Chapter 1

Introduction to Digital System

1. What is Analog system and Digital system?
Ans:
Analog system:

Analog system is an electronic system where the variable or signal

are continuously.
Analog describes the proportional relationship between a signal
and a voltage or current that represent the signal.
Example: Automobile speedometer.

Digital system:
Volts

5 volt 5 volt 1

0v 0 0
Time(t)
Digital system has two or more distinguishable waveforms.
In digital representation the quantities are represented not by
proportional quantities but by symbols called digit.
Example: Digital watch.

 Advantage of Digital Technique:

1. Easier to design.
2. Information storage is easy.
3. Accuracy and precision is greater than other.
4. Less affected by noise’
5. Fabricated by IC chips.
6. Operation can be programmed.
7. As long as the noise is not large.
8. Enough to prevent us form distinguishing a high from a
low.

 Limitation / Disadvantage of Digital Technique:

1. Convert the real word analog inputs to digital form.

2. Process (operation) the digital information.
3. Convert the digital outputs back to real world analog
form.
 Typical Voltage Assignment with Digital Signal:
 5 volts
Binary 1
2.4v

Not Use
0.4v
0 Binary
0.0v time (t)
 Perspective digital signal:

010 010

Time(t)

 Integrated Circuit (IC):

Integrated circuits. Digital circuits are constracted with

integrated circuits. An integrated circuit (IC) is a small
silicon semiconductor crystal called a chip, it is
containing electrically components such as transistors,
diodes, registers and capacitors. The chip is mounted on
a metal or plastic package and connections are welded to
external pins to form the IC.

 Classification of IC:
 ICs are classified as follows depending on the
number of gates they contain:

1. SSI- Small Scale Integration: Several logic gates in

a single IC.
2. MSI-Medium Scale integration: IC perform a
complete logic function with 10 to 100 gates.
3. LSI-Large Scale Integration: IC perform a
complete logic function with more than 100
gates.
4. VLSI-Very Large Scale Integration: IC perform a
complete logic function with thousands of gates.

 Difference between Analog System and Digital System:

Sr. Key Digital System Analog System

No.

Signal Type Digital System uses discrete signals as Analog System uses continuous
1 on/off representing binary format. Off is 0, signals with varying magnitude.
On is 1.

2 Wave Type Digital System uses square waves. Analog system uses sine waves.

Technology Digital system first transform the analog Analog systems records the
3 waves to limited set of numbers and then physical waveforms as they are
record them as digital square waves. originally generated.

Transmission Digital transmission is easy and can be Analog systems are affected
4 made noise proof with no loss at all. badly by noise during
transmission.
Sr. Key Digital System Analog System
No.

Flexibility Digital system hardware can be easily Analog system's hardware are
5
modulated as per the requirements. not flexible.

Bandwidth Digital transmission needs more bandwidth Analog transmission requires

6
to carry same information. less bandwidth.

Memory Digital data is stored in form of bits. Analog data is stored in form of
7
waveform signals.

Power Digital system needs low power as compare Analog systems consume more
8
requirement to its analog counterpart. power than digital systems.

Best suited Digital system are good for computing and Analog systems are good for
9
for digital electronics. audio/video recordings.

10 Cost Digital system are costly. Analog systems are cheap.

Example Digital system are: Computer, CD, DVD. Analog systems are: Analog
11 electronics, voice radio using AM
frequency.

 Advantage and Disadvantage ofAnalog System and

Digital System:

 Advantage of Digital System:

1. Less expensive.
2. More reliable.
3. Easy to manipulate.
4. Flexible.
 5. Compatibility with other digital systems.
6. Integrated networks.

 Disadvantage of Digital System:

1. Sampling error.
2. Digital communications require greater
bandwidth than analog to transmit the same
information.
3. The detection of digital signals requires the
communication system to be synchronized.

 Advantage of Analog System:

1. Uses less bandwidth.

2. More accurate.

 Disadvantage of Analog System:

1. High cost of signal conversion inside the display.

2. Upgrade to digital interface not possible.
 Chapter 02
Number Systems and Codes

 Complements:

Complements are used for simplifying the subtraction operation.

There are 2 types of complements for each base – r system:
1. The r’s complements.
2. The (r-1)’s complements.

 The r’s complement:

Given a positive number N in base r with an integer part

of n digits. So, the r’s complement of N is defined
The r’s complement of N
={ rn-N if N≠0 }
{0 if N = 0 }
r’s radix complement
Where r=base, n=count of integer, N=The number

Example 01: What is the radix complement of (550)10 ?

Solution:
(550)10 = r’s complement
=rn- N
 = (10)3 – 550
= 450
Answer: 450

Example 02: What is the radix complement of (111)2 ?

