1
Results of compression Tests (SFRC)
F ib r e C h a r a c t e r is t ic s C o m p r e s s iv e S tr e n g th
P e r
In d e x * I d I/d c e n ta g e C o n tr o l Test P e r c e n ta g e
No. F ib r e In c re a s e
(m m ) (m m ) C o n te n t ( N / m m 2) ( N / m m 2)
20 1 .9 5 10 2 2 7 .8 5 2 8 .7 3 3 .1 6
30 1 .9 5 15 2 2 7 .8 5 3 0 .0 4 7 .8 6
40 1 .9 5 20 2 2 7 .8 5 3 2 .1 5 1 5 .4 4
50 1 .9 5 25 2 2 7 .8 5 3 2 .8 6 1 7 .9 9
20 0 .9 0 22 2 1 0 .1 6 1 0 .8 4 6 .6 8
30 0 .9 0 33 2 1 0 .1 6 1 1 .6 6 1 4 .7 8
50 0 .9 0 55 2 2 0 .2 1 2 6 .5 8 3 1 .2 5
30 1 .0 30 2 2 0 .2 1 2 2 .5 3 1 1 .4 6
40 1 .0 40 2 1 1 .7 8 1 7 .9 7 5 2 .5 0
30 0 .7 43 2 2 1 .8 2 2 8 .1 0 2 8 .7 6
30 0 .3 100 2 2 0 .2 1 2 2 .6 1 1 1 .8 4
2 20 1 20 2 2 7 .8 5 2 9 .3 2 5 .2 7
2 30 1 30 2 2 7 .8 5 3 1 .7 9 1 4 .1 4
3 50 1 50 2 2 0 .2 1 2 1 .9 6 8 .6 4
3 100 1 100 2 2 7 .8 5 3 2 .0 6 1 5 .1 2
4 30 1 30 2 1 0 .1 6 11 .91 1 7 .2
4 30 1 30 4 1 0 .1 6 1 2 .8 2 2 6 .1 6
4 30 1 30 6 1 0 .1 6 1 4 .1 3 3 9 .0 7
5 30 1 30 2 1 1 .7 8 1 9 .5 5 6 5 .9 5
TABLE 2
Test R e s u lts o f N y lo n F ib r e r e in f o r c e d m e m b e rs
S tr e n g th c h a r a c t e r is t ic s
D ia m e te r P e r c e n ta g e Aspect
r a t io C o m p re s s io n F le x u r e S p lit T e n s io n
o f F ib r e F ,b ,:e ,
(m m\ c o n te n t I/d ( N / m m 2) ( N / m m 2) ( N / m m 2)
(m m )
c o n tr o l s p e c im e n
— — 2 7 .8 5 4 .5 5 0 .8
T e s t s p e c im e n
1 0 .2 5 25 2 5 .5 2 5 .0 4 1 .7 2
1 0 .2 5 30 2 3 .0 8 4 .0 9 1 .6 8
1 0 .2 5 35 2 4 .7 7 4 .8 8 1 .7 0
1 0 .5 0 30 2 5 .7 3 4 .8 3 1 .6 9
1 1 30 2 0 .1 6 4 .4 1 2 .0 6
660
TABLE 3
Results of Flexural Tests (SFRC)
F ib r e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s F le x u r a l S tr e n g th
_________________________ P e rc e n t-
I d I/d a9e C o n tr o l Test P e r c e n ta g e
A s p e c t F ib re in c re a s e
(m m ) (m m ) R a t io c o n te n t ( N / m m 2) ( N / m m 2)
1 20 1 .9 5 10 2 4 .5 5 6 .7 7 4 8 .8 7
1 30 1 .9 5 15 2 4 .5 5 6 .1 1 3 4 .1 7
1 40 1 .9 5 2 (£ 2 4 .5 5 5 .2 2 1 4 .6 7
1 50 1 .9 5 25 2 4 .3 9 4 .4 5 1 .2 5
1 25 0 .9 0 28 2 2 .4 2 3 .0 4 2 5 .4 1
1 30 0 .9 0 33 2 2 .4 2 2 .6 9 1 0 .7 7
1 50 0 .9 0 55 2 4 .5 5 5 .0 8 1 1 .5 9
1 30 0 .7 0 43 2 4 .5 5 6 .0 5 3 2 .8 1
1 30 1 .0 30 2 2 .4 2 3 .0 9 2 7 .3 9
1 40 1 .0 40 2 2 .4 2 2 .9 3 2 0 .8 7
1 40 1 .9 5 20 2 4 .3 9 4 .9 7 1 3 .1 5
1 40 1 .9 5 20 4 4 .3 9 5 .2 5 1 9 .8 7
1 40 1 .9 5 20 6 4 .3 9 5 .3 8 2 2 .4 6
1 30 0 .9 33 2 4 .3 9 5 .6 4 2 8 .3 5
1 30 0 .9 33 4 4 .3 9 6 .0 6 3 7 .9 1
1 30 0 .9 33 6 4 .3 9 5 .6 5 2 8 .6 8
2 30 1 .0 30 2 2 .0 4 2 .1 8 6 .6 6
2 30 1 .0 30 4 2 .0 4 2 .4 5 1 9 .8 2
2 30 1 .0 30 6 2 .0 4 2 .5 9 2 6 .7 2
4 30 1 .0 30 2 2 .0 4 2 .5 9 2 6 .6 5
4 30 1 .0 30 4 2 .0 4 2 .8 6 4 0 .0 0
4 30 1 .0 30 6 2 .0 4 3 .3 4 6 3 .3 4
3 30 1 .0 30 2 4 .0 9 4 .4 6 9 .2 2
5 30 1 .0 30 2 4 .0 9 4 .9 1 2 0 .0 1
4 30 1 .0 30 2 4 .5 5 5 .5 9 2 2 .6 4
TABLE 4
F le x u r a l T e s ts on S lab s o f s iz e 6 0 0 x 3 0 0 x 5 0 m m (S F R C )
__ F le x u r a l S tr e n g th
P e r c e n ta g e
F lb r e
A spect
r a t|0
" 77 7
‘
C o n tr o l
~~ 7"7
Test
7P e r c e n7ta g e
Ir
N c o n te n t I/d ,M / 2> .. , 2, In c re a s e
(N/mrrr) N /mm )
3 2 30 2 .5 8 3 .2 7 3 6 .7
3 3 30 2 .5 8 3 .6 8 4 2 .4
4 2 30 2 .5 8 4 .1 5 6 0 .7 2
4 3 30 2 .5 8 5 .0 3 9 4 .7 4
1 3 30 2 .5 8 4 .0 7 5 7 .5 8
661
TABLE 5
Results of Split Tension Tests (SFRC)
F ib r e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s T e n s ile s tr e n g th
P e rc e n t
In d e x 1 d I/d age c o n tr o l Test P e r c e n ta g e
No* A s p e c t F ib r e in c re a s e
R a t io c o n te n t
(m m ) (m m ) ( N / m m 2) ( N / m m 2)
20 1 .9 5 10 2 1 .9 9 2 .2 5 1 2 .9 7
30 1 .9 5 15 2 1 .9 9 2 .4 7 2 4 .0 3
40 1 .9 5 20 2 1 .9 9 2 .3 0 1 5 .6 9
50 1 .9 5 25 2 1 .5 5 2.0 1 3 2 .2 6
25 0 .9 0 28 2 0 .8 1 .1 2 3 9 .6 3
30 0 .9 0 33 2 0 .8 1 .1 0 3 7 .5 0
40 0 .9 0 45 2 0 .8 1 .2 9 6 1 .7 5
40 0 .9 0 45 2 0 .6 5 1 .6 2 8 6 .9 2
50 0 .9 0 55 2 0 .6 5 2 .2 3 1 8 0 .7 7
30 0 .3 0 100 2 1 .8 2 2 .3 3 2 7 .5 8
30 0 .7 0 43 2 1 .8 5 2.3 1 4 8 .8 4
30 1 .0 0 30 2 1.31 1 .6 4 2 5 .2 0
50 1 .9 5 25 2 1 .9 0 2 .1 4 1 2 .6 6
50 1 .9 5 25 4 1 .9 0 2 .1 7 1 3 .2 5
50 1 .9 5 25 6 1 .9 0 2 .1 2 1 1 .8 7
4 30 1 .0 0 30 2 1 .0 2 1 .3 2 2 8 .5 6
4 30 1 .0 0 30 4 1 .0 2 1 .5 6 5 2 .0 5
4 30 1 .0 0 30 6 1 .0 2 1 .6 0 5 6 .1 5
2 30 1 .0 0 30 2 1 .0 2 1 .2 5 2 1 .9 8
2 30 1 .0 0 30 4 1 .0 2 1 .4 3 3 9 .8 5
2 30 1 .0 0 30 6 1 .0 2 1 .5 9 5 4 .8 5
TABLE 6
R e s u lts o f im p a c t te s ts on S F R C b e a m s o f s iz e 100x100x500m m
N o . o f b lo w s A v e ra g e P e r c e n ta g e in c r e
r e q u ir e d f o r b lo w s fo r a s e in Im p a c t
D e s c r ip tio n
F irs t F a ilu r e f a ilu r e r e s is ta n c e
c ra c k
C o n tr o l s p e c im e n
B eam I 2 3
B e a m II 2 3
B eam III 2 3 3
T e s t S p e c im e n
B earn I 4 16
B eam II 3 15
B eam III 2 12
B eam IV 4 14
Beam V 3 12
B eam VI 2 12 81 -i o r
350
____ I X - J I - i - 3 :-5-.
662
T h e te s t r e s u lts sh ow an o v e r a ll im p r o v e m e n t in s tr e n g th o f s te e l f ib r e
r e in f o r c e d c o n c re te (S F R C ) m e m b e r s . W ith a f ib r e c o n te n t o f 2 % , 4 % an d
6 % , th e c o m p r e s s iv e s t r e n g t h sh ow s an im p r o v e m e n t ra n g in g fr o m 5 to 5 2
p e r c e n t . T h e f le x u r a l s tre n g th is in c re a s e d fr o m 10 to 5 5 p e r c e n t an d s p lit
t e n s ile s t r e n g t h sh ow s an im p r o v e m e n t o f 12 to 3 5 p e r c e n t . T h e im p a c t t e s t
sh ow s 3 5 0 p e r c e n t in c re a s e in im p a c t r e s is ta n c e o v e r p la in c o n c r e t e . W ith
n y lo n f ib r e s , t h e e f f e c t on c o m p re s s io n , f le x u r e an d s p lit te n s io n a re
in s ig n if ic a n t .
D IS C U S S IO N
It has b e e n o b s e rv e d fr o m t h e te s ts c o n d u c te d th a t th e in c lu s io n o f fib r e s
in c o n c r e t e in h ib ite d th e w id e n in g an d p r o p o g a tio n o f c r a c k s . U n lik e o r d in a r y
c o n c re te , th e re is no b r e a k in g up of th e c o m p re s s io n c o n c re te an d no f a llin g
of d e b r is an d th e in t e g r it y of th e beam s a re p r e s e rv e d even a fte r f a ilu r e .
In th e te n s io n zone i t s e lf , c o m p le t e d is in t e g r a t io n is a b s e n t as th e fib r e s -
b r id g e t h e g a p an d h o ld o n . F R C s e e m s to possess c o n s id e r a b le d u c t ile
s tre n g th , f le x u r a l s t iffn e s s an d to u g h n e s s to fra c tu re and r e s is ta n c e to cra c k
p r o p o g a tio n . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t io n fr o m a b r ittle to a d u c t i le ty p e o f m a t e r ia l
w o u ld in c re a s e s u b s t a n t ia lly th e e n e r g y a b s o r p tio n c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e f ib r e
c o m p o s ite an d its a b i l i t y to w it h s t a n d r e p e a te d ly a p p lie d sh o ck an d im p a c t
lo a d in g s .
C O N C L U S IO N
B ase d on t h e s tu d y th e fo llo w in g o b s e r v a tio n s a r e m ade
1. T h e c o m p re s s iv e s t r e n g t h of FRC in c re a s e s w it h in c re a s e in a s p e c t r a t io
an d a ls o w it h in c re a s e in f ib r e c o n t e n t .
2. T h e f le x u r a l s tre n g th in c re a s e s w it h f ib r e c o n te n t but show s a d e c r e a s in g
tr e n d w it h in c re a s e in a s p e c t r a t io , fo r f ib r e s o f th e s a m e d i a m e t e r .
3. T h e s p lit t e n s ile s t r e n g t h in c r e a s e s w ith in c re a s e in f ib r e c o n te n t and a ls o
w it h a s p e c t r a t io .
4. The in c re a s e in s t r e n g t h w it h in c re a s e in f ib r e c o n te n t is n o t p r o p o r t io n a t e .
5. The im p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of th e fib r e s th a t a ffe c t th e p r o p e r tie s of
th e c o n c r e t e a r e t h e v o lu m e c o n te n t o f fib r e s an d t h e ir a s p e c t r a t io .
663
A c k n o w le d g e m e n t
T h e s tu d y re p o rte d in th is p a p e r w a s sp o n so red by an d c a r r ie d o u t w it h
f in a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e fr o m th e C e n tra l B o a rd o f Ir r ig a t io n an d P o w e r,
G o v e rn m e n t o f In d ia .
REFERENCES
1. S ta te of A rt R e p o r t on F R V by t h e USCO LD c o n c re te C o m m itte e ,
June 1980.
2. R .N . S w a m y an d K .A .A I. Noor "
" F le x u r a l b e h a v io u r o f f ib r e c o n c r e t e w it h c o n v e n tio n a l s te e l r e in f o r c e m e n t .'
3. K a ra l K o m lo s
" S tr e n g t h an d D e f o r m a t io n p r o p e r tie s o f c o n c r e t e r e in f o r c e d w it h r a n d o m ly
spaced s te e l an d b a s a lt f i b r e s . "
4. G .H . T o t t e r s a l an d C .R . U rb a n o w ic h
"B o n d s t r e n g t h in s t e e l f ib r e r e in f o r c e d c o n c r e t e ."
5. L . J a rn a n an d B .L . D u ry .
" F ra c tu re T o u g h n e s s an d FR C ".
6. D .J . H a n n a n t.
" F ib r e c e m e n ts an d F ib r e c o n c r e t e s .
664
EFFECT OF FIBRES ON THE STRENGTH OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE BEAMS UNDER COMBINED LOADING
M.A.AL-Ausi, M ustansiryiah U n iversity Baghdad

