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CHAPTER II
EARTH’S EXTERNAL PROCESSES

Week 3
Weathering and Soil

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain how mechanical weathering and chemical weathering differ.

2. Describe differential weathering and spheroidal weathering.
3. Label an idealized soil profile.
4. Identify the texture of a soil and the three general categories of soils based on
Soil Taxonomy.

Introduction

Earth’s surface is dynamic. Once near earth’s surface, the foundation of rocks,
sediment, and the soil is subjected to sunlight, moisture, rain, running water, wind, and
other processes that affect the appearance, composition, and location of these materials.
Sediments and rock might move to lower elevations by gravity and carried away by
water, wind, or ice. In this manner, Earth’s physical landscape is sculpted. Weathering,
erosion, and mass wasting, are called external processes because they occur at or near
the Earth’s surface. External processes because they occur at or near the Earth’s surface
and are powered by energy from the Sun.

Weathering

The change in the physical form or chemical appearance and composition of rock
materials is called weathering. The physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical
alteration (decomposition) of rocks occur at or near the Earth’s surface. There are two
main types of weathering processes – mechanical wreathing and chemical weathering.

Mechanical weathering is accomplished by physical forces that break the rock into
smaller and smaller pieces but the characteristics of the original material are retained.
When a rock undergoes mechanical weathering, it is broken into smaller and smaller

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pieces, each retaining the characteristics of the original material. Note that some factors
involved in mechanical weathering are changes in temperature and pressure.

In nature, four physical processes are mainly responsible for fragmenting rock:
frost wedging, thermal expansion, mineral wedging, sheeting, root wedging, and
biological activity.

1. Water collects in the cracks of rocks and rock layers. If the temperature drops to
the freezing point, water freezes, expands (increases in volume by 9 percent),
exerts pressure on the rocks, and can cause the cracks to widen slightly. And when
the temperature increases, the ice melts in the cracks of rocks and rock layers and
angular fragments break off. The freeze-thaw cycles of water in the cracks of rocks
is called frost wedging. Evident that temperature plays a role in mechanical
weathering.
2. As rocks are heated and cooled, different minerals expand and contract by
different amounts. This daily and seasonal thermal expansion imposes stresses on
the boundaries between minerals and causes micro fracturing in and along
mineral grains, which physically loosens the mineral grains.
3. Another expansive force that can split rocks is created by the growth of salt
crystals. It begins when sea spray from breaking waves or salty groundwater
penetrates gaps and pore spaces in the rock. When the water evaporates, the
growth of salt crystals, calcite, and other minerals weaken the rock by pushing
apart the surrounding grains or enlarging tiny cracks. This process is also called
mineral wedging.
4. When large masses of igneous rock are exposed by erosion, concentric slabs begin
to break loose. The process that generates these onion-like layers is called
sheeting. It takes place, at least in part, due to the great reduction in pressure that
occurs as the overlying rock is eroded, a process called unloading. Over time, the
outer layers of rock can be stripped away in succession, similar to the way an
onion’s layers can be peeled. The process by which outer rock layers are stripped
away is called exfoliation (ex = off, folium = leaf). Exfoliation often results in dome-
shaped formations. In short, unloading leads to the sheeting. Sheeting leads to the
formation of an exfoliation dome.

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1st Semester, SY 2020-2021
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5. Plant roots can extend into fractures

and grow in length and diameter,
expanding preexisting fractures. This
process is root wedging, which wedges
apart rock exposures.
6. Another factor involved in mechanical
weathering is the pressure from
biological activity. Weathering can be
accomplished by the activities of
burrowing animals (earthworms and
Figure 1. Root wedging
ants), and humans. As such, these
creatures are agents of physical weathering.

Organisms play many roles in chemical weathering. For example, plant roots,
fungi, and lichens that occupy fractures or that may encrust a rock produce acid that
promote decomposition. Chemical weathering involves the complex processes that alter
the internal structures of minerals by removing and/or adding elements. Simply, rocks
and minerals change their composition. Some factors involved in chemical weathering
are changes in water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid precipitation.