Solution:
(111)2 = r’s complement
= rn – N
= 23 – (111)
= 8 – (111)
= 8- 7
=1
Answer: 1

 The (r-1)’s complement:

Given a positive number N in base r with an integer part

of n digits and a fractional part of m digits, the (r-1)’s
complement of N is defined as the (r-1)’s complement of
N = rn– r-m -N
Where r = base
n = Count of integer (before point number of digit position)
-m = Count of integer(After point number of digit position)
N = The number
Example 01:What is the radix (r-1)’s complement of(325.856) 10 ?
Solution:
(325.856)10 = (r-1)’s complement
= rn – r-m – N
= (10)3 – (10)-3 - 325.856
= 674.143
Answer: 674.143
 Subtraction between two binary number using 1’s
complement :

Example 01: Find out (A – B) =? If A = 1010100 and B =

1000011 (Solve the question using 1’s complement)

Solution Rules:

1. Value of B will be 1’s complement ( 0 to 1, 1 to 0 ).

2. 1’s complement result will be add with A.
3. If carry is produce, it will be neglect and Addition with
1 rest of the number this the final result with (+) sign.
4. If carry is produce, it will be neglect and Addition with
1 rest of the number this the final result with (+) sign.
5. If carry is not produce (mean 0) then do again 1’s
complement of the result and put (-) sign.

Solution:

Given that,
A = 1010100
B = 1000011
1’s complement of B = 0111100
 Now,
A = 1010100
1’s complement of B = 0111100
10010000
Carry
Carry is produce, so it will be neglect.
Then,
0010000
1
0010001
And put the (+) sign
so, (+) 0010001
Final result is (+) 0010001 (Answer).

Example 02: Find out (B – A) =? If A = 1010100 and B = 1000011 (Solve

the question using 1’s complement)
Solution:
Given that,
B = 1000011
A = 1010100
1’s complement of A = 0101011
Now,
B = 1000011
1’s complement of A = 0101011
= 1101110
Here, no carry produce, so do again 1’s complement
0010001
And put the (-) sign
so, (-) 0010001
Final result (-) 0010001 (Answer)
 Subtraction between two binary number using 2’s
complement:

Example 01: Find out (M – N) =?

If M = 1010100 and N = 1000011(Solve the question using 2’s
complement)

Solution Rules:
1. Value of N will be 2’s complement.
2. 2’s complement addition with M.
3. If carry is produce, it will be delete and it is final result with (+).
4. If carry is not produce then do again 2’s complement of result and
it will be final result with (-) sign.

Solution:
Given that,
M = 1010100
N = 1000011
2’s complement of N = 0111101
Now,
M = 1010100
 2’s complement of N = 0111101

10010001

Carry
Here, carry is produce so, it will be delete and put (+) sign
Final Result (+) 0010001 (Answer)

Example 02: Find out (N – M) =?

If M = 1010100 and N = 1000011(Solve the question using 2’s
complement)
Solution:
Given that,
M = 1010100
N = 1000011
2’s complement of M = 0101100
Now,
N = 1000011
2’s complement of M = 0101100

1101111
Here, no carry produce so do again 2’s complement
0010001
And put the (-) sign
so,(-) 0010001
Final result (-) 0010001 (Answer)
 Subtraction between two binary number using r’s
complement :

Example 01: If A = ( 13020.50)10 and B = ( 03012.30 )10

Then find out ( A – B ) using r’s complement.

Solution Rules:

1. Value of A and B will be equal digit

2. Value of B will be r’s complement
3. A and B will be add.
4. If carry is produce, it will be delete and it is final result
with (+).
5. If carry is not produce then do again r’s complement
of result and it will be final result (-) sign.

Solution:

r’s complement of B = rn – N
= (10)5 – 03012.30
= 96987.70
Now,
A = 13020.50
r’s complement of B = 96987.70

110008.20

Carry
Here carry will be delete and put (+) sign
So, (+) 10008.20
Final result (+) ( 10008.20 )10 (Answer).
 Example 02: If A = ( 13020.50)10 and B = ( 03012.30 )10
Then find out ( B – A ) using r’s complement.

Solution:
Given that,
A = 13020.50
B = 03012.30
r’s complement of A = rn– N
= (10)5 – 13020.50
= 86979.50
Now,
B = 03012.30
r’s complement of A = 86979.50

89991.80
Here, carry is not produce so do again r’s complement
rn - N
= (10)5 – 89991.80
= 10008.20
And put the (-) sign
So, (-) 10008.20
Final result (-) (10008.20)10 (Answer)

 Subtraction between two binary number using (r – 1)’s

complement :

Example 01: If A = ( 13020.50)10 and B = ( 03012.30 )10

Then find out ( A – B ) using (r-1)’s complement.
Solution Rules:

1. Value of A and B will be equal.

2. Value of B will be (r-1)’s complement.
3. Then add will be A and B.
4. If carry is produce, it will be delete and addition with 1
then the final result put (+) sign.
5. If carry is not produce then do (r-1)’s complement of
result and it will be final result with (-) sign.

Solution:

Given that,
A = 13020.50
B = 03012.30
(r-1)’s complement of B = rn - r-m - N
= (10)5 - (10)-2 - 03012.30
= 100000 - 0.01 - 03012.30
= 96987.69
Now,
A = 13020.50
(r-1)’s complement of B = 96987.69

= 110008.19

Carry
Here Carry is produce, it will be delete and addition
with 1
SO, 10008.19
1
10008.20
And put the (+) sign
 (+) 10008.20
Final result (+) (10008.20)10 (Answer).

Example 02: If A = ( 13020.50)10 and B = ( 03012.30 )10

Then find out ( B – A ) using (r-1)’s complement.

