1188 REFRACTORIES COLLOQUIUM

what lower temperatures must have practically the same characteristics.

The hearths or “bottoms” as designated in these furnaces are required
only t o retain the iron oxide cinder formed in the heating.
MILFORD,
DBLAWARE

METALLURGICAL REQUIREMENTS OF REFRACTORIES IN

COPPER SMELTING AND REFINING’
n Y FRANCIS
R . PYNE

ABSTRACT
The requirements of refractories in the copper industry may be classed a s follows:
1. Resistance t o temperatures
2. Resistance t o chemical action
3. Ability t o withstand sudden temperature changes
4. Minimum absorption of slag and metal
5. Absence of manufacturing defects.

Resistance to Temperature
The ability t o withstand high temperatures is in general of importance
only in the reverberatory smelting of fine ores. Here we have a furnace
approximately 100 feet in length into which the roasted ore is charged a t
one end while the molten slag and matt collect a t the other end. And as
the object of this operation is to smelt the greatest possible tonnage in a
given space of time, i t follows that the higher the temperatures obtained,
the better. It is therefore apparent that in this case the refractory that
will withstand the higher temperature, other conditions being equal, is
more desirable.
I n other metallurgical operations, such as roasting, converting and
refining, the temperatures are not excessive and in these operations the
question of refractoriness is of secondary consideration.

Resistance to Chemical Action

Resistance t o chemical action is of the greatest importance. The copper
metallurgist deals with highly corrosive slags, matts, oxides, and metals
and unless the proper refractory is selected for each material, there will
be constant interruptions to the process due t o shut downs for repairs.
As the products formed in the smelting of copper ores are strongly basic,
the natural tendency is towards the basic refractories such as magnesite
and chrome. For roof work, however, silica is almost universally used
except in the case of very low temperature work or where the silica would
be subjected t o such corrosive action of slags, flue dusts, etc., as t o make
its use uneconomical.
Presented before the Refractories Division, Pittsburgh Meeting, Feb., 1923.
 REFRACTORIES COLLOQUIUM 1189

Clay brick is commonly used for flues, for side walls and roofs in low
temperature work and almost universally for fireboxes in coal fired furnaces.
Due to the high price of the magnesite and chrome refractories, there
is a constant endeavor to keep their use down to a minimum and to sub-
stitute clay brick whenever possible. This is particularly desirable in
refining operations where the slags formed are not as highly corrosive as
in the smelting operations, but nevertheless are very basic.
However, clay refractories vary from highly siliceous to neutral and
there must be considerable care exercised in their selection not only for
furnace linings but for fireboxes. A highly siliceous clay refractory will
not withstand basic slags, neither will it withstand a corrosive ash from the
coal, and it is generally necessary to use the more neutral clays for this
work, although there are, of course, exceptions due to local conditions.
Many producers of clay refractories do not appear to realize the impor-
tance of the chemical composition of their products. As long as their
product will stand a proper fusion test they appear to be satisfied and
seem to feel that the consumer who desires t o know something about the
chemical composition, is technical and not practical. The writer has
known instances where the manufacturers of clay refractories have had
no analyses made of their product for years. However, there are indica-
tions that such conditions are changing for the better.
Sudden Temperature Changes
The ability to withstand sudden temperature changes is desirable as in
many operations there is a sudden increase or decrease in the temperatures
of operation. Unless the refractory possesses this ability, it will spa11
badly and have a short life.
Minimum Absorption of Slag and Metal
One of the very important requirements for copper refractories is the
ability to withstand penetration of slags, matts, and metal. As the
products are of considerable value it follows that if the refractories are
porous they will tie up a lot of copper, silver, and gold which means not
only a heavy interest charge but also a heavy expense in the retreatment
to.recover these metals, which adds greatly to the cost of operation. It
also follows that any refractory, irrespective of its chemical composition,
that is so porous as to permit of considerable absorption by capillary
attraction, will have its properties so changed as t o be destroyed in a rela-
tively short time.
Obviously, the cure for porosity in refractories that come in contact
with molten materials lies in the use of as dense a brick as is possible, and
this generally requires fine grinding and machine pressing. Or else the
result may be accomplished by the use of a refractory that will become
1190 REFRACTORIES COLLOQUIUM

slightly glazed at the operating temperature and close up the pores. How-
ever, to the writer’s knowledge, this type of refractory has not as yet been
satisfactorily developed.
Absence of Manufacturing Defects
The absence of manufacturing defects is very desirable but unfortunately,
like death and taxes, they are still with us and are a source of considerable
annoyance. The chief defect lies in non-uniformity of product in that
straights and shapes are frequently made of different material, have differ-
ent fineness of grind, and different degrees of firing. The same shape
may also vary widely. On this account it is not surprising that the me-
chanical properties are not similar and when refractories having such
differentcharacteristics are placed side by side in a structure and subjected
to the same operating conditions, that failures frequently occur.
Irregularity in the thickness of the individual pieces makes it necessary
to have thicker joints than are desirable and will frequently cause local
failure. Warped surfaces, though slight, are fertile sources of weakness.
Fire cracks, defects in molding, setting, or firing may become very
serious as they not only adversely affectthe quality but this effect is greatly
magnified at increased temperatures.
As practically all refractories are subject to further change in volume
upon heating for long periods, particularly the clay refractories, it becomes
of importance that they should be fired a t a temperature not less than
the maximum temperatures a t which they are to be used. Unless this is
done there may be such an excessive volume change during the operations
as to break down the structure in which the refractory is used. It is,
generally speaking, probably true that the harder a refractory is fired
in the kiln, the more satisfactory it will be.
ELIZABETH,
N.J.

REFRACTORIES FOR STOKERS

BY GEORGEI. BOUTON
ABSTRACT
An outline is given of the general uses of refractories for stokers, and the require-
ments for an ideal fire brick. Temperatures which a refractory must stand are given
and some of the troubles due to fluxing and spalling are described. Some analyses are
made of typical brick and troublesome ash.

Introduction
Uses of Refractories.-It would be difficult t o imagine a stoker without
refractories forming some part of its setting, or the connection between
the stoker and the place of use for the heat which has been liberated.
Even the small underfeed stoker placed in the furnace of a Scotch marine