H.M.S.Abdul-Wahab, U n iversity of Technology, Baghdad
R.M.Khidair, U n iversity of Technology, Baghdad
SUMMARY
This paper reports r e s u lts of an in v e stig a tio n in to the strength and

behaviour of f u ll s iz e reinforced concrete beams containing ste e l fib r e s
and te ste d under combined bending, shear and to r sio n . Eighteen beams with
id e n tic a l c r o ss-se c tio n and longitudenal reinforcement were te sted to
f a ilu r e . The rrain v a r ia b le s studied in the experimental progranme were
fib r e content and loading r a tio . Measurements of d e fle c tio n s , ro tation s
and concrete str a in were made. From t e s t s r e s u lts , an em pirical formula is
proposed for the p red ictio n of the u ltim ate capacity of FRC beams under
conbined loading. R esu lts from previous t e s t s by the f ir s t two authors and
other r e s u lts reported in the lite r a tu r e strongly supported the v a lid it y
of the proposed formula.
INTRODUCTION
Considrable research has been carried out to study the e ffe c t of fib r e s on
the moment carrying cap acity of R.C beams with or without the presence of
shear or to r sio n . Very lim ited research has been d irected toward the study
of the three dimensional in te ra ctio n e f f e c t s of combined loading on SFRC
beams.
In the past fiv e years an exten sive research programne has been in
progress at the U n iversity of Technology and C ollege of Engineering,
M ustansiryiah U n iv ersity to study the strength and behaviour of SFRC beams
under combined loading. Some of the resu lt have been published (1 ,2 ) and
others are s t i l l under a n a lyais (3 ).
Three main types of an alyses have so far been rrade for the strength
of SFRC beams under combined loading. One i s purely an empirical method
(3 ), and the others are e ith e r sem i-em pirical or q u a si-th eo r etica l
approaches (2 ).
In th is paper a th e o r e tic a l approach i s followed to estirm te the

665
u ltir m te carrying capacity of SFRC beams subjected to combined loading. In

a d d itio n , an em pirical formula i s proposed based on the experimental
r e s u lts obtained in th is stady and r e su lts obtained by the f ir s t two
authors as w ell as some others relevant data found in the lite r a tu r e .
A to ta l of eighteen specimens divided in to four se r ie s were tested under

four d iffe r e n t combinations of loading, namely, pure bending, pure to rsio n ,
combined bending and to r sio n , and combined bending, torsion and shear .
D e ta ils of the specimens are shown in F i g .l .
3580
52 0 ,250. 204-5 250u 520
390
390
u
Plan
Front elevation
Figure (1) D e ta ils of te sted beams
High t e n s ile s te e l fib r e s with hooked ends, "Dramix" type were used
w ith a nominal u ltim ate t e n s ile strength of 1177 MPa. The length and
diameter of fib r e s were 30 run and 0 .5 nm respe a t iv e ly , with an aspect
r a tio of 60. The fib r e volume fr a c tio n s used 0, 0 .5 and 1.0%. The mix
p roportion, type of s te e l fib r e s and conventional ste e l reinforcom ent, in
the te s t zone were kept constant. Eight loading arrangements were used
w ith the intended loading r a tio s as given in Table 1.
The beams were s p e c ia lly reinforced in both longitudental and tran

sverse d ir e c tio n in order that fa ilu r e would be w ithin the te s t zone. The
s te e l used was deformed bars 10 rrm in diameter with a y ie ld stength,
fy=350 MPa and u ltirm te stren gth , fu=500 MPa for the longitudenal
r e in f orcoment and 7 .5 rrm diamater with a y ie ld strength, fy=400 MPa and
u ltir m te str e n sth , fu=490 MPa for the stir r u p s. D e ta ils of reinforcement
are shown in F ig. 2
The concrete mix proportion was 1:2.1: 2.6 (by weight) of ordinary
Portland cement: natural sand: coarse aggregate (crushed gravel) of 12 nm
maximum s iz e . The water: cement r a tio of 0.50 was found to g iv e adequate
w o rk ab ility for both p la in and fib r e reinforced concrete.
666
TABLE 1
Intendsd loading r a tio s for beams
Beam Type of Fibre Loading Rat io

Loading Content T/M T/V M/V
Vf.(%) (nm) (nm)
M0 Pure 0 .0 0.0 0.0 cx
Ml Bending 0 .5 0.0 0.0 cx
M2 Moment 1.0 0.0 0 .0 cx
TO Pure 0 .0 oc cx -
TI Torsion 0 .5 cc cx -
T2 1.0 cx cx -
MT1 Combined 0 .0 1.00 cx (X
MT2 Moment 1.0 1.00 cx cx
MT3 and 1.0 0.35 cx oc
MT4 Torsion 1.0 0.25 cx cx
MT5 0.5 0.25 cx cx
MTS1 Combined 0 .0 1.00 400 400
MTS2 • Moment 0 .5 1.00 400 400
MTS3 Torsion 1.0 1.00 400 400
MTS4 and 0 .0 0.35 175 500
MTS5 Shear 0 .5 0.35 175 500
MTS6 1.0 0.35 175 500
MTS7 1.0 0.25 175 500
10mm
j>7-5mmfhlOOmm
^ ------------------------------------ 1— ....... - .
2flOm m
jj7Smm(h
\ T 5 0rnm
10mm
Pure torsion , pure bending , 8 sec. LI sec. 2.2
combined torsion 8 bending
3 10mm
^75 mm/Q100 m m
2 j 10 m m
3* 2 10 m m
Combined torsion bending 8 shear sec. 3 - 3
Figure (2) D etail of Reinforcement
A ll the beams were te ste d to fa ilu r e in a hydraulic rrachine at 28

days of age. The load was applied through a stiffe n e d s te e l I-beams, 400rrm
deep. Control specimens were a ls o cast and tested at the same time with
each beam. They were three 150 rrm cubes for compressive strength, three
150 rrm diameter x300 rrm cylin d ers for in d irect t e n s ile strength and six
100x100x400 rrm prisms for the modulus of rupture and modulus of e l a s t i c i t y .
Measurements of d e fle c tio n , rotation and concrete stra in s at sele cted

p o in ts shown in F ig. 3 were made at in te r v a ls during the t e s t s . D eflectio n
667
Figure (3) Location of d e fle c tio n , rotation & strain measurements
and ro ta tio n readings were taken using d ia l gauges graduated to 0.02 mn

d iv is io n s . Concrete str a in s were measured using a 200 mn mechanical
extensom eter. Crack propagation w ith load increase and modes of fa ilu r e
were noted.
TEST RESULTS
A sumrary of te s t r e s u lts for the control specimens i s given in