Solution:

Given that,
A = 13020.50
B = 03012.30
(r-1)’s complement of A = rn - r-m - N
= (10)5 - (10)-2 – 13020.50
= 100000 – 0.01 – 13020.50
= 86979.49
Now,
B = 03012.30
(r-1)’s complement of A = 86979.49

89991.79
Here no carry produce then do again (r-1)’s
complement
= rn - r-m – N
= (10)5 - (10)-2 - 89991.79
= 100000 – 0.01 –89991.79
= 10008.20
And put the (-) sign
So, (-) 10008.20
Final result (-) (10008.20)10 (Answer).
 Binary Number System

1. Binary Base 2, Range(0,1)

Example: ( 101011)2
2. Decimal Base 10, Range ( 0, 9)
Example: ( 35253)10
3. Octal Base 8, Range (0 to 7)
Example: ( 35. 253)8
4. Hexadecimal Base 16, Range ( 0 to 9 )
( A to F )
Example: ( 3FA6.428)16
 Decimal to Binary conversion:

1. ( 47.85 )10 = ( Binary)2

Solution:

 47/2 = 23 remainder 1
 23/2 = 11 remainder 1
 11/2 = 5 remainder 1
 5/2 = 2 remainder 1
 2/2 = 1 remainder 0
 1/2 = 0 remainder 1
So, 101111

 .85*2 = 1.70 taking 1

 .70*2 = 1.40 taking 1
 .40*2 = 0.80 taking 0
 .80*2 = 1.60 taking 1
So, 1101

Final result is (47.85)10 = (101111.1101)2 (Answer)

 Decimal to octal conversion:

( 495.68)10 = (octal)8

 495/8 = 61 remainder 7
 61/8 = 7 remainder 5
 7/8 = 0 remainder 7
So, 757

 .68*8 = 5.44 taking 5

 .44*8 = 3.52 taking 3
 .52*8 = 4.16 taking 4
 .16*8 = 1.28 taking 1
So, 5341

Final result is (495.68)10 = (757.5341)8 (Answer)

 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

( 31564.95)10 = (Hexadecimal)16

 31564/16 = 1972 remainder 12(C)

 1972/16 = 123 remainder 4
 123/16 = 7 remainder 11(B)
 7/16 = 0 remainder 7
So, 7B4C

 .95*16 = 15.20 taking 15(F)

 .20*16 = 3.20 taking 3
 .20*16 = 3.20 taking 3
 .20*16 = 3.20 taking 3
So, F333
Final result is ( 31564.95)10 = (7B4C.F333)16 (Answer)

 Binary to Decimal Conversion

( 101101.01101)2 = ( Decimal)10

Solution:

= 1*25 + 0*24 + 1*23+ 1*22+ 0*21+ 1*20+0*2-1+1*2-2+1*2-

3
+0*2-4+1*2-5
= 32+0++8+4+0+1+0+1/4+1/8+0+1/32
= 45.40625

Answer: (101101.01101)2 = (45.40625)10

 Octal to Decimal Conversion

(647.63)8 = (Decimal)10

Solution:

= 6*82+4*81+7*80+6*8-1+3*8-2
= 384+32+7+0.75+0.046875
= 423.796875

Answer: (647.63)8 = (423.796875)10

 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

(6478.68)16 = ( Decimal)10

Solution:
 = 6*163+4*162+7*161+8*160+6*16-1+8*16-2
= 24576+1024+112+8+0.375+0.03125
= 25720.40625

Answer: (6478.68)16 = ( 25720.40625)10

 Octal to Binary Conversion

(173.62)8 = (Binary)2
Solution:

1 7 3 . 6 2

001 111 011 . 110 010

Answer: (173.62)8 = (001111011.110010)2

 Binary to Octal Conversion

( 1111011.110010)2= (Octal)8

Solution:
001 111 011 . 110 010

1 7 3 . 6 2
Answer: ( 1111011.110010)2= (173.62)8

 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

 (F0A3 . 2A)16 = (Binary)2

Solution:

F 0 A 3 . 2 A

15 10 10
1111 0000 1010 0011 0010 1010
Answer: (F0A3 . 2A)16 = (1111 0000 1010 0011.0010 1010)2

 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

(1111 0000 1010 0011.0010 1010)2 = (Hexadecimal)16

Solution:
1111 0000 1010 0011 . 0010 1010
10 10
15

F 0 A 3 . 2 A
Answer: (1111 0000 1010 0011.0010 1010)2 = (F0A3 . 2A)16

 Any Number to BCD(8421) Conversion

Solution rules:
 1.Any Number to Decimal
2. Decimal to equivalent of 4 bit binary.