1. Water especially when it is slightly acidic is an important agent in chemical

weathering because it can dissolve many kinds of minerals and rocks. Water
also plays an active role in many reactions by serving as a medium in which
the reactions can occur. It increases the rate of chemical weathering.
2. An important element in chemical weathering is oxygen (O2). Oxygen is
abundant in the atmosphere and as a dissolved component in rain and most
surface water. The chemical reaction of oxygen with other substances is called
oxidation. Approximately 21 percent of Earth’s atmosphere is oxygen gas. This
oxygen chemically reacts with rocks, causing some minerals to oxidize (rust).
The color of many red-colored rocks is caused by this process.
3. Another atmospheric gas that contributes to the chemical weathering process
is carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide combines with water in the
atmosphere, it forms a very weak acid called carbonic acid that falls to Earth’s

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surface as precipitation. Acids such as carbonic acid readily decompose many

rocks and produce certain products that are water-soluble.
4. Another agent of chemical weathering is acid precipitation, which is caused by
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that are released into the atmosphere, in
large part by human activities. Sulfur dioxide is primarily the product of the
industrial burning of fossil fuels.

Important factors that influence the type and rate of rock weathering include rock
characteristics and climate. Rock characteristics encompass all
the chemical traits of rocks, including mineral composition and
solubility. The rates at which rocks weather depend mostly on
the material that holds the sediment grains together. Other
minerals have stronger bonds that make them less soluble in
water. Quartz in quartzite has very strong bonds and is not very Figure 3. Quartzite
soluble in cold water. Variation in the composition can also influence the rate of
weathering, some outcrops have different parts with large contrasts in susceptibility to
weathering. The more susceptible parts will
weather faster than the more resistant parts. Note
that the larger the surface area the rock is exposed,
the chemical weathering can act. Solid, unjointed
bedrock provides less surface area and weathers
more slowly. Even the discontinuities in the rock
can provide pathways for the entry of water into

Figure 2. Example of a rock exposed to the rock body. A rock with lots of these features will
weathering.
weather more rapidly.

Climatic factors, particularly temperature and moisture, are crucial to the rate of
rock weathering. It exerts a strong influence on rates of chemical weathering and
determines the kind and amount of vegetation present. For example, as magma cools, the
first minerals to crystallize do so at the highest temperatures. These minerals are
typically least stable when subjected to weathering at the low temperatures of Earth’s

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surface. Quartz crystallizes late according to Bowen’s reaction series and is the silicate
mineral most resistant to weathering.

The stability of minerals is in a very general

way related to the order in which the minerals
commonly crystallize from magma. According to
Bowen’s reaction series, mafic minerals and Ca-rich
feldspar crystallize first (i.e., while the magma was
at its hottest), followed by Na-rich and K-rich
feldspar, muscovite, and quartz. In the figure,
minerals are arranged in their general
crystallization order, from top to bottom. Note that
olivine and pyroxene, dark-colored minerals, are

Figure 4. Bowen’s reaction series

the first to crystallize, while K-feldspar and quartz
crystallize last.

Time is a crucial factor in weathering. Physical and especially chemical processes

take time, so the more time that is available, the more weathering will occur. The speed
of weathering and the volume of material affected in a given time will depend on climate,
slope aspect, vegetation, composition, and jointing of the rock or sediment. Due to great
variability in these factors, and all the possible combinations, rates of weathering can
range from rapid to extremely slow.

When rocks vary in composition it differ in susceptibility to weathering. The more

susceptible parts will weather faster than the more resistant parts. When masses of rock
do not weather uniformly this
phenomenon is called differential
weathering. Differential weathering is the
process by which softer, less weather-
resistant rocks wear away at a faster rate
than harder, more weather-resistant rocks
do. Such differential weathering can form
the rough, uneven surface, alternating
Figure 5. Spectacular rock formation due to differential
weathering.
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ledges, and slopes, or rocks with holes where less resistant material has been removed.
Differential weathering and subsequent erosion are responsible for creating many
unusual, often spectacular rock formations and landforms.

Weathering processes usually work inward from an exposed surface. This

commonly results in rounded shapes in weathered outcrops, and weathering commonly
generates loose, partially rounded blocks. This process of producing somewhat spherical
shapes out of solid bedrock is called spheroidal weathering. The three figures below
illustrate what can happen to a rock that has joints but lacks other types of
discontinuities.

Figure 6. This is what happen why we see round rock.

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Soil

Weathering produces soil, one of our most precious resources. Soil is truly at the
interface between the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, each of
which is represented by one of the soil components. It is considered an interface - a
common boundary where different parts of a system interact. The four soil components
interact with their environment to determine the overall properties of soil. Different
types of soils form in different geographic settings, especially as a function of climate,
starting material, and how long soil formation has been occurring.

