192 ‘THEORY OF MECHANISMS AND MACHINES PROBLEM 4.3 A single-cylinder vertical engine has a bore of 30.5 cm, a stroke 40 cm, and a connecting rod 80 cm long, as shown in Fig, 4.23. The mass of the reciprocating parts is 135 kg. When the piston is at quarter-stroke and is moving downwards, the net pressure on it is 65 N/m?. If the speed of the engine is 250 rpm, find the turning moment on the crankshaft at the instant corresponding to the position shown in the figure. SOLUTION From the given data, ! = 80 cm, s = 2r = 40 cm, cylinder diameter d = 30.5 cm, r A =r/l = 0.25, mrec = 135 kg, p = 65 N/m?, A = Ed? = £(30.5) = 730 cm?, N = 2a — 26.2 rad/s. At quarter-stroke, «= 1+r—s/4=l+1r/2= 90cm. From (4.28) and (4.29), we have @ =leos +1 0088 = 90 cm, (a) cos @ = (1 — d? sin? @)!/? = (1 — 0.0625 sin? 9)!/?. (b) ‘The values of @ and ¢ can be found from (a) and (b) or, alternatively, they can be obtained very easily by the graphical procedure shown in Fig. 4.23. Thus, 9= 55°, ¢=12°, cos0=0.574, cos20 = 0.342, sin (0+) =0.92, cosg = 0.978. ‘Thus, as it is a vertical engine, from (4.44b), we get 65 x 730 + 135 x 9.8 ~ 135 x 0.2.x (26.2)?(0.574 — 0.978 .25 x 0.342) M x 0.2 x 0.92 N-m ‘7473 N-m. Correction to the Approximate Expression ‘As mentioned earlier in this section, some correction has to be applied to equations (4.45) and (4.46) because the moment of inertia of the massless link with end masses (which has replaced the connecting rod) is not the actual moment of inertia about the centroidal axis. Let the moment of inertia of the actual connecting rod about the centroidal axis be J. = m-k®, where k is the radius of gyration about the same axis. The moment of inertia of the equivalent link about the centroidal axis is myaj + ma}. (4.47) From (4.42) and (4.43), we have Substituting these values in (4.47), we get Je = meayaa (4.48)DYNAMIC FORCE AND MOTION ANALYSIS OF PLANE MECHANISMS — 193 FIGURE 4.23 FIGURE 4.24 ‘Thus, the correction in the moment of inertia of the equivalent link is, Je — Je = m(k* = aya2), (4.49) and the correction in the inertia torque of the equivalent link (Fig. 4.24) is (Je = Je)a = m.(k? — ayaa)a (4.50) in opposite sense of a, where a = ¢ is the angular acceleration of the connecting rod. ‘The correction in inertia torque given by (4.50) can be replaced by two equal and opposite external correcting forces of magnitude F. (Fig. 4.24) acting at both ends of the equivalent link. The line of action of the correcting forces is taken vertical so as not to disturb the horizontal equilibrium equation (4.44) already used for obtaining the approximate expression for the turning moment. The magnitude of the force F is such that Felcos $= me(K? — ayaz)ay, me(K? — aran)ax gage (4.51) ‘The correction in turning moment is equal to the moment of F, (acting on the crank and shown by the dashed line in Fig. 4.24) about the point O;. Thus, Fr me(k® — aiag)a Teos $ M, = —F..1c0s0 = 0080. (4.52) ‘The negative sign indicates that the correcting moment is in the counter-clockwise direction {i.e., ‘opposite to the direction of M in (4.45)]. So, the actual turning moment is M=M+M..194 THEORY OF MECHANISMS AND MACHINES In (4.52), a (= ¢) can be expressed in Fourier series of @. From (4.29), Differentiating both sides with respect to time and dividing by sin ¢ (= Asin), we get $= (Aeon + 5X8 sin? 60s + 218 sin* 8 cos +. De (4.53) Differentiating again with respect to time, we get < = -w*(C; sin @ — Cy sin 30 + Cs sin 50 — + (C1 c086 — 5os 0830 + ies cos50—...), (4.54) where GQ = LED + att Cy = pt Mt Go = But. [Equation (4.54) will be referred to again in Chapter 7.] Neglecting terms of order higher than \?, and assuming w to be constant, we can write a=$=-wAsind. (4.55) Substituting this in (4.52), we get Bie Me = MeCH = 0169) 29, sin 8 0008. (4.56) Teos