 (5D.6)16 = (8421)BCD ?
Solution:

Here D=13
So, = 5*161+13*160+6*16-1
= 80+ 13+ 0.375
= (93.375)10
So,
9 3 . 3 7 5

1001 0011. 0011 0111 0101

Answer: (5D.6)16 = (10010011.001101110101)2

 BCD to Any Number

Solution Rules:

1. BCD to Decimal.
2. Decimal to Any Number.

 (010110010010.10001001)BCD = (Octal)8
Solution:
0101 1001 0010 . 1000 1001

5 9 2 . 8 9
So, ( 592.89)10
Now,
 592/8 = 74 remainder 0
 74/8 = 9 remainder 2
 9/8 = 1 remainder 1
 1/8 = 0 remainder 1
So, 1120

 .89*8 = 7.12 taking 7

 .12*8 = 0.96 taking 0
 .96*8 = 7.68 taking 7
 .68*8 = 5.44 taking 5
So, 7075

Answer: (010110010010.10001001)BCD = (1120.7075)8

 Excess- 3 code/XS – 3 code

In xs-3 code decimal code/digit is coded into a 4 bit

binary code the code for each decimal digit is obtained
by adding decimal 3 to the BCD code of the digit. It is not
weighted code. Like BCD code xs-3 code is a self -
complementing code.

Example: Convert (580)10 to xs-3 code.

Solution:
 5 8 0
+3 +3 +3
8 11 3

1000 1011 0011

Answer: (580)10 = (100010110011)xs-3code

 Gray code:

Gray code is a very useful code in which a decimal

number is represent in binary form in a such way so that
each Gray code number differs from the preceding and
the succeeding number by a single bit. For example, the
Gray code for decimal number 5 is 0101 and for 6 is
0110. It is not weighted code.

 Convert Binary to Gray Code:

Example 01: Convert (1101)2 to Gray code

Solution:

1 + 1 + 0+ 1

1 0 1 1

So, (1101)2 = (1011)Gray

Example 02: Convert (1011)Gray to Binary

Solution:
 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1
Answer: (1011)Gray = (1101)2

Chapter 3

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gate

The postulates of a mathematical system form the basic assumptions from which it is

possible to deduce the rules, theorems and properties of the system. The postulates

formulated by EV Hunting ton in 1904. Boolean Algebra introduce by George bool in 1854.

 Postulates or Basic theorems:

1. a. x+0 = x a. x*1 = x
2. b. x+ x′ = 1 b. x* x′ = 0
3. c. x+ x = x c. x*x = x
4. d. x+ 1= 1 d.x.0 = 0
5. Communicative law:
a. x+ y = y+x
b. x y = y x
 6. Associative law :
a. x+ (y+ z) = (x+ y) + z
b. x * (y z) = (x y) z
7. Distributive law:
a. x (y+ z) = x y +x z
b. x + y z = ( x+ y) ( x+ z)
8. De- Morgan’s law:
a.( x+ y)′ = x′ y′

b. ( x. y)′ = x′ + y′

9. Absorption law:

a. x + x y = x

b. x ( x+ y) = x

10. Involution law:

a. x (y+ z) = x y + xz

 Prove that Distributive law:

a. x (y+ z) = x .y +x .z
x y z y+ z x (y + xy xz xy+x

z) z

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

so it is proved .

Example 1: Prove that postulates theorem

x+x=x

Solution:

x +x = ( x + x) .1

= ( x +x ) ( x+ x′) [ x+ x′ = 1]

= x x + x x′ + x x + x x′
 = x x + x x′

= x (x + x′)

=x.1

= x ( proved)

Example 02: Prove that x *1 = x

Solution:

x . 1= (x+ 0) (x + x′) [ x+0 = x and x + x′ = 1 ]

= xx + x x′ + 0.x + 0. x′

= xx + x x′

= x ( x+ x′)

= x .1 [ x + x′ =1]

= x ( proved )

Example 03: Prove that x *x = x

Solution:

x. x= ( x x+ 0)

= x x + x x′

= x ( x + x)′

= x .1

=x ( proved )

Example 04: Prove that x *0 = 0

Solution:
 x . 0 = ( x + x) ( x . x′) [ x+ x = x and x . x′ = 0 ]

= xxx′ + xxx′

= x ( x x′ + x x′ )

= x.0

= 0 ( proved )

Example 05: Prove that x ( x + y) = x

Solution:

x ( x + y) = x . x + x y

=x+xy [x.x=x]

=x(1+y)

= x .1 [1+y=1]

= x ( proved )

 Simplification of Boolean function using postulate theorems

1. F = x′ y′ z + x′ y z + x y′
= x′z y′ + x′ z y + x y′

= x′ z ( y + y′) + x y′

= x′z. 1 + x y′ [ y′ + y = 1]

= x′ z + xy′

= x ′ z + x y′ . ( Answer)
2. F = ABC + AB′ (A′ C′)′
= ABC + AB′ ( A″+ C″ )

= ABC + AB′ ( A +C )

= ABC + AAB′ + AB′C

=ABC + AB′C + AB′ [ A. A = A]

= AC ( B+B′) + AB′

= AC .1 + AB′

= AC + AB′ ( Answer)

3. F= ABC + ABC′ + AB′C

= ABC + ABC + ABC′ + AB′C [ ABC + ABC = ABC ]

= ABC + ABC′ + ABC + AB′C

= AB (C+C′) + AC ( B + B′)

= AB .1 + AC .1 [ C+C′ = 1 and B +B′ = 1 ]

= AB + AC (Answer)