Table 2. Table 3 shows the r e s u lts for the te sted beams.
TABLE 2
R esults of control specimens t e s t s
Fibre Comp. T en sile Modulus Modulus

Beam Conteat Strength Strength of of
Repture E la s t ic it y
(%) (N/mm2) (N/rrm2) (N/nm2) (N/nm2)
MO 0 .0 37.00 2.76 2.41 27086
Ml 0 .5 A0.89 3.17 3.83 33190
M2 1.0 39.93 3.62 3.81 29761
TO 0 .0 34.37 2.58 2.90 28447
T1 0 .5 40.22 2.98 3.68 39726
T2 1.0 40.15 3.32 3.83 35563
MT1 0 .0 25.30 1.56 1.94 21048
MT2 1.0 21.80 2.05 2.56 23721
MT3 1.0 25.93 2.15 2.53 22018
MT4 1.0 21.67 1.96 2.85 19372
MT5 0 .5 39.80 2.92 3.25 32484
MTS1 0 .0 35.56 2.16 2.97 25641
MTS2 0 .5 39.11 3.02 3.83 26415
MTS3 1.0 39.11 3.11 4.79 25792
MTS4 0 .0 38.07 2.37 2.74 39097
MTS5 0 .5 27.78 2.50 3.27 26460
MTS6 1.0 27.56 3.01 3.84 21290
MTS7 1.0 37.93 3.73 4.62 36482
TABLE 3
R e su lts of th e te s t e d beams
Beam F ir st Crak F ailu re
Applied Torsional Bending Shear Applied Torsional Bending Shear

Load Moment Moment Force Load Moment Moment Force
(KN) (KN-M) (KN-M) (KN) (KN) (KN-M) (KN-M) (KN)
MO 34.58 0.00 9.42 0.00 155.24 0.00 41.30 0.00

Ml 49,60 0.00 13.52 0.00 174.13 0.00 47.45 0.00
M2 60.09 0.00 16.37 0.00 202.33 0.00 55.13 0.00
TO 36.54 6.39 0.00 0.00 74.80 13.09 0.00 0.00
TI 47.82 8.37 0.00 0.00 79.71 13.95 0.00 0.00
T2 50.30 8.80 0.00 0.00 89.52 15.67 0.00 0.00
668
MT1 42.92 6.44 6.44 0.00 60.09 9.01 0.01 0.00

MT2 52.73 7.91 7.91 0.00 88.54 13.28 13.28 0.00
MT3 50.28 5.28 15.08 0.00 89.03 9.35 26.71 0.00
MT4 55.18 4.14 16.55 0.00 89.35 7.38 29.51 0.00
MT5 41.45 3.11 12.44 0.00 114.4 8.55 34.51 0.00
MTS1 28.69 5.74 6.51 14.35 64.1 12.80 14.56 32.01
MTS2 34.58 6.91 8.57 17.29 73.82 14.76 18.30 36.91
MTS3 38.01 7.60 9.95 19.00 76.76 15.35 20.11 38.38
MTS4 28.20 2.47 10.57 14.10 88.04 7.70 33.01 44.02
MTS5 34.58 3.03 14.28 17.29 97.36 8.52 40.20 48.68
MTS6 47.33 4.14 19.28 23.67 99.33 8.69 40.47 49.67
MTS7 25.26 1.58 11.87 12.63 105.21 6.58 49.44 52.61
669
F ig . 4 shows the r e la tio n between the to rsion al moment and angle of tw ist
for a l l the te ste d beams. F ig. 5 shows ty p ica l lo a d -d eflec tio n curves of
several te ste d beams.
Figure (4) E ffect of fib r e content and type of loading on torque-rotation

behaviour
The torq ue-tw ist r e la tio n sh ip i s markedly a ffe c te d by the amount of

fib r e con tent. Greater d u c t ilit y and to rsion al moment capacity were observ
ed for a l l types of loading due to the presense of fib r e . This i s a
d ir e c t resu lt of increased t e n s i l e strenght of the rratrix due to fib r e (1 ).
The lo a d -d e fle c tio n behaviour of the te ste d beams, F ig. 5, shows that
beams w ith fib r e s exhibted a con sisten t trend in decreased in i t i a l
d e fle c tio n but higher cracking and fa ilu r e load for higher fib r e content.
This can be seen for beams in pure bending and combined bending and
670
se of the larger te s t spans involved.

----------* H 2
7 80
17 0
160
150
14 0
130
120
110
I 00
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20
10
0
30
20
10
0-
40
30
20
10
0-
20
10
Oi
30
20
10
0-
1 2 4. 8
DEFLECT ION (mm.)
ffe c t of fib r e content and type of loading on load d e fle c tio n
behavi or
671
The load carrying c a p a c itie s of reinforced concrete beams with fib re

were higher than those for th e ir counterparts without fib r e . In general
the higher the fib r e content the greater the increase in the capacity.
The presence of fib r e s a ls o increased the s t if f n e s s , d u c t ilit y and darmge
toleran ce of the beams. Mich srm ller crack spacing and fih e r cracks were
a ls o observed in the beams containing fib r e s . The mode of fa ilu r e was
a ls o changed from a sudden to a gradual type due to the presence of
fib r e s in beams under pure to rsion and under combined loadings.
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION
1- Pure bending moment

The method proposed by Swairy and AL-Taan (5) was used to find the u ltirm te
capacity of the beams te ste d under pure bending moment. F ig. 6 shows the
s tr e s s and stra in diagrams they adopted to c a lcu la te the u ltirm te moment.
6 u =0.00 35
0.77 OP 0.67
dn
Br
>Fft
►Fst ►Fst
Bcu »cu
Strain distribution Actual stress Assumed stress

distribution distribution
Figure (6) S tress and stra in d istr ib u tio n -R e f. (5)
2 - Pure to rsio n
The u ltirm te capacity of the beams tested under pure torsion al moment was
ca lcu la ted according to the method proposed by Naraynan and Kareem (4)
which i s a sem i-em pirical method combining the resista n ce provided by the
concrete, the fib e r s and the longitudenal reinforcement. Thus:
Tu = Tup + Tuf + Tur (1)

Where
Tu i s the u ltirm te to rsio n a l moment of the beam
Tu i s the to rsio n a l moment of p la in conerate
Tuf i s the to rsio n a l moment due to fib re
Tur i s the to rsio n a l moment due to longitudenel and transverse rein f orcom
ent .
3 - Combined bending moment and to rsio n a l moment.
A superposition method was used to find the capacity of the teste d beams.
F ir s t , the th e o r e tic a l capacity of ordinary reinforced concrete beams
under corrbined bending and to rsion was calcu lated using the method
proposed by Warner, Rangan and Hall (6) because of i t ' s sim p ilic ity and the
672
reasonable assumptions involued. The th e o r etic a l capacity of FRC beams was

ca lcu la ted according to the method proposed by Mansur (7 ). The sum of the
two p redicted v alu es was then taken as the th eo r etic a l capacity of SFRC
beams under corrbined bending and to rsio n .
4 - Combined bending, to rsion and shear.
As in the case of beams under bending and to rsio n , the th eo r etica l capacity
of ORC beams was found and added to the th eo r etica l capacity of FRC beams.
The f i r s t part was ca lcu la ted according to the method proposed in Ref. 6.
w hile the second part was ca lcu la ted according to the method proposed by
Monsure and Paramasivam (8 ). The two parts were then added to estim ate the
th e o r e tic a l ultim ate capacity of the te ste d beams.
Table 4. shows a comparison between the experimental and the theore
t ic a l r e s u lts according to the above procedure for a l l the beams te ste d .
The standard d ev ia tio n (0.119) and c o e ffic ie n t of v a ria tio n (11.66%)
in d ic a te that the proposed procedure g iv e s a reasonable estirm te of the
u lt ir a te c a p ic ity of RC beams with and without s te e l fib r e s .
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Based on the experimental r e s u lts obtained in th is study and sane of th e

a v a ila b le relevant data, a simple em pirical fom nia i s proposed as a guide
for d esig n ers, to e s t ir a t e the u ltim ate capacity of SFRC beams under
corrbined loading. The proposed formula takes the follow ing form
Where
T = applied torsion
Tu = u lt ir a t e to rsio n a l capacity under pure torsion
M = applied monent
Mu = u ltim ate monent capacity under pure bending
V = applied shear
Vu= u lt ir a t e shear capacity under pure shear
a l , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , are constants
m , n are real numbers
S u b stitu tin g the boundary condition and using the le a st square
method in a simple computer pragramne a l l the constants in the above
equation were found and equation 2 becames:
The above equation was applied to a l l beams tested by the authors

as w ell as several other te s t resu lt a v a ila b le from the lite r a tu r e ( 1 ,7 ,8 ) .
Table (5) shows a comparison between the measured and calcu lated torsion al
c a p a c itie s . Again i t can be seen that the standard d eviation (0.155) and
c o a ffic ie n t of v a r ia tio n (17.45) in d ica te that the proposed formula g iv e s
reasonable v alu es for the u ltim ate to rsio n a l ca p a c itie s of FRC beams under
corrbined loading.
TABLE 4
Comparison Between Expersmental and T heoratical Result
Experimental R esults T heoratical R esults Exp. Mode