PROBLEM 4.4 In Problem 4.3, the CG of the connecting rod is 50 cm from the small end and the radius of gyration about the centroidal axis is 30 cm. The mass of the actual reciprocating parts is 90 kg and that of the connecting rod is 120 kg. Determine the actual turning moment for the instant discussed in Problem 4.3. SOLUTION ‘The given data is m,=120kg, a= 50cm, a2 = 30cm. So, m =45kg, mrec = 90+ 45 = 135 kg, m2 = 75 kg.DYNAMIC FORCE AND MOTION ANALYSIS OF PLANE MECHANISMS 195 From Problem 4.3, we have k=30cm, 0=55°, $=12°, sin®=0.82, cosp=0.978. From (4.55), a = —(26.2)? x 0.25 x 0.82 = -140.8 rad/s. From (4.51), _ 120(0.09 — 0.15)(-140.8) ae 0.8 x 0.978 ON. From (4.52), Mg = -1295 x 0.2 x 0,978 = —252 N-m. ‘The approximate turning moment M = 7473 N-m (from Problem 4.3). So, the actual turning moment is M (7473 — 252) N-m = 7221 N-m. ‘Thus, we observe that the error is of the order of only 2% to 3% if the approximate expression is used. ‘Turning-moment Diagram Earlier in this section, we obtained the turning moment M as a function of the crank rotation @ ((4.45) and (4.46). The diagram showing M as a function of 0 for any engine is called the turning- moment diagram. ‘The variation of M with 8 can be plotted if the net gas pressure p is known for any position of the crank, The values of p for any value of @ can be obtained from the indicator diagram. ‘The following example describes how it can be obtained for a four-stroke internal-combustion engine. ‘The indicator diagram for a four-stroke-cycle internal-combustion engine in Fig. 4.25a shows the net pressure p plotted against the piston displacement. ‘The net gas force equals pA, Since A is constant, the variation of this force with @ will be the same as that of p. This is shown in Fig. 4.25b. The corresponding variation of the inertia force is also shown in Fig. 4.25b. Using (4.46) and referring to Fig, 4.22, we see that M (gas force + inertia force) x O2D. ‘The resultant of the gas and inertia forces and the dimension O2 are shown in Fig. 4.25c for values of 6 varying from 0 to 4x. The product of these two quantities, ie., the turning moment M, is plotted against @ in Fig, 4.25d to give the required diagram. It should be noted that IM is zero when either of these two quantities is zero. It is observed that M is entirely positive during the expansion stroke, entirely negative in the compression stroke, and partly positive and partly negative in the other two strokes. For illustrative problems on this topic, unless otherwise specified, the turning moment in the suction and exhaust strokes is also taken to be entirely negative to simplify their solution. ‘The turning moment of a multicylinder engine can be obtained by the superposition of the turning moments of each cylinder, with the starting point suitably shifted depending on the crank offset.196 | THEORY OF MECHANISMS AND MACHINES i Piston displacement fa) Suction Compression Expansion Exhaust Net gas force | Inertia force Force — { forces and inertia Resultant of gas 0.) Turning-moment diagram oe (@) FIGURE 4.25,DYNAMIC FORCE AND MOTION ANALYSIS OF PLANE MECHANISMS 197 Mn < Mw ' veces 3 Mr> Mw . ‘One cycle i Time—> FIGURE 4.26 FIGURE 4.27 4.11 FLUCTUATION OF CRANKSHAFT SPEED For most engines, the load torque or the resisting moment Mz (which opposes the motion of the crankshaft) remains constant over a cycle, whereas the turning moment M varies considerably as shown in Fig. 4.25d. As a result of this, except for certain situations (e.g., when M = Mp), there is an unbalanced moment acting on the crankshaft, which either accelerates or decelerates the motion. Let Fig. 4.26 represent the turning-moment diagram for an engine over one cycle. The area. between the turning-moment curve and the 0-axis gives the energy output of the engine in