4. F = A′C ( A′BD)′ + A′BC′D′ + AB′C

= A′C ( A″ + B′ + D′) + A′BC′D′+AB′C

= A′C ( A + B′ +D′ ) + A′BC′D′+AB′C

= A′AC + A′B′C + A′CD′+ A′BC′D′+AB′C

= 0.C + A′B′C + A′CD′+A′BC′D′+AB′C [ A′.A = 0 ]

= A′B′C + A′CD′ + A′BC′D′+ AB′C

=A′B′C + AB′C + A′ CD′+ A′ BC′D′

= B′C ( A′ +A) + A′D′ ( C +BC′ )

 = B′C .1 + A′D′ ( C+BC′ ) [ A′+A =1]

= B′C + A′D′ ( C + BC′ ) (Answer)

 Complement of Boolean Function:

The complement of a Boolean function F is F′ and is obtained from an

interchange of 0′s for 1′s and 1′s for 0′s in the value of F. The

complement of a Boolean function may be derived algebraically

through De- Morgan′s theorem.

Example 01: The complement of the function

F1 = x′ y z′ + x′ y′ z

F2 = x ( y′ z′ + y z)

Let, F1′ = ( x′ y z′ + x′ y′ z )′

= (x′ y′ z′)′ . ( x′ y′ z)′

= ( x″ + y′ + z″ ) . (x″ + y″ + z′ )

= ( x + y′ + z) ( x+ y +z′) (Answer)

then let,

F2′ = { x ( y′ z′ + y z) }′

= x′ + ( y′ z′ + y z )′

= x′ + ( y′ z′ )′ . ( y z)′

= x′ + ( y″ + z″ ) . ( y′ + z′ )
 = x′ + ( y + z) (y′ + z′) (Answer)

 F = ( BC′ + A′D) ( AB′ + CD′)

Let,

F′ = { ( BC′ + A′D) ( AB′ + CD′) }′

= ( BC′ + A′D)′ + ( AB′ + CD′)′

= ( BC′)′ ( A′D)′ + ( AB′ )′ ( CD′)′

= ( B′+ C″) ( A″ + D′) + ( A′ + B″) (C′ + D″)

= ( B′ + C) (A + D′) + ( A′ +B) ( C′ + D) (Answer)

 F = B′D + A′ B C′ + ACD + A′BC

Let,

F′ = ( B′D +A′B C′ + ACD + A′BC)′

= ( B′D)′ (A′BC′)′ (ACD)′ ( A′BC)′

= ( B″ + D′) ( A″ + B′+ C″) (A′+ C′+ D′) ( A″ + B′ + C′)

= ( B + D′) ( A + B′+ C) ( A′+C′+D′) ( A + B′+ C′) (Answer)

 F = ((AB)′ . A) ((AB)′ . B)

Let,

F′ = { ((AB)′ . A) ((AB)′ . B)}′

= ((AB)′ . A)′ + ((AB)′ . B)′

=((AB)″+ A′) + ((AB)″+B′)

 = =(AB + A′) + (AB +B′) (Answer)

 F = (AB′ + C′ D′)

Let,

F′ = (AB′ + C′ D′)′

= (AB′)′ (C′ D′)′

= (A′+B″) (C″+ D″)

= (A′+B) (C+ D) (Answer)

 Canonical forms:

Boolean functions Expressed in terms of ofminterms or maxterms are

said to be in canonical forms.

Two canonical forms of Boolean functions :

1. Canonical sum of product.
2. Canonical product of sum.

 Canonical and Standard form

1. SOP : Sum of product
Example: x y + y z [AND product]
2. POS: Product of sum
Example: ( x + y) .(y+ z) [OR logic]
3. Sum: Sum of minterms
 Example: x y z + x′ y z′ [ all variable present]
4. POM: Product of maxterms
Example: ( x+ y+ z) . ( x′ + y′ + z) [ all variable present]

Example 1: Express the Boolean function:

F = A + B′ C in a sum of minterms

Solution:

The function has 3 variable A, B and C. The first term is missing two

variables therefore,

A = A ( B + B′) [ let B + B′ = 1]

=AB + AB′

There still missing one variable so,

A = AB ( C+ C′) + AB′ ( C+ C′) [ let C + C′ = 1 ]

= ABC + ABC′ + AB′C + AB′C′

Second term B′C is missing one variable:

B′C = B′ C ( A + A′)

= AB′C + A′B′C

Now combining all the terms we have

F = A + B′C

= ABC + ABC′ + AB′C + AB′C′ + AB′C + A′B′C

But AB′C appears twice and accordingly to theorem ( x + x =x)

It is possible to remove one of them Re-arranging the minterms In ascending order. We

finally obtain,
F = A′B′C + AB′C′ + AB′C + ABC′ +ABC

= m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7

It is sometimes convenient to express the Boolean function when in its sum of minterms is

the following short notation F (A, B, C) = ∑ ( 1, 4, 5, 6, 7) (Answer)

Example 2: Express the Boolean function:

F = x y + x′z in a product of maxterms

Solution:

First convert the function in OR term using distributive law-

F = x y + x′ z

= ( x y + x′) ( x y + z)

= (x + x′) (y+ x′) ( x +z) ( y + z)

= ( x′ + y) ( x +z) ( y + z)

The function has 3 variable x , y, z

so, x′ + y = x′ + y + z . z′ [ z. z′ = 0]