Beam Shear Bending Torsion Shear Bending Torsion Theo. of
Force Moment Moment Force Moment Moment F ailu re
(KN) (KN~m) (KN-m) (KN) (KN-m) (KN-m)
MO - 33.07 - - 28.85 - 1.146 Flexure
Ml - 47.54 - - 48.09 - 0.987 Flexure
M2 - 55.13 - - 54 .'80 - 1.006 Flexure
TO - - 13.09 - - 12.59 1.040 Torsion
T1 - - 13.95 - - 13.54 1.030 Torsion
T2 - - 15.67 - ~ 14.02 1.118 Torsion
MT1 - 9.01 9.01 - 9.16 9.16 0.984 Torsion
MT2 - 13.28 13.28 - 13.67 13.67 0.971 Torsion
MT3 - 26.71 9.35 - 24.41 8.55 1.094 Torsion
MT4 - 29.51 7.38 - 28.24 7.06 1.045 Torsion
MT5 - 34.51 8.55 - 29.90 7.41 1.154 Torsion
MTS1 32.01 12.80 12.80 24.26 9.70 9.70 1.319 Torsion
MTS2 36.91 14.76 14.76 39.61 15.84 15.84 0.932 Torsion
MTS3 38.38 15.35 15.35 43.38 17.35 17.32 0.885 Torsion
MTS4 44.02 22.01 7.70 37.77 18.88 6.61 1.165 Shear
MTS5 48.68 24.34 8.52 52.67 26.33 9.22 0.924 Shear
MTS6 49.67 24.83 8.69 54.91 27.46 9.01 0.904 Flexure
MTS7 52.61 20.30 6.58 65.28 32.64 8.16 0.806 FIexure
av. 1.028
S.D 0.119
COV 11.66%
674
TABLE (5)
Comparison between Experimental and C alculated Torsionel Strength using
Equation 3
Ref. No. Specimen Exp. U lt. Theo. U lt. Exp.
Torsion Torsion Theo.
(N-M) (N-M)
0 MT2 13280 11940 1.11
u Mt2 9350 11090 0.84
t MT4 7380 10170 0.73
h MT5 8550 9770 0.88
e MTS2 14760 12200 1.21
r MTS3 15350 13880 1.11
s MTS5 8520 10270 0.83
MTS6 8690 12240 0.71
MTS7 6580 11850 0.56
MT2 10090 13190 0.76
(1) MT3 12330 13610 0.91
MTS2 11430 14800 0.77
MTS3 11770 15460 0.76
D 1652 1639 1.00
E 1542 1517 1.02
(7) F 1301 1195 1.09
G 1062 1031 1.03
H 644 595 1.08
1 329 493 0.67
TMl2 994 1012 0.89
TMV1 1304 1418 0.95
TMV2 980 1061 0.96
(8) TMV3 912 1106 1.03
TMV4 1398 1360 1.03
TMV5 1476 1439 0.82
TV1 1466 1533 0.92
TV2 1459 1530 0.92
TV3 1332 1493 0.98
— y jj
S.D 0.155
COV 17.45
CONCLUSIONS
1~ The presense of s te e l fib r e s increased the ultirrate ca p a c itie s of a ll

the te ste d beams. The percentage increase depends on the fib e r content
and method of applying the load.
2 - The te ste d beams containing s te e l fib r e s exhibited a con sisten t trend
in reduced i n i t i a l d e fle c tio n but higher cracking load.
3 - Greater d u c t ilit y and to rsio n a l moment capacity were abserved for a ll
types of loading due to the presence of fib r e s.
4 - The suggested procedure of su p er-p osition used to estirm te the
u ltirm te capacity of FRC beams under combined loading gave reasonable
r e s u lts as compared with the experimental va lu es.
675
5- The em pirical formula (eq.3) i s a simple approach for estim ating the
u ltirm te to rsio n a l capacity and can be used for design purposes.
REFERENCES
1- H.M.S. Abdul-Whab, M.A. AL-Ausi and S.H. Tawfiq, "Steel fib r e

reinforced concrete members under corrbined bending, shear and
torsion" RILEM Symposium FRC 86 Developments in Fibre Reinforced
Cement and Concrete, S h e ffie ld 1986.
2- M.A. AL-Ausi and S.A. Fadhel. "Three dimensional in tera ctio n of
SFRC beams subjected to combined loading" Third Arab Structural
Engineering Conference. 5*8 March 1989 U.A.E.
3- R.M Khudair "Torsion, bending and shear in tera ctio n in reinforced
concrete beams containing s te e l fibres" M.Sc. Thesis U n iversity of
Technology. Nov. 1987.
4- Narayanan, R ., and Kareem-Palanjian, A .S ., "Torsion, bending and
shear in p restressed concrete bems containing ste e l fib r e ." ACI
Jounm al, May-June 1986 pp 4 23-432.
5- Swany, R.N., and AL_Taan, S .A ., "Deformation and u ltirm te strength
in flex u re of reinforced concrete beams made with ste e l fib re
concrete", ACI Journal Sep. - Oct. 1981 pp. 395-405 .
6- Warner, R .F ., and Rangan, B .V ., and H all, A .S ., "Reinforced concrete"
Pitman, A u str a lia , 1981.
7- Mansur, M.A., "Bending to rsion in tera ctio n for concrete beams
reinforced w ith s te e l fib r es" , Magazine of Concrete Research, London,
V o l.34, No. 121, Dec. 1982, pp. 182-190.
8- Mansur, M.A., and Pararmsivam, P ., "Fibre reinforced concrete beams
in to r sio n , bending and shear.", ACI Journal, Jan-Feb. 1985,
pp. 33-39.
676
DESIGN OF FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE RECTANGULAR MEMBERS UNDER

AXIAL COMPRESSION, BENDING AND TORSION
A.K. SHARMA
Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering
University of the West Indies
St Augustine, TRINIDAD (W.I.)
ABSTRACT
There is an increasing interest in the use of steel fibres to improve

the properties of concrete. The higher tensile and post-cracking ductility
of the fibre reinforced concrete members can influence favourably the
structural behaviour of such members under combined loadings. Columns
may be subjected to significant torsion in addition to bending moment
particularly if the wind and seismic forces are considered. The paper
presents an analysis based on a skew-bending approach and is compared
with actual test results. A simple procedure for design based on the
proposed analysis is illustrated by a numerical example.
INTRODUCTION
The use of steel fibres in fibre reinforced concrete as a technique

for improving the properties of concrete has been a topic of many studies.
Recent studies (1 ,2 ,3,4) indicate that by adding steel fibres the resis
tance of concrete to crack propogation is greatly increased. Fibre
reinforced concrete can be regarded as an improved type of concrete
with higher tensile strength and post-cracking ductility which sub
stantially improve the structural behaviour of fibre reinforced members
under combined loadings (5,6 ,7,8).
The paper considers the analysis and design of compression members

subjected to bending and torsion. Compression members such as columns
of building frames, piers of curved and skew bridges, central columns
of spiral staircases, columns supporting crane girders and pylon of
multi-storey car parks may be subjected to significant torsion in addition
to bending moment, particularly if the wind and seismic forces are
taken into consideration.
A method of analysis applicable to concrete beam reinforced with

discrete steel fibres with continuous bar reinforcement (longitudinal)
677
and transverse steel) or prestressed concrete short columns of rectangular

cross-section subjected to torsion in addition to bending moment and
axial compression, is presented. A compression member may be prestressed
with advantage in cases where the bending and twisting couples are
large and the axial load is relatively light. The proposed analysis
is also applicable to eccentrically loaded columns as the loading can
be reduced to the case of an axially loaded column by adding algebraically
the bending moment due to eccentricity to the external bending moment.
It is assumed that the effective axial compression, taken as the sum
of the applied load and the prestressing force, is not so large as
to produce a compression failure. It is considered that this assumption
does not impose a serious restriction as the magnitude of the prestressing
force can a]ways be chosen suitably to avoid compression failure.
It has been reported (9,10) that steel fibre reinforced concrete

beams when subjected to torsion, collapsed after the formation of a
number of cracks which spiralled around the beam. The final collapse
occured in a skew plane, similar to the one described by Hsu(ll). A
method of analysis applicable to normal reinforced concrete member
subjected to torsion in addition to bending moment and with or without
axial compression was published by the author elsewhere (12). The paper
extends the above method for fibre reinforced concrete beams subjected
to torsion combined with axial compression and bending.
ANALYSIS
Figure 1(a) shows a column of rectangular cross-section subjected to

bending moment M and twisting moment T, in addition to the effective
axial compression P. The couples are expressed by double-headed arrows
according to the right handed screw system.
The two modes assumed (12) for the initiation of failure are re
presented in Figs. (lb) and (lc). In mode 1 (Fig lb) it is assumed
that skew bending takes place about a centroidal axis parallel to the
wider faces and inclined at an angle <j) to the shorter faces. The fibrous
concrete would be at the point of failure due to skewed bending when
the stress at the extreme surface on the tension side becomes equal
to reduced modulus of rupture of the fibre concrete. The ultimate torque
of fibre reinforced concrete in Mode 1 can be expressed by equating
the external moment about the bending axis to the internal resisting
moment;
T Cos <J) = (1/6 b2h cosec 4>)(kfrf + P 0 Sin 2 <j>) (1)
where T = torsional strength of fibre reinforced

concrete member under combined loading
b, h = shorter and longer overall dimensions of

the beam respectively
kfr^ = reduced modulus of rupture of the fibrous

concrete
678
Pn = effective axial compressive stress ( = ~ )

w bn
effective axial force
vT
— V
(a) Compression under bending
and torsion Side Elevation Front Elevation
(b) Mode 1
VT
0 M
i -----
I— b— 1
Side Elevation Front Elevation
(c) Mode 2
Figure 1. Modes of failure in Skew Bending Theory
The continuous reinforcement (longitudinal and transverse steel)