Note that Earth’s land surface is covered by regolith, a layer of rock and mineral
fragments produced by weathering. Soil is the portion of the regolith that supports the
growth of plants. Soil is a thin layer on the Earth’s surface that is capable of supporting
life and consists of four components — minerals, organic material (living and dead),
water, and air. About one-half of the total volume of good-quality surface soil is a mixture
of disintegrated and decomposed rock (mineral matter) and humus, the decayed remains
of animal and plant life (organic matter). The remaining half consists of pore spaces
among the solid particles where air and water circulate.

Figure 7. Components of soil.

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 Mineral Fraction of Soils

The solid component of soil is comprised mostly of inorganic solids,

especially several types of minerals. We subdivide minerals in the soil into primary
minerals and secondary minerals. Primary minerals, like quartz, are derived
directly from the weathering and erosion of various types of rocks. Primary
minerals undergo no chemical transformation during the soil-forming process,
but they can be reduced in size or shape. Secondary minerals, including most
silicate clays, are minerals that were not originally present but instead have been
produced by fairly intense chemical weathering.

 Organic Fraction of Soils

The organic fraction of soils are rich in carbon and contains plants and animals,
some living, some dead, and some in various stages of decay. There can be a
balance between organic matter that is accumulating and that which is lost due to
erosion and microbial decay, or there can be a net gain or loss of organic material.
The organic content of most soils is rather low, typically about 5%, and includes
humus — a durable, partially decomposed form of organic matter. Humus and
other organic matter are vital for soil health by improving infiltration, retaining
water, decreasing evaporation, retaining and cycling nutrients, reducing erosion
by binding soil together, and providing an energy source for soil organisms.
Organic matter binds soil together, bonds nutrients, cycles nutrients vital for
health and serves as an energy source for organisms.

Soil is the product of the complex interplay of several factors. The most important of
these are parent material, time, climate, plants and animals, and topography.

1. Parent Material - The source of the weathered mineral matter from which soils
develop. Parent material may be the underlying bedrock, or it can be a layer of
unconsolidated deposits. The nature of the parent material influences soils in two
ways. First, the type of parent material affects the rate of weathering which in turn
influences permeability, pH, and the types of nutrients available to plants and thus
the rate of soil formation. Second, the chemical makeup of the parent material

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affects the soil’s fertility. This influences the character of the natural vegetation
the soil can support.
2. Time - The longer a soil has been exposed to weathering processes and organic-
matter accumulation, the better the soil development with distinguishable
horizons (layers). In any climate or setting, soil progressively becomes better
developed with more time, as long as it is not disturbed or eroded. The nature of
the soil is also strongly influenced by the length of time that processes have been
operating. If weathering has been going on for a short time, the parent material
strongly influences the characteristics of the soil. The longer a soil has been
forming, the thicker it becomes and the less it resembles the parent material.
3. Climate - The most influential control of soil formation. Temperature and
precipitation are the climatic elements that influence that exert the strongest
impact on soil formation. Also, the amount of precipitation influences the degree
to which various materials are removed from the soil by percolating water (a
process called leaching), thereby affecting soil fertility. The top two types of soil
(from moister climates) involve thicker sequences of soil than does the one for
arid climates. They also contain more clay, an especially important component of
soil.
4. Plants and Animals - Organisms present have a strong influence on the physical
and chemical properties of soil. Living organisms, in turn, contribute to the
accumulation and furnish of organic matter. Organic matter helps in the formation
of soil structure, is used to differentiate soil horizons, is vital in nutrient cycling
and reduces soil erosion. In addition to the abundance of microorganisms involved
in nutrient cycling, creatures such as moles, and earthworms act to transport and
mix soil. Microorganisms play an active role in the decay of plant and animal
remains.
5. Topography - The variations in slope and elevation of the land can vary greatly
over short distances. Variations in topography can lead to the development of a
variety of localized soil types. On steep slopes, soils are often poorly developed.
Due to rapid runoff, the quantity of water soaking. The soils are thin or in some
cases nonexistent. In contrast, waterlogged soils in poorly drained bottomlands
have a much different character. Such soils are usually thick and dark. The dark
color results from the large quantity of organic matter that accumulates because
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1st Semester, SY 2020-2021
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saturated conditions retard the decay of vegetation. Thus soil formation is favored
when the rate of weathering exceeds the rate at which soil can be dislodged and
carried away. Low-lying areas gather soil moisture and generally have more
organic matter available to vegetative communities.

Soil Profile

These different layers of soil are called horizons. These different layers are not the
same instead each horizon forms and grow in place by weathering of rock and sediment,
and by the addition of material from plants, animals, and the atmosphere. In this idealized
soil profile, each soil horizon is assigned a letter to denote its position or its character.
Vertical section through all of the soil horizons constitutes the soil profile. There are five
horizons, from the surface downward, they are designated as O, A, E, B, and C.