= ( x′ + y + z) (x′ + y+ z′)

So,

x + z = x+ z+ y .y′ [ y .y=0]

= ( x+ y+ z) (x + y′ + z)

So,

y + z = y + z + x .x′ [x . x′ = 0]

= (x + y+ z) ( x′ + y + z)
Now combining all terms:

F′=( x+ y+ z) (x + y′ + z) ( x′ + y + z) (x′ + y+ z′)

= M 0 . M2 . M4 . M5
Now
A convenient way to express
F ( x, y, z ) = ∏ ( 0, 2, 4, 5 ) (Answer)

 Prove that: m′j= Mj

Solution:

The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms

equals the sum of minterms missing from the original function
equal to 1, while its complement is a 1 for those minterms that
the function is a 0. As an example, consider the function
F ( A, B, C) = ∑ ( 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 )
This has a complement that can be expressed as:
F′ = (A, B, C ) = ∑ ( 0, 2, 3 )
= m 0 + m2 + m3
Now if we take the complement of F′ by De- Morgan’s theorem,
we obtain F in a different form:
F = ( m0 + m2 + m3 )′
= m′0 m′2 m′3
= M0 M2 M3
= ∏ ( 0 , 2, 3 )
So, m′j= Mj
That is the maxterm with subscript j is a complement of the minterm
with the same subscript j and vice versa.
 Express the Boolean functions in a sum of minterms and a
product of Maxterms.

1. F ( A, B, C, D ) = D ( A′ + B ) + B′ D

Solution:

F ( A, B, C, D ) = D ( A′ + B ) + B′ D
= A′ D + BD + B′ D
Now it has four variable A , B, C, D
A′ D = A′ D ( B + B′)
= ( A′BD + A′B′D) ( C+ C′)
= A′BCD + A′BC′D + A′B′CD + A′B′C′D
BD = BD (A + A′)
= ( ABD + A′BD) ( C+ C′ )
= ABCD + ABC′D + A′BCD + A′BC′D
B′D = B′D (A + A′)
= ( AB′D + A′B′D) ( C+ C′ )
= AB′CD + AB′C′D + A′B′CD + A′B′C′D
Now combining all terms:
F = A′BCD + A′BC′D + A′B′CD + A′B′C′D + ABCD + ABC′D + A
′BCD + A′BC′D + AB′CD + AB′C′D + A′B′CD + A′B′C′D
= A′BCD + A′BCD + A′BC′D + A′B′CD + ABCD + ABC′D + A′B′C
′D + AB′CD + AB′C′D
= m7 + m5 + m3 + m15 + m13+ m1+ m11+ m9
F = ∑ ( 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15)
F′ = ∏ ( 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 ) (Answer)

2. F ( w, x, y, z ) = y′ z + w x y′ + w x z′ + w′ x′ z

Solution:
The function has four variables w, x, y, z
The first term y′ z is missing two variables;
Therefore:
y′ z = y′ z ( w+ w′ )
 = w y′ z + w′ y′ z
This is still missing one variable:
y′ z = w y′ z + w′ y′ z
= w y′ z ( x + x′ ) + w′ y′ z ( x+ x′ )
= w x y′ z + w x′ y′ z + w′ x y′ z + w′ x′ y′ z
The second term w x y′ is missing one variable:
W x y′ = w x y′ ( z + z′ )
= w x y′ z + w x y′ z′
The third term w x z′ is missing one variable
W x z′ = w x z′ ( y + y′ )
= w x y z′ + w x y′ z′
The fourth term w′ x′ z is missing one variable
w′ x′ z = w′ x′ z ( y + y′ )
= w′ x′ y z + w′ x′ y′ z
Now combining all terms
F = w x y′ z + w x′ y′ z + w′ x y′ z + w′ x′ y′ z + w x y′ z + w x y′ z
′ + w x y z′ + w x y′ z′ + w′ x′ y z + w′ x′ y′ z
= w x y′ z + w x′ y′ z + w′ x y′ z + w′ x′ y′ z + w x y′ z′ + w x
y z′ + w′ x′ y z
= m13 + m9 + m5 + m1 + m12 + m14 + m3
F = ∑ ( 1, 3, 5, 9, 12, 13, 14 )
F′ = ∏ ( 0, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 ) ( Answer)

3. F ( A, B, C, D) = ( A + B′ + C ) ( A + B′ ) ( A + C′ + D′ ) ( A′ + B +
C + D′ ) ( B+ C′ + D′ )

Solution:

The function has four variables A, B, C, D. Each OR term is

missing so
A + B′ + C = A + B′ + C + D.D′
= ( A + B′ + C + D ) ( A + B′ + C + D′ )

A + B′ = A + B′ + C.C′
=( A + B′ + C ) ( A + B′ + C′ )
 =( A + B′ + C + D.D′ ) ( A + B′ + C′+ D.D′ )
=( A + B′ + C + D ) ( A + B′ + C + D′ ) ( A + B′ + C′+ D )
(A + B′ + C′+ D′ )

A + C′ + D′ = A + C′ + D′ + B.B′
= (A + B + C′ + D′ ) (A + B′ + C′ + D′ )