has been ignored in the derivation of Eq.(l) as it does not influence
the rupture load (TF ) of the fibrous concrete, Eq. (1) can be expressed
as:
T = Tf = T 0 R<j> (2 )
where T0 = 1/3 b2h kfrf (3)
679
= (1+ r Sin 2 <j>)/Sin 2 <j) (4)
= torsional strength of fibre reinforced

concrete member under pure torsion
r = P 0 /kfr£
R^ = factor representing effect of axial

compression only in case of Mode 1
In Mode 2, Fig. 1(c), the skew bending takes place about a centroidal
axis parallel to the shorter faces and inclined at an angle <J> to the
wider faces. Taking moments of all the forces about the axis of bending:
T Cos<|> + M Sin <j> = (1/6 bh 2 Cosec <j) )(kfrf + P 0 Sin2 (j>) (5)
Eq. (5) is of the same form as Eq.(l) except that b and h have been inter
changed. Eq.(5) can also be simplified and expressed as Eq.(2) where
T = 1/3 bh 2 kfr (6 )
■Lo Lf
(1 +r sin2 <J> )
(7)
t 2 Sin<|> (Cos <|) + XSin<J>)
X - m /t
M = applied bending moment
In Mode 2, R ^ factor takes into account the effect of axial compression

as well as the applied bending moment. The inclination of the axis
<|> must be such as to minimise the torsional strength. Since T 0 in
Eqs (3) and (6 ) is independent of (|> the minimum torsional strength
must correspond to the minimum value of R ^ . This can be found by equating
its derivative with respect to $ to zero. The value of <J> corresponding
to the minimum strength thus can be expressed as
Sin 2(j) = [2Xr + 2/(A 2Y 2 + (l+r)E)]/E (8 )
Cos 2 <(> = [2r2 + 4r -/((2r2 + 4r) 2 -4(r2-4 A2 )E) ]2E
where E = r2 + 4 r + 4 + 4 A2 (10)
The angle 2 <j> lies between zero and90° if both sin 2 <J> and cos 2(j) are
positive. It lies between 90° and 180° if Sin 2<j> is positive and Cos 2<J> is
negative. The minimum values of R ^for various values of X and r can
be plotted as shown in Fig.2.
680
I— . ........J------------------------- 1------------------- 1---------------------1 ...J r

0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 2. Plot of R ^ (minimum)

versus X and r
Reduced Modulus of Rupture
It may be noted in Eqs.(3) and (6 ) that the addition of fibre in the

concrete is reflected in the increased tensile strength of the fibrous
concrete which is expressed in the theory as equal to kfrf The value
of modulus rupture of fibrous concrete (frf) can be determined by modulus
of rupture tests on fibre reinforced concrete beams or fibre concrete
cubes. In the case of cubes the modulus of rupture can be calculated
using Eqs. (11) and (12) as suggested by Narayanan (2):
681
F = — • p • d f (1 1 )
d
Where F = Fibre factor
l/d = length to diameter ratio of the fibre
p = volume of fibre per unit volume of

concrete
df = bond factor which accounts for the

differing bond characteristics of the
fibres
f r f = o f e [ ° * 7 W F ] ( 1 2 )
where fcuf= cuê strength of fibrous concrete in N/mm^
The reduction factor k has a value of 0.71 in cse of beamsresisting

predominant torsion (5). In the case of Mode 2 where bending moment
is predominant the value of k varies as given in Eq. (13):
k= 0.71 + 0.29 (M/T - 0.75) (13)
where k =0.71 M/T < 0.75
k= 1.00 MT > 1.75
Calculation of the Ultimate Torque
Using Eq.(2) the torsional strength of concrete member with discrete

steel fibres (Tp) can be calculated for Modes 1 and 2. The lesser
of the two torques governs failure and therefore determines the torsional
strength of fibre reinforced concrete members.
The contribution of continuous reinforcement (longitudinal and

transverse steel) is added separately to obtain the ultimate torsional
resistance of the section; thus ultimate strength of fibre reinforced
(discrete fibres and continuous reinforcement) compression members
can be expressed as
T = TF + Ts (14)
where Ts is the torque contributed by steel reinforcement. The value

of Ts can be evaluated based on a relation suggested by Pandit (13).
The original equation has been modified to take into account the effect
of applied bending moment on longitudinal steel. Torsional strength
due to reinforcement cage can be expressed as:
682
(15)
where Rjj = longitudinal steel effectiveness factor
A Jl* - 2 ag, - M/(z.fyZ)
R = transverse steel effectiveness factor

w
= 1 - S/h
z = lever arm
fy&, fyw = yield stress of longitudinal and tranverse

steel respectively
ai - cross-sectional area of one longitudinal bar
aT
wT = cross-sectional area of one leg of closed link
b l »h l = shorter anc* longer centre to centre dimensions

of rectangular link
CORRELATION WITH TEST RESULTS
A summary of the comparison between the calculated and experimental

ultimate torques for various tests reported in literature is given
in Table 1. The test results of fibre reinforced concrete beams with
and withoat continuous reinforcement, with different aspect ratios
and subjected to different combination of loadings are compared with
the proposed theory. In computation, for square sections a factor of
0.885 as suggested by Hsu(11) is used. The average value of experimental
torque/calculated torque for 108 specimens is estimated to be 1.022
with a standard deviation of 12.5%. For tests where cylinder strength
is reported the cube strength is taken as 1.1 times the cylinder strength.
DESIGN EXAMPLE
A fibre reinforced concrete column in a multi-storey building is subjected

to combined bending, torsion and axial compression. The ultimate loads
on the column are as follows:
Bending Moment, M = 180 kNm
Torsion T 60 kNm
Axial Compression, P = 1030 kN

683
Design a suitable section for the column assuming modulus of rupture of

fibrous concrete, frf = 6.5 N/mmm 2 and characteristic strength of all
continuous reinforcement as 460 N/mm^
TABLE 1
Summary of Comparisons between Experimental

and calculated values of Ultimate Torque
Ratio of Torques
Tests Ref No. Expt./Calculated
Type of
Loadings Conducted No. of
Reinforcement Mean Standard
by tests
Deviation
Pure Steel fibres Mansur et 9 18 1.069 0.092

Torsion only al
Craig et 3 8 1.103 0.076

al
Narayanan 10 26 0.850 0.034

et al
Steel fibres Mansur et 15 5 0.956 0.042

and al
Longitudinal
and transverse Narayanan 16 9 1.169 0.080
steel et al
Bending Steel fibres Mansur 5 27 1.065 0.059

and only
Torsion Mansur et 7 6 1.127 0.034
al
Compression Steel Fibres Narayanan 8 9 1.040 0.103

Bending only et al
and Tension
Total Tests 108 1.022 0.125

684
s-t.efi .1.
Assume a rectangular section of the column as 250 mm x 450 mm the
effective axial compressive stress is
p = 1030 ,x 103 _ 9.2 N/mm 2

0 250 x 450
Determine the cracking torques on Modes 1 and 2 using Eqs (2) - (10)
and Fig. 2. The lesser of the two torques is the design torque for
a section reinforced with discrete fibres alone (Tp):
Non dimensional parameters are
0.71 frf 0.71x6.5
Using Fig. 2 corresponding to the values of X and r , (minimum) for

Modes 1 and 2 are 1.73 and 0.47 respectively. Thus torsional strength
Mode 1 Tp = 74.9 kNm
Mode 2 Tp = 51.5 kNm
Hence Mode 2 governs failure
Step 2
Since the torsional strength (Tp ) of fibre reinforced concrete

with discrete fibres alone is less than the ultimate applied torque,
web reinforcement is to be provided. From Eqs (14) and (15) the area
of web steel can be calculated using
a _ (X ~ Tp) S_________ (16)

W Rjj bi hi 0.87 fyw
In Eq. (16) design strength of web steel can be taken equal to 0.87
fyw allowing partial safety factor of 1.15 (14). The factor can
be taken as unity, indicating the volume percentage of the total
longitudinal steel is equal to the volume percentage of links. It
is generally acknowledged that in such a case the continuous reinforc-
ment (longitudinal and transverse reinforcement cage) is fully effective
in resisting torsion. To ensure the development of ultimate torsional
strength spacing of links should not exceed the least of bi , hi /2
or 200 mm (14). Assuming 40 mm as effective concrete cover from centre
of links:
bi = 250 - 2 x 40 = 170 mm
kj- = 450 - 2 x 40 = 370 mm

685
Hence adopt spacing of links as 170 mm, the value of R, = 1 - = 0.62

w 450
Using Eq. (16)

(60-51.5) x 106 x 170
aw 1x0.62x170x370x0.87x460
= 92.6 11 ^
Use 12 mm dia. closed links at 170 mm centres
Step 3
Calculate longitudinal steel (14) for resisting torsion using
2 aw<b i + h i) fyw (17)

A
S fyl
2 x 113 (170 + 370)

= — j------------- = 717.9„ mnr?
Distribute A % symmetrically around the perimeter of the stirrup.

Use eight 12 mm size bars: one on each corner of column section and
two on each longer side h of the section (Ajj, provided 905 mm 2 ). In
addition to this steel extra longitudinal steel is to be provided
to resist the applied bending moment. Assuming the lever arm to be
approximately equal to link dimension h-^ the longitudinal steel required
for resisting the bending moment M can be determined as
180 x 106 ,
A*b = 370 x 0.87 x 460 ' 121 5 '6 1,1111
Revise the bottom steel (located on the tension face due to moment
M) to resist the bending moment and torsion by providing three 25
mm size bars. The total longitudinal steel provided at the bottom
is 1470 mm against 1442 mm required.
The percentage of the total longitudinal steel provided in the

column is 1.91 hence adequate.
REFERENCES
1. Mangat, P.S., Tensile Strength of Steel Fibre reinforced concrete.

Cement and Concrete Research, 1976, V 6 , N2, 245-252.
2. Narayanan, R. and Kareem-Palanjian, A.S., Effect of fibre addition on

concrete strength. Indian Concrete Journal, 1984, V 58, N4, 100-103.
3. Craig, R.J., Parr, A.J., Germain, E., Mosquera, V. and Kamilares, S.