 The O soil horizon is a surface accumulation of organic debris, including dead

leaves, other plant material, and animal remains. It consists largely of organic
material. The upper portion of the O horizon is primarily planted litter (loose
leaves) that is still recognizable while the lower portion of the O horizon is made
up of partly decomposed organic matter (humus) in which plant structures can no
longer be identified.
 The A horizon is composed of dark gray, brown, or black organic material mixed
with mineral grains. It is largely mineral matter, yet biological activity is high.
Humus is generally present. O and A horizons make up what is commonly called
the topsoil.
 The E horizon is a light-colored, leached zone, lacking or little clay and organic
matter. Eluviation (washing out of fine soil components) and leaching (removal of
minerals that have been dissolved in water) may occur when water percolates
downward.

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 The B horizon, or subsoil, contains little organic material, but it can have a red color
due to the accumulation of
iron oxide. In dry climates,
the B horizon can be
whitish or have whitish
streaks due to calcium
carbonate accumulations.
B horizon is where much of
the material removed from
the E horizon by eluviation
is deposited, commonly
referred to as the zone of
accumulation. The
accumulation of fine clay
particles enhances water
retention in the subsoil. In
extreme cases, clay
accumulation can form a
Figure 8. Idealized soil profile from a humid climate
very compact and
impermeable layer called hardpan.
 The C horizon consists of partially weathered rock or unconsolidated sediment
and is the bottom horizon in a soil profile. It is often the thickest soil horizon. This
horizon does not contain much organic matter and is not strongly affected by
leaching. The C horizon is the soil layer that is most like the parent material.

Soil Texture

One way we classify a soil is by its soil texture, which describes the average
distribution of particle sizes. The size distribution in turn exerts a major control on the
soil’s fertility, stability, and other properties. Each particle size can behave in distinct

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chemical and physical fashions. Soil texture is

an inherent property that changes little with
land use and management. A key aspect of a soil
is the size of particles it contains: the sand, silt,
and clay. This table lists the sizes of these three
particles in millimeters. The term mud is a
general term that refers to both silt and clay.

The relative proportion of the three sizes (sand, silt, and clay) is the soil texture.
We can describe soil texture by plotting the proportions of each particle size on a
triangular diagram, like the one shown below. In this example, percent sand is along the
bottom, percent clay is on the left side, and percent silt is on the right side. A soil that is
100% clay plots at the top of the triangle. One that is 100% sand plots in the lower-left
corner, and one that is 100% silt plots in the lower right corner. Most soils have a mix of
the three particle sizes, so they plot somewhere in the triangle. Based on percentages, we
can describe the texture with the words listed where the soil percentages plot. The names
are not as important as understanding how the texture is described and the implications
to humans.

Soil Classification

Soil scientists use a system for classifying soils known as the Soil Taxonomy. It
emphasizes the physical and chemical properties of the soil profile and is organized based
on observable soil characteristics. The table below shows the brief descriptions of the 12
basic soil orders. It is especially useful for agricultural and related land-use purposes, but
it is not a useful system for engineers who are preparing evaluations of potential
construction sites.

Figure 9. Soil-texture Diagram

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Soil Classification

Using the Soil Taxonomy classification system, soils are subdivided based on
distinct physical, chemical, and biotic variations within soil horizons, usually to a depth
of about 2 m. Examples of distinctive soil physical properties would be soil texture, color,
and distinctiveness of soil horizons. Chemical properties would include pH and carbonate
content. The amount, depth, and degree of decay of organic matter also help differentiate
soils. The resulting soils can be grouped into 12 soil orders, grouped into three categories:
site-dominated soils, developing soils, and soils strongly influenced by climate. These three
groups are differentiated in the table below.

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Worksheet III

I. Differentiate the terms in each of the following sets.

1. mechanical weathering – chemical weathering

2. differential weathering - spheroidal weathering
3. soil - regolith
4. O horizon – C horizon
5. sand – mud

II. Answer the following briefly.

1. Explain how water can cause mechanical weathering.

2. Express in your own words the effect that chemical weathering has on rocks.

3. Why do the edges and corners of the cubes weather faster than the faces?

4. Explain why the rocks have weathered so differently. How does climate influence
weathering?

5. Which three soil horizons probably contain the most nutrients?

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Earth and Space Science I
1st Semester, SY 2020-2021