A′ + B + C + D′: Here no variable is missing

B + C′ + D′ = B + C′ + D′ + A.A′
=( A +B + C′ + D′ ) ( A′ + B + C′ + D′ )
Now combining all terms :
F = ( A + B′ + C + D ) ( A + B′ + C + D′ ) ( A + B′ + C + D ) ( A + B
′ + C + D′ ) ( A + B′ + C′+ D ) (A + B′ + C′+ D′ ) (A + B + C′ +D′)
(A + B′ + C′ + D′ ) ( A′ + B + C + D′ ) ( A + B + C′ + D′ )
( A′ + B + C′+D′)
= ( A + B′ + C + D ) ( A + B′ + C + D′ ) ( A + B′ + C′+ D ) (A + B′
+ C′+ D′ ) (A + B + C′ +D′) ( A′ + B + C + D′ ) ( A′ + B + C′+D′)
= M4 M5 M6 M7 M3 M9 M11
= ∏ ( 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11 )
F′ = ∑ ( 0, 1, 2,8, 10 ) ( Answer )

4. F ( A, B, C ) = ( A′ + B ) ( B′ + C )
Solution:

The function has three variables A, B, C. Each OR term is

missing so,
A′ + B= A′ + B + C.C′
= ( A′ + B + C ) ( A′ + B + C′)
B′ + C = B′ + C + A.A′
= ( A + B′ + C ) ( A′ + B′ + C )
Now combining all terms
F = ( A′ + B + C ) ( A′ + B + C′) ( A + B′ + C ) ( A′ + B′ + C )
= M 4 M5 M2 M6
= ∏ ( 2, 4, 5, 6 )
F′ = ∑ ( 0, 1, 3) ( Answer)
5. F ( x, y, z ) = 1
Solution:
Given that,
F ( x, y, z ) = 1
= ( x + x′ ) . 1
= ( x + x′ ) ( y + y′ )
= x y + x y′ + x′ y + x′ y′
= x y ( z + z′ ) + x y′ ( z + z′ ) + x′ y ( z + z′ ) + x′ y′
( z+ z′ )
= x y z + x y z′ + x y′ z + x y′ z′ + x′ y z + x′ y z ′ + x′
y′ z + x′ y′ z′
= m0 +m1+ m2 + m3 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7
= ∑ ( 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 )
F′ = No Maxterms ( Answer )

6. F ( x, y, z ) = ( x y + z ) ( y + x z )
Solution:

The function has three variables x, y, z . Each OR term is

missing so,
( x y + z ) ( y + x z)
=(x+z)(y+z)(y+x)(y+z)
=(x+z)(y+z)(y+x)
Therefore,
x + z = x + z + y. y′
= ( x + y + z ) ( x + y′ + z )
y + z = y + z + x. x′
= ( x + y + z ) (x′ + y + z )
y + x = y + x + z. z′
=( x + y + z ) ( x + y + z′ )
Now combining all terms
F = ( x + y + z ) ( x + y′ + z ) ( x + y + z ) (x′ + y + z )
( x + y + z ) ( x + y + z′ )
 = ( x + y + z ) ( x + y′ + z ) (x′ + y + z) ( x + y + z′ )
= M0 M2 M4 M1
= ∏ ( 0, 1, 2, 4 )
F′ = ∑ ( 3, 5, 6,7 ) ( Answer )

 Convert the following to the other canonical form:

1. F ( x, y, z ) = ∑ ( 1, 3, 7 )
Solution:
Given that,
F ( x, y, z ) = ∑ ( 1, 3, 7 )
= m1 + m3 + m7
= x′ y′ z + x′ y z + x y z
Missing terms : F′ ( x, y, z ) = ∑ ( 0, 2, 4, 5, 6 )
= m 0 + m2 + m4 + m5 + m6
= x′ y′ z′ + x′ y z′ + x y′ z′ + x y′ z + x y z′
Applied De- Morgan’s theorem:
F′ ( x, y, z )= F ( x, y, z )
=( m0 + m2 + m4 + m5 + m6 )′
= (x′ y′ z′ + x′ y z′ + x y′ z′ + x y′ z + x y z′ )′
=( x′ y′ z′ )′ ( x′ y z′ )′ ( x y′ z′ )′ ( x y′ z )′ ( x y z′ )′

=( x″ + y″ + z″ ) ( x″ + y′ + z″ ) ( x′ + y″ + z″ ) ( x′ + y″ + z′ ) ( x′ + y′ + z″ )

=( x + y + z ) ( x + y′ + z ) ( x′ + y + z ) ( x′ + y + z′ ) ( x′ + y′ + z)

= M0 M2 M4 M5 M6

= ∏ ( 0, 2, 4, 5, 6 ) ( Answer )

2. F ( A, B, C, D) = ∑ ( 0, 2, 6, 11, 13, 14 )
Solution:
Given that,
F ( A, B, C, D) = ∑ ( 0, 2, 6, 11, 13, 14 )
= m0 + m2 + m6 + m11 + m13+ m14
= A′ B′ C′ D′ + A′ B′ C D′ + A′ B C D′ + A B′ C D + A B C′ D + A B C D′
Missing term : F′( A, B, C, D ) = ∑ ( 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12 )
= m1 + m3 + m4 + m5 + m7+ m8 + m9 + m10 + m12
= A′ B′ C′ D + A′ B′ C D + A′ B C′ D′ + A′ B C′ D + A′ B C D + A B′ C′ D′ + A B′ C′ D + A B′
C D′ + A B C′ D′

Appling De- Morgan’s

F′ ( A, B, C, D) = F ( A, B, C, D )
=( m1 + m3 + m4 + m5 + m7+ m8 + m9 + m10 + m12)′
=( A′ B′ C′ D + A′ B′ C D + A′ B C′ D′ + A′ B C′ D + A′ B C D + A B′ C′ D′ + A B′ C′ D + A B
′ C D′ + A B C′ D′ )′
=( A′ B′ C′ D )′ ( A′ B′ C D )′ ( A′ B C′ D′ )′ ( A′ B C′ D )′ ( A′ B C D )′ ( A B′ C′ D′ )′ ( A B′ C′
D )′ ( A B′ C D′ )′ ( A B C′ D′ )
=( A″ + B″ + C″ + D′ ) ( A″ + B″ + C′ + D′ ) ( A″+ B′+ C″+ D″ ) ( A″+ B′+ C″+ D′ ) ( A″+ B′
+ C′+ D′ ) ( A′+ B″+ C″+ D″ ) ( A′+ B″+ C″+ D′ ) ( A′+ B″+ C′+ D″ ) ( A′+ B′+ C″+ D″ )
=( A+ B + C + D′ ) ( A + B + C′ + D′ ) ( A+ B′+ C+ D ) ( A+ B′+ C+ D′ ) ( A+ B′+ C′+ D′ ) ( A
′+ B+ C+ D ) ( A′+ B+ C+ D′ ) ( A′+ B+ C′+ D ) ( A′+ B′+ C+ D )
= M1 M3 M4 M5 M7 M8 M9 M10 M12
= ∏ ( 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12 ) ( Answer )

3. F ( x, y, z) = ∏ ( 0, 3, 6, 7 )
Solution:
Given that,
F ( x, y, z) = ∏ ( 0, 3, 6, 7 )
= M0 M3 M6 M7
= (x + y + z ) ( x + y′ + z′ ) ( x′ + y′ + z ) ( x′ + y′ + z′ )
Missing terms:
F′ ( x, y, z) = F ( 1, 2, 4, 5 )
= M1 M2 M4 M5
= (x + y + z′ ) ( x + y′ + z ) ( x′ + y + z ) ( x′ + y + z′ )
 Appling De – Morgan’s
F′ ( x, y, z) = F ( x, y, z)
= ( M1 M2 M4 M5 )′
={ (x + y + z′ ) ( x + y′ + z ) ( x′ + y + z ) ( x′ + y + z′ )}′
= (x + y + z′ )′ + ( x + y′ + z )′ + ( x′ + y + z )′ + ( x′ + y + z′ )′
= (x′ y′ z″ ) + ( x′ y″ z′ ) + ( x″ y′ z′ ) ( x″ y′ z″ )
= (x′ y′ z ) + ( x′ y z′ ) + ( x y′ z′ ) ( x y′ z )
= m1 + m2 + m4 + m5
= ∑ ( 1, 2, 4, 5 ) ( Answer)

4. F ( A, B , C, D ) = ∏ ( 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 )
Solution:
Given that,
F ( A, B , C, D ) = ∏ ( 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 )
= M0 M1 M2 M3 M4 M6 M12
= ( A + B + C + D ) ( A + B + C + D′ ) ( A + B + C′ + D ) ( A + B + C′ + D′ ) ( A + B′ + C
+ D ) ( A + B′ + C′ + D ) ( A′ + B′ + C + D )
Missing terms:
F′ ( A, B , C, D ) = ∏ ( 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 )
= M5 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11
= ( A + B′ + C + D′ ) ( A + B′ + C′ + D′ ) ( A′ + B + C + D ) ( A′ + B + C + D′ ) ( A′ + B +
C′ + D ) ( A′ + B + C′ + D′ )
Appling De- Morgan’s
F′ ( A, B , C, D ) =F ( A, B , C, D )
=( M5 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 )
= {( A + B′ + C + D′ ) ( A + B′ + C′ + D′ ) ( A′ + B + C + D ) ( A′ + B + C + D′ ) ( A′ + B +
C′ + D ) ( A′ + B + C′ + D′ ) }′
= ( A + B′ + C + D′ )′ + ( A + B′ + C′ + D′ )′ + ( A′ + B + C + D )′ + ( A′ + B + C + D′ )′ +
( A′ + B + C′ + D )′ + ( A′ + B + C′ + D′ )′
= ( A′ B″ C′ D″ ) + ( A′ B″ C″ D″ ) + ( A″ B′ C′ D′ ) + ( A″ B′ C′ D″ ) + ( A″ B′ C″ D′ ) +
( A″ B′ C″ D″ )

= ( A′ B C′ D ) + ( A′ B C D ) + ( A B′ C′ D′ ) + ( A B′ C′ D ) + ( A B′ C D′ ) + ( A B′ C D)
= m5 + m7 +m8 + m9 + m10+ m11
= ∑ ( 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 ) ( Answer )