Fibre Reinforced Beams in Trosion. J1 A C I , 1986, V 83, N 6 , 934-942.
686
4. Ramakrishnan, V., Oberling, G. and Tatnall, P., Flexural Fatigue

Strength of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Fibre Reinforced Con
crete - International Symposium, SP-105, AC I , 1987, 225-246.
5. Mansur, M.A,, Bending-torsion Interaction for Concrete Beams Rein

forced with Steel Fibres. M a g , of Conc. Research, 1982, V34, N121,
182-190.
6 . Narayanan, R. and Toorani-Goloosalar, Z., Fibre Reinforced Concrete

in Pure Torsion and in Combined Bending and Torsion. Proc. Inst.
of Civ Eng, London, 1979, Pt 2, V67, 987-1001.
7. Mansur, M.A. and Paramasivam, P., Fibre Reinforced Concrete Beams

in Torsion, Bending and Shear, Jl. A C I , 1985, V82, Nl, 33-39.
8 . Narayanan, R. and Kareem-Palanjian, A.S., Torsion, Bending and

Shear in Prestressed Concrete Beams containing steel Fibres. J^
ACI, 1986, C8 3 , N3, 423-431.
9. Mansur, M.A. and Paramasivam, P., Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Beams in Pure Torsion. Int Jl of Cem Composites and Lightweight
Conc, 1982,, V4, Nl, 39-45.
10. Narayanan, R. and Kareem-Palanjian, A.S., Steel Fibre Concrete

Beams in Torsion. Int Jl of Cem Composites and Lightweight Conc.,
1983, V 5 . N 4 , 235-246.
11. Hsu, T.T.C., Torsion of Structural Concrete-Plain Concrete Rectangular

section. Torsion of Structural Concrete, SP-18, A C I , 1968, 203-
238.
12. Sharma, A.K., Design of Reinforced Concrete Rectangular Members

under Axial Compression, Bending and Torsion. Proc Inst of Civ
Engr. London, 1980, Pt 2, V69, 911-919.
13. Pandit 4 G.S., Ultimate torque of Rectangular reinforced concrete

beams. Jl Str Div, ASCE, 1^70, V96, ST9, 1987-1995.
14. British Standards Institution, Structural Use of Concrete, 1985,

BS 8110, Part 2.
15. Mansur, M.A., Nagataki, S., Lee, S.H. and Oosumimoto, Y., Torsional
Response of Fibrous Concrete Beams. Jl_ A C I , 1989, V 8 6 , Nl, 36-44.
16. Narayanan, R. and Kareem-Palanjian, A.S., Torsion in Beams Reinforced

with Bars and Fibres. Jl Str Div, ASCE, 1986, VI12, Nl, 53-66.
687
SIMPLY SUPPORTED STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS UNDER

COMBINED TORSION, BENDING AND SHEAR
S.K. KAUSHIK P.J. SASTURKAR

Professor Research Fellow
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India
ABSTRACT
The paper reports tests on forty eight simply supported conventionally
reinforced concrete beams containing steel fibres and subjected to four
different kinds of loading combinations upto failure. The parameters
measured were loads at first crack and ultimate in addition to strains,
deflections, angle of twist, crack-width and crack-spacing. The observed
ultimate strength results have been compared with test data available
in literature. The experimental values obtained for ultimate strength
under torsional effects have been verified by existing theoretical models.
A statistical analysis of these results has been presented.
INTRODUCTION
Considerable research has been carried out to evaluate the mechanical

properties of steel fibre reinforced cement composites. Compared to
the extensive experimental evidence available on the behaviour of concrete
subjected to bending, compression and transverse shear, the attention
given to torsional strength is slight. It is well established that the
inclusion of fibres in a concrete mix increases its tensile strength
and improves the ductility [10]. The failure of concrete in torsion
depends upon its tensile strength. An addition of short discrete fibres
is known to increase the tensile strength and the torsional resistance
of concrete. The improvements in torsional and flexural strengths of
fibrous concrete has been studied recently [2,5,6,7,91. Testing of fibrous
beams under different combinations of torsion, bending and shear have
been reported in these studies. However, the combined influence of
conventional reinforcement and fibre incorporation has been investigated
in only four of the recently published studies [1,2,5,8 ]. Moreover,
majority of the results reported so far are those obtained from small
size specimens. Fibre dispersion and orientation which play an important
role on the behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete beams can be adversely
affected by the size of the member. This was avoided by testing full
size specimens with the cardinal aim of exploring a systematic study
to examine the potential use of steel fibres under torsional effects.
688
TEST SPECIMENS
A total of 48 full size beams of 125 mm width, 300 mm depth and 2500 mm
overall length were tested to failure under four different loading combi
nations. Phase - 1 consisted of 24 beams tested under pure bending. Phase-1
was divided into three groups of 8 beams each. These beams were designed
as balanced, underreinforced and grossly underreinforced and were catego
rised as Group-1, Group-2 and Group-3 and were designated as BJB, BU
and BGU. The remaining 24 beams were categorized under Phase-2, Phase-3
and Phase-4 of 8 beams each. These beams were tested under pure torsion,
combined torsion and bending, and combined torsion, bending and shear.
They were designated as T, TB and TBS, respectively. Each group under
pure bending consisted of 8 conventionally reinforced concrete beams
containing 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% volume fraction of steel fibres. For
each volume fraction, two similar beams were cast. The conventionally
reinforced concrete beams under Phases 2, 3 and 4 also consisted of
same variation in volume fraction of steel fibres.
The mix proportion, type of steel fibre and conventional steel

reinforcement were held constant. The plain-straight round steel fibres
of diameter 0.46 mm and length 36.8 mm had an aspect ratio of 80. The
reinforcement details for various types of beams are shown in Figures
1 to 6 . The concrete mix selected had an adequate workability for both
plain and fibrous concrete. The mix proportion used was 1:1.84:2.55
(by weight) with a water-cement ratio of 0.48. Control specimens of
150 mm cubes, 150 mm diameter cylinders and 101 .6x 101 . 6x 508 mm prisms
were also cast along with the beams to determine the compressive, split
tensile and flexural strength of concrete. The cast specimens were stripped
after 24 hours and immersed in fresh water for curing for 27 days. All
the specimens were kept in an environment room till the time of their
testing.
TEST RIG AND TEST PROCEDURE
The torsion tests were carried out in a specially fabtricated test-rig.

The effective span of all the test specimens between the two supports
was kept at 2000 mm with a bearing of 250 mm on each side. The left
hand end of the beam was kept on a roller support along with a slider
bearing assembly to ensure free rotation of the specimen at the free
end. The right hand side end of the beam rested on a load-cell and was
restrained in the lateral direction. A lever arm of 1m between a parallel
force system was used, resulting in pure torsion. The bending effect
was achieved by third point loading. Beams under combination of loads
were subjected to flexural load first. The torsional loads were brought
into play after applying flexural load. Successive load increments were
applied by keeping the ratio of torsional moment to flexural moment
equal to 0 .5 , till the beam failed.
A Huggenberger deformeter of gauge length 205 mm was used to measure

the concrete strains while strains in the reinforcing steel were recorded
with electrical resistance strain gauges. The angle of twist over the
test length was measured using displacement gauges. At each stage of
loading, the readings of all the instruments were recorded. The crack width
and crack spacing was noted. The crack propagation was marked. Mode of fail
ure was also noted and the control specimens were tested on the same day.
689
M 2S~i t
I^ \
■* I
39CLJ
V . J5 245*64
c JUU
L J
r nr - r
\
\ \
w
\
jr H o c R B A R \
TW ■
J (4H22)-fe)>
He H4)
i- i
- 1 b 8 $(2) ^ 6 0 ( a 200C/N- l 6 ^ < ® 4 0 0 c / < X 2 b 1 2 $ ( 4 )
CROSS SECTION
250 - 2000 - H250
L O N G IT U D IN A L S E C T IO N
FIG. 1 -REINFORCEMENT DETAILS OF TEST BEAMS UNDER PURE BENDING
(PHASE-1 , GROUP-1 )
37-5CL.
-2b10g(1) - E L . RES. G A G E S - f— 125—
h 57 FT 2 47
Li bJ
XTb 6 I)(2)
X /i
-6Hi(?)200C/C 1
S2P|f§|E400Bc/c(3N-2b10£ (4) x
H250 CROSS SECTION
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
FIG. 2 -REINFORCEMENT DETAILS OF TEST BEAMS UNDER PURE BENDING
(PHASE-1, GROUP-2)
NOTE J- ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
M2H
1 ------------- ---- ^ ---- -
o'- *> r
i:
. , K )
i T \ T I aA -
41 CL
T
^ 2 b 6 (>(2)^-6 0 @ 200 c/c J
250 „----------------------- 2000---------------------- H 250 «h- CROSS SECTION
FIG.3-REINFORCEMENT DETAILS OF TEST BEAMS UNDER PURE BENDING

(P H A S E -1, G R O U P -3 )
r 2b10f (1) EL. RES. GAGES K -1 2 5 -H ,
M
(1)X
Li I &
&
0*2 Le^^^sc/c ^?2P^ E4(x!c!c<3) '-2b10f(4) w
250r - 2000- - CROSS SECTION
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
FIG.4 - REINFORCEMENT DETAILS OF TEST BEAMS UNDER PURE TORSION
( P H A S E -2 ) NOTE ALL DIMENSIONS A M |H mm
The material properties and values of the cracking and ultimate loads
are given in Table 1. It is seen that the beams tested in pure bending
gave an increase of 5 to 63 $ in the cracking load whereas an increase
of 15 to 60 $ was observed at ultimate load as the volume fraction of
steel fibres increased. The group tested in pure torsion gave an increase
of 33$ and 44$ respectively for the cracking and ultimate torque with an
increase in the percentage of fibres. While the beams tested under combined
torsion and bending gave an increase of 53 $ in the cracking torque whereas
690
FIG. 5-REINFORCEMENT DETAILS OF TEST BEAMS UNDER COMBINED TORSION

AND BENDING (P H A S E -3 )
K-12S-J.
|*aT
T
(1)_ 25 248-83
— CROSS SECTION
FIG. 6-REINFORCEMENT DETAILS OF TEST BEAMS UNDER COMBINED TORSION,

BENDING AND SHEAR (P H A S E -A )
NOTE >-ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm
only 21% increase was noticed at the ultimate stage. A significant increase
of 82 % and 65 % was observed for cracking and ultimate torque respectively,
when the beams were subjected to the effect of combined torsion, bending
and shear.
Cracking Patterns
The crack-spacing reduced by 30? for 1? fibres in the case of pure bending
tests, while a reduction of 15? to 40? was observed when the beams were
subjected to torsional moment. As regards the crack-width, in all the
48 beams tested, it was generally observed that the fibrous beams showed
reduced crack-widths of 30 to 70? as the percentage of fibres increased.
In no case the crack-width exceeded 0.07 mm.
Strains
In most of the beams the strain in longitudinal steel exceeded the yield
value. The concrete strains were higher for beams under pure bending
than beams under torsion. The influence of steel fibre was less pronounced
in beams subjected to torsional effects because of the much lower failure
loads. Nevertheless, improved strain values were detected due to the
inclusion of steel fibres.
Load-deflection Behaviour
Figure 7 shows the influence of fibre content on the load-deflection
behaviour under various types of loading. Beams with fibres exhibited
a decreased initial deflection. They showed higher cracking and failure
loads for higher fibre content. The effect of type of loading on load-
deflection behaviour for the same amount of fibre content is shown in
Figure 8 . The beams under pure flexural loads showed greater deflection
than beams subjected to torsional loads.
Torsional Strength
The effect of fibre content and type of loading on the torsional behaviour
691
of beams is shown in Figure 9 and 10, respectively. The torque-twist

relationship, torsional moment capacities and ductility were significantly
improved by the amount of fibre content due to enhanced tensile strength
of the matrix due to addition of fibres.
Comparison of Test Results

Table 2 presents a comparison of the results obtained with the test
results reported by other investigators [1,2,3,5,8,9,11]- The ultimate
capacity of conventionally reinforced concrete beams improved .with an
increase in the percentage of fibres. But a drop in the capacity was
observed in all the beams at the maximum volume fraction of 1.5 % used
in the investigation. Due allowance must be made for the experimental
variation in the property of the specimen, loading and testing procedure
in the data reported by others.
692
LEGEND
FIG. 8 - E F F E C T OF TYPE OF LOADING BJB

X—K BU
ON L O A D -D E F L E C T IO N 0—0 BGU
B EH A VIO UR (ATTHE CENTRE •—• TB
A—A TBS
OF B E A M )
Table 3 shows comparison between the test results and predicted

values. The predicted ultimate torque was obtained by using the approaches
suggested by Victor & Muthukrishnan [12], Collins, et.al. [4], Narayanan
and Palanjian [7] and Mansur & Paramasivam [6 ].
Modes o f F a i lu r e
The beams tested under pure bending failed in flexural tension while
the beams under torsion failed by bending about a skewed axis due to
diagonal tension. Diagonal cracks were observed in beams under pure
torsion which spiralled around the three faces of the beam and were
joined by a compression zone on the fourth face when failure occurred.
The diagonal cracks were accompanied with flexural tension cracks in
beams under combined loading. The tension cracks on the opposite faces
were inclined at an angle of about 45 . The type of failure of beams
were classified as Mode 1 or Mode 2 according to the familiar skew-bending
theory. The presence of shear was found to effect in the failure mode
which is contrary to the assertion made by Mansur & Paramasivam [6 ].
TABLE 1
Summary of test results of control specimens and beams
Type of Fibre Compre Split Modulus Initial Initial U1 timate U1 tima te Mode of
Specimen Content ssive Tensile of Rup Crack Crack Load Torque Failure
Strength Strength ture ing ing
Load Torque
Vf (%) N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 kN kN-m kN kN-m
0 20.57 2 .05 3 .50 2 2 .50 98. 83

0 .5 23.05 2 . 13 3.81 36 . 67 122.15
DO D 35.84 0 0
1.0 25. 12 2 .42 3.95 123. 70
1.5 2 2 .07 2 .32 3 .82 31.63 116. 67
0 2 1 .04 2 . 11 3. 40 25.00 72.75
FIexural
T 0.5 22.78 2 . 13 3.71 26.75 76.75
d3T
UT
1.0 24. 59 2 .45 3.85 32.50 0 81.75 0 Tension
1.5 24. 22 2 .25 3.81 29.00 7 2 .00
0 2 0 .49 2 .03 3.25 22.75 24. 00

0.5 2 2 . 15 2 . 18 3. 35 24. 00 n 27. 63 n
BGU u u
1.0 23. 86 2 .47 3 .81 30.63 36.75
1.5 23 . 26 2 .28 3 .62 24.88 38.25
0 2 2 .48 2 . 10 3 . 18 4. 50 6.25
0.5 24. 22 2 . 15 3-32 n 5.50 n 7.50
r1n u u
1.0 26.57 2 .4? 3.93 6.00 9 .00
1.5 25. 51 2 .29 3-52 5 .00 8.50
Mode 2
0 21. 43 2 .20 3. 41 19.50 3-25 42. 00 7 .00
0.5 22.59 2 .25 3. 42 24. 00 4. 00 48. 00 8.00
TB
1.0 24. 37 2.48 3.66 27. 00 4. 50 5 1 .00 8.50
1.5 23- 74 2 . 30 3. 44 30.00 5 .00 48.00 8.00
0 2 1 . 61 2 . 18 3.51 16.50 2.75 25.50 4. 25

0.5 23. 42 2 .20 3-71 2 2 .50 3.75 36 .00 6.00
TBS 1.0 24.78 2 .43 3 -82 25.50 4. 25 42. 00 7 .00 Mode 1
1.5 24. 52 2. 38 3.75 30.00 5 .00 39.00 6 .50
* The results presented over here are the average test values of two similar beam specimens.
694
TABLE 2
Test data of ultimate strength ratios
Fibre Content (V^ ?) Ref erence

Type of Loading Number
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Pure Bending 1.00 1.24+ 1. 25+ 1. 18+ Authorfs

Present
Study
1.28 1.64 - ( 1)
1. 13 1.23 1.33 (3)
- 1.21 - (9)
1.05 1. 09 -
( 11 )
y 1.1750 1.2840 1.2550
0 0.1047 0.2085 0.1061
V 8.91 ? 16.24? 8.45?
1.3467- 1.0033 1.6259-0.9421 1.4290-1.0810
Pure Torsion 1.00 1.20 1.44 1.36 Authorfs
Present
Study
1.39 1.44 - ( 1)
- 1.50 - (5)
1.04 1. 32 1.26 (8 )
- 1.25 - (9)
y 1.2100 1.3900 1.3100
0 0 .1752 0.1020 0.0707
V 14.48? 7. 34? 5.40?
fk 1.4973-0.9227 1..5573-1.2227 1.4259-1.1941
Combined Torsion 1.00 1.14 1.21 1.14 Author’s
and Bending Present
Study
1.14 1.40 - (1)
1.19 1.29 - (2)
y 1.1567 1.3000 -
a 0.0289 0.0954 -
V 2.50? 7-34? -
*k 1.2041-1.1093 1.4565-1.1435 -
Combined Torsion, 1.00 1.41 1.65 1.53 Author’s

Bending and Shear Present
Study
1.30 1.33 - (1)
y 1.3550 1.4900 -
a 0.0778 0.2263 -
V 5.74? 15.19? -
fk 1.4826-1.2274 1.8611-1.1189 -
+ Test data of BJB Group has been quoted,

y = Mean, a = Standard Deviation, V = Coefficient of Variation,
f = y ±1.64 a = Characteristic strength ratio of concrete for 95?
confidence level.
695
LEGEND
VfC/o)
0- 0
0 #5
o—o 1*0
1-5
FIG. 9 -E F F E C T OF FIB R E-CO NTENT

ON TORQUE-ROTATION
BEHAVIOUR
0 -00
0-0 0 8-50 17-00 7 5*50 3A.00
TABLE 3
Comparison of test results of authors with predicted values for

ultimate torque
Type Fibre Experi Predicted T (Predicted)

u
of Content mental U1 tima te Remarks
Tu (Test)
Speci Vf (?) Ultimate Torque
men Torque Tu (kN-m)
Tu (kN-m)
0 6.25 7.9584 1.2733 y = 1.1101

0.5 7.50 8 .5743 1.1432+ a = 0.0718
T 1.0 9.00 9. 2489 1.0277+ V = 6 .47$
1.5 8.50 9-8552 1.1594+ f, =1.2279-0.9923
k
0 6 .25 7. 9584 1.2733* y = 1.0900
0.5 7. 50 8 .7496 1. 1666 * a = 0.0665
T 1.0 9 .00 9. 4240 1.0471* V = 6 . 10$
1.5 8 .50 8.9779 1.0562 * fk =1. 1991-0. 9809
0 7 .00 7. 5656 1.0808 * y = 1.0577

0.5 8.00 8.5403 1.0675* a = 0.0187
TB 1.0 8 .50 8.8080 1.0362 * V =1.77$
1.5 8 .00 8 .5562 1.0695* f, =1.0884-1.0270
k
(Contd )
696
Table 3 (Contd )
Type Fibre Experi Predicted T (Predicted )

u
of Content mental U1 tima te Remarks
Tu (Test)
Speci V. {%) U1 tima te Torque
I
men Torque T (kN-m)
T (kN-m)
0 4. 25 5.3463 1 .2580 * y = 0 .8696

0.5 6 . 00 5.5920 0 .9320* = 0.0604
0
TBS 1.0 7 .00 5 .6808 0.8115* V = 6 .95%
1.5 6 . 50 5.6251 0.8654* f =0.9687-0.7705
Values calculated by using + [7], *[ 6 ].
LEGEND
FIG-10-EFFECT OF TYPE OF LOADING ON T
TORQUE-ROTATION BEHAVIOUR TB
o-o tbs
Statistical Analysis
The values of y, a, V and f for beams containing fibres have been shown
in Tables 2 and 3- The coefficient of variation was between 2.50% and
16 .24% for different loading conditions when the test data was compared
with the data reported by others clearly showing that the values obtained
in the present investigation were reliable. Further, all the test and
predicted values reported by the authors lie within the 9 5% confidence
697
levels. The coefficient of variation was found to lie between 1.77%

and 6.95% for the test results of authors when compared with the predicted
values. The statistical analysis shows the reliability of the theoretical
approach used in the above study.
CONCLUSIONS
This study of conventionally reinforced rectangular concrete beams con

taining steel fibres leads to the following conclusions :
1. The beams tested under torsional load failed by bending about a

skewed axis, by formation of a compression zone either at the top
face (Mode 1) or at the side face (Mode 2).
2. The ultimate strength of fibrous beams increased with an increase
in the volume fraction of fibres. The maximum increase in strength
was obtained at about 1$ fibre addition and the strength decreased
at 1 .5 % volume fraction.
3- The improvement in the load-deflection and torque-rotation character
istics was pronounced in beams with fibres.
4. The crack-widths and crack-spacings in fibrous beams subjected
to torsion were reduced upto 70 $ and 40$, respectively, for a volume
fraction of 1$.
5. The statistical analysis shows a fair agreement between the predicted
and experimental values. The theoretical models suggested by Mansur
and Narayanan predict values very close to the experimental results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The paper is based on the doctoral programme of the second author at

the University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India. The authors are grateful
to the University of Roorkee and Department of Science & Technology,
Govt, of India for providing facilities for this investigation.
REFERENCES
1. Abdul-Wahab, H.M.S. , Al-Ausi, M. A. and Tawfiq, S.H. , ’’Steel Fibre

Reinforced Concrete Members Under Combined Bending, Shear and Torsion’’
Proc. of RILEM Symposium FRC 8 6 , Vol. 2, July 1986, Paper No. 8.11.
2. Batson, G. , Terry, T. and Chang, M.S., ’’Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Beams Subjected to Bending and Torsion” , ACI Special Publication
SP 81 , Paper SP81-3, International Symposium on Fibre-Reinforced
Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1984, pp. 51-68.
3- Kukreja, C.B. , ’’Structural Characteristics of Steel Fibre Reinforced

Concrete” , Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil Engg., University
of Roorkee, Roorkee, India, 1981.
4. Collins, M.P., Walsh, P.F., Archer, F.E. and Hall, A.S., "Ultimate
Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams Subjected to Combined Torsion
and Bending", ACI Special Publication SP 18, Torsion of Structural
698
Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1968,

pp. 379-402.
5. Craig, R.J., Dunya, S., Riaz, J. and Shirazi, H . , "Torsional Behaviour

of Fibrous Concrete Beams", ACI Special Publication SP 81, Paper
81-2, International Symposium on Fibre-Reinforced Concrete, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1984, pp. 17-49.
6. Mansur, M.A. and Paramasivam, P., "Fibre Reinforced Concrete Beams

in Torsion, Bending and Shear", ACI Journal, Title No. 82-2, Jan.-
Feb. 1985, pp. 33-39.
7- Narayanan, R. and Kareem-Palanjian, A. S., "A Space Truss Model

for Fibre Concrete Beams in Torsion", The Structural Engineer,
Vol. 63-B, London, England, March 1985, pp. 14-19.
8. Narayanan, R. and Kareem-Palanjian, A. S., "Torsion in Beams Rein

forced with Bars and Fibres", Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 1, Jan. 1986, pp. 53-66.
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Moment and Shear", Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 111,
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699
INDEX OF CONTRIBUTORS
Abbas, J.M., 126 Godbole, P.N., 620

Abdul-Wahab, H.M.S Green, E., 420
664 Grondziel, M., 610
Abdull-Ahad, R.B. , Grzybowski, M., 334
Agopyan, V . , 296 Guo, W., 345
Akihama, S., 523 Gurusamy, K., 553
Al-Ausi, M.A., 664
Al-Feel, J.R., 209 Hahne, H., 60
A li, I.A.I., 157 Hamelin, P., 274
Al Jeabory, J., 219 Hannant, D.J., 563
Alios, A . E ., 146 Harrouche, N., 1
Al-Taan, S.A., 209 Hassoun, M.N., 467
Arumugam, V., 656 Hebda, L., 388
Austin, S ., 21 Hirai, K., 32
Azari, M.M., 188 Hirose, K., 489
Hussin, M.W., 90
Backer, S., 420
Baluch, M.H., 602 John, V.M., 296
Banthia, N., 136, 251
Barr, B., 157, 411 Karaguler, M.E., 334
Basunbul, I., 602 Kaushik, S.K., 240, 620,
Bayasi, Z., 167, 200 687
Behdad, H., 467 Kearns, C.F., 355
Benaiche, F., 411 Keer, J.G., 592
Bentur, A., 101, 229 Khanna, S.K., 620
Buch, J.S.R., 42 Khidair, R.M., 664
Burakiewicz, A., 388 Koide, N., 32
Bushby, A.J., 111 Konig, G., 60
Butler, J.E., 544
Lai, S., 582
Chauvel, D., 274 Lee, C.-D., 363
Chorinsky, E.G.F., 651 Lee, H.J., 444
Lee, S.-L., 444
Davies, C.K.L., 111 Li, V.C., 420
de Larrard, F., 1 Lovata, N.L., 513
Desai, N.B., 306 Lu, H., 121
Destree, X., 284
Dubois, F., 573 Manarakis, G., 188
Mangat, P.S., 188, 553
Fengxia, 121 Menon, V., 240
Filip, R., 592 Mihashi, H., 32
Flaga, K., 219 Mindess, S., 229
Fritz, C., 11 Mizoguchi, K., 32
Molloy, B.T., 553
Gerritse, A., 50
700
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Nakagawa, H., 523 Skalny, J., 229
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Nouguier, H., 573 454
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Ohama, Y., 251 Stefandid, A., 434
Ohgishi, S., 70 Stroeven, P., 345
Ong, K.C.G., 179 Suenaga, T., 523
Ono, H., 70 Su£ter§id, J., 434
Swaddiwudhipong, S., 479
Paramasivam, P., 179 Swamy, R.N., 90, 640
Patel, J.K., 306
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Peterson, G., 200 Theodorakopoulos, D.D., 640
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533 Vasan, R.M., 620
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Rossi, P., 1 Worner, J.-D., 60
Rudzinski, L., 388 Wu, G.Y., 261, 499
Sasturkar, P.J., 687 Xu, G., 592

Sawalma, A., 467
Shah, S.P., 334, 378 Yamamoto, T., 32
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Sharif, A., 602 Yashiro, H., 489
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Shen, R., 80 Zellers, R.C., 316

R.N. Swamy (Editor) - B. Barr (Editor) - Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concretes - Recent developments-CRC Press (1990)

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R.N. Swamy (Editor) - B. Barr (Editor) - Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concretes - Recent developments-CRC Press (1990)

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FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENTS AND CONCRETES

International Scientific Committee

Taylor &. Francis

LONDON AND NEW YORK

Transferred to D igital Printing 2005

British L ib ra ry Cataloguing in Publication Data

L ib ra ry o f Congress CIP data applied for

Special regulations for readers in the U SA

Fibre reinforced cements and concretes are today firmly established as

O ptim ization of SIFC O N mix . . . . . . .

A repair application of polypropylene fibre reinforced sprayed

New Fibres/M atrices

M echanical behaviour of FR C m aterials with added microfiller

First applications of Arapree . . . . . . .

Behaviour, design and application of polyacrylonitrile fibre concrete

Deform ation character and strength capacity of new m aterial fibers

Woven polypropylene fabrics— an alternative to asbestos for thin

Properties and reinforcing mechanisms in steel wool reinforced

Fracture and crack growth in glass fibre reinforced m ortar . 111

Effect of zeolite on durability of G R C . . . . . . 121

Testing Steel FRC/Curing

Shear transfer in fibre reinforced concrete . . . . . 146

Fracture performance of FR C materials under various curing

Effects of curing procedures on m echanical properties of carbon fiber

Applications for FR C (A)

Use of sm all-diam eter polypropylene fibres in cem ent-based

Prediction of crack w idth in fibrous reinforced concrete members . 209

T he role of interior stresses in the structural destruction of fibre

Reinforcem ent of norm al and high strength concretes with fibrillated

Behaviour of fibrous-composites under im pact and blast loading . 240

Dynam ic tensile fracture of carbon fiber reinforced cements . 251

Flexural fatigue strength, endurance limit, and im pact strength of

Im pacts of fibre reinforced concrete slabs . . . . . 274

Applications for FR C (B)

Building panels m ade with natural fibre reinforced alternative

Properties and application of steel polypropylene and polyester fibre

High volume applications of collated fibrillated polypropylene fiber 316

SFRC vertical joints between large precast concrete panels . 326

Structural modelling and m echanical behaviour of steel fibre

Simple models for the structural behaviour of thin steel fibre

Constitutive modeling of steel fiber reinforced concrete under direct

D am age evolution in FR C m aterials modelling and experimental

Influence of m aterial structure of SFRC on toughness index . 388

An identity chart for steel fibres . . . . . . . 401

Fracture characteristics of high strength concrete and FR C materials 411

Toughened behaviour and mechanisms of synthetic fiber reinforced

Im provem ents in the workability and hardened cement paste quality

FR C Beams and Columns

Flexural design of reinforced concrete beams incorporating steel

U ltim ate strength of reinforced lightweight fibrous concrete beams 467

Behaviour of fibre-reinforced concrete deep beams containing

Study on shear failure of steel fibre reinforced concrete short columns

An analysis of post-peak loading conditions in fibrous concrete

M echanical properties of various types of fibre reinforced concretes 523

Fatigue strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced concretes . 533

The perform ance of concrete containing high proportions of steel

Ten year flexural durability tests on cement sheets reinforced with

D urability of steel fibrous concrete used for the m anufacture of

Estim ation of frost resistance of fiber reinforced concrete 582

Cracking and moisture penetration in fibre cement sheeting . 592

Effect of therm al incom patibility on fiber-reinforced latex modified

FR C Slabs and Pavements

Analysis of steel fibre reinforced concrete pavements based on infinite