that cycle. This can be expressed mathematically as E= f Mdé. (4.57) Then, the average turning moment in this cycle is E_i ie May = = =i , v= G a f mao af Mab, (4.58) where @ is the rotation in one cycle (it is 2 for two-stroke engines, and 4m for four-stroke engines). ‘The work done in one cycle against the load (resisting moment) Mr (assumed to be constant) is Mp.0. If this is equal to E, then there is no net energy input in the crankshaft for the cycle, So, the speed remains the same at the beginning and at the end of the cycle, even though there is variation during the cycle. This condition is referred to as stable operation, and is identified mathematically as E Ma = & = Mav. (4.59) If Mp > May, the speed decreases from cycle to cycle (e.g., during the stopping phase). When Mp < May, the speed increases from cycle to cycle (e.g., during the starting phase). The three different states are shown in Fig. 4.27. Unless otherwise specified, we shall assume the condition of stable operation (i.e., almost constant-speed operation with fluctuations during a cycle) with Mr = Mav. Let us now discuss this case (i.e., Mp = May) with reference to Fig. 4.26. The points A, B, G, D, and E (= A) are the intersections of the M-curve and the Mr-line. Since M > Mr from A to B, the speed of the crankshaft will increase during this period. ‘Thereafter, M < Mr from B to C, and the speed will decrease, and so on. The kinetic energy at B is oo Ep=Ea +f (M — Mp) d0 = E4 + (hatched area from A to B).198 | THEORY OF MECHANISMS AND MACHINES Similarly, zs Eo =Ep+ | (M—-Mp) d0 = Ep + (hatched area from B to C), oe and so on. ‘Thus, we can find the points corresponding to the maximum and minimum kinetic energy levels during the cycle. These points also correspond to the maximum and minimum speeds. The difference in the energy level between these two points is the masimum fluctuation of kinetic energy and is denoted by (AKE)max. Mathematically, this can be expressed as (AKE)max = f(t - Ma) a8, (4.60) los where 6; and 62 correspond to positions of minimum and maximum speeds. ‘The coefficient of fluctuation of energy in a cycle is defined as (AKE)max ke aaa (4.61) where E is given by (4.57). ‘The coefficient of fluctuation of speed is defined as k, = “max “min (4.62) wav, where way is the average angular velocity of the crankshaft. When the fluctuation of speed is not very large, way © (Wmax + min)/2- Table 4.1 gives the normal values of permissible k, for various systems.* 4.12 FLYWHEEL (AN APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS) In the previous section, we saw that the fluctuation in turning moment results in a fluctuation of the crankshaft speed. The amount of fluctuation in the turning moment, ie., the fluctuation in kinetic energy of the crankshaft, depends on the nature of the turning-moment diagram. However, the maximum permissible fluctuation in the speed of the crankshaft is determined by the purpose for which the engine is to be used. ‘To keep the maximum fluctuation of speed within a specified limit (i., to maintain the prescribed value of k,) for a given maximum fluctuation of kinetic energy, a flywheel is attached to the crankshaft; in effect, a flywheel provides additional inertia to the crankshaft. It is customary to neglect the inertia of the other rotating parts, being small as compared to that of the flywheel J. Thus, using (4.62), we get 1 (AKE)max = 54/(inax ~ min) = Jrwavke- (4.63) So, for a given value of (AKE)max and way, a value for Jy can be suitably chosen to keep ky within the specified limit. Equation (4.63) can also be derived by considering that Jya= M - Mp, (4.64) “See Kozesnik, J., Dynamics of Machines, SNTL, Prague, 1962.DYNAMIC FORCE AND MOTION ANALYSIS OF PLANE MECHANISMS — 199 TABLE 4.1 Systems Permissible ky Pumps, shears 1/5-1/30 Machine tools, textile and paper machines 1/40-1/50 Spinning frames 1/60-1/100 Generators 1/100-1/300 Automobile engines 1/200-1/300 Aircraft engines 1/1000-1/2000 where @ = angular acceleration of the flywheel = w(dw/d#). Thus, ds Jy = M Ma. Integrating from 0; to 2, we get max s af wdu= [ "(M~ Mp) do “min eo Using (4.60), we have ‘t 50 Uhaax WPyin) = (AKE)max, Jywiyky = (SKE)max. ‘The flywheel acts as a reservoir of energy so that energy can be absorbed during the period when M > Mp and supplied during the period when M < Mp, without changing the speed beyond the specified limits. PROBLEM 4.5 ‘The vertical scale of the turning-moment diagram for a multicylinder engine, shown in Fig. 4.28, is 1 em = 7000 N-m of torque, and the horizontal scale is 1 cm = 30° of crank rotation. The areas (in cm?) of the turning-moment diagram above and below the mean resistance line, starting from A in Fig. 4.28 and taken in order, are 05, 41.2, -0.95, +145, -0.85, +0.71, -1.06. ‘The engine speed is 800 rpm and it is desired that the fluctuation from minimum to maximum speed should not be more than 2% of the average speed. Determine the moment of inertia of the flywheel.200 | THEORY OF MECHANISMS AND MACHINES M l4B/\C_ Dy EFC \G H(=A) Mn Mm oe FIGURE 4.28 SOLUTION An area of 1 cm? of the turning-moment diagram represents 7000 x (m/6) = 3670 J. A, B,C, D, etc., are the points of intersection between Mp and the turning-moment diagram. Let Eq be the energy level at A. Then, Ep Ec Ep Eg Ep Ea En = Bq-1.06=E, (asit should be at the end of the cycle) So, we see that the minimum speed is at B and the maximum speed is at . Thus, (AQKE)max = Ex - Ep = (Ea + 1.2) - (Ea - 05) 1.7 x 3670 = 6240 J, 2; Way = 8005 = 33.8 rad/s, From (4.63), we get _(AKE)max _ __ 6240 5 ~ (ay x 002 44.3 kg-m?. wavk, PROBLEM 4.6 ‘The torque exerted on the crankshaft of a two-stroke engine is given by M = 15,000 + 2000 sin 20 — 1800.cos 24 N-m, where @ is the crank angle measured from the inner dead-centre position. Assuming the resisting torque to be constant, determineDYNAMIC FORCE AND MOTION ANALYSIS OF PLANE MECHANISMS 201 (i) the power of the engine when turning at 150 rpm, (ji) the moment of inertia of the flywheel if the speed variation from the mean speed of 150 rpm not to exceed +0.5%, (iii) the angular acceleration of the flywheel for @ = 30°, and (iv) the maximum angle by which this flywheel leads or lags an imaginary flywheel which rotates at a constant speed of 150 rpm. SOLUTION (i) The total angle of crank rotation during a cycle is © = 2x. From (4.58), we have x May ‘ an af Mdj= sf (15,000 + 2000 sin 26 — 1800 cos 28) dé 2a Jo n Jy 15,000 N-m = Mp. So, the work output per revolution is 15,000 x 2m J, and the time taken for one revolution is 60/150 s. Hence, the work output per second, i.e., the power of the engine, is 15,000 x (2/60) x 150 W 235.5 kW. (i) The turning-moment diagram is shown in Fig. 4.29. The values of @ where the turning-moment curve intersects Mr (ie., 6; and @2, where Mp = M) are given by 2000 sin 26 — 1800 cos20 = 0, tan20 =0.9. This gives 20, = 42°, 0) = 21°, 20) = 180° +.42°, 6, = 111°. It is obvious from the diagram that the minimum speed occurs at @; and that itis maximum at 02 during the cycle. Thus, from (4.60), we get s O (AKE)max = f (M — Mp) do (2000 sin 20 — 1800 cos26) d0 or = [900sin2 + 1000.cos20]$! = 2690.2 J, o1 = 1502" = 15,7 rad/ .O1, way = 15055 = 15.7 rad/s. ‘Using (4.63), st 2690.2 a4 a7 x oor = 1080 Kem It is to be noted that for this particular expression of M, (AKE)max will be the same even for a four-stroke engine, ie., when © = dr,202 ‘THEORY OF MECHANISMS AND MACHINES M 'B i 15,000 Ss Be Mn = Mey ‘4 E iS 5 On 0 780° oe FIGURE 4.29 FIGURE 4.30. (iii) When @ = 30°, M = 15,000 + 1732 — 900 = 15,832 N-m. So, the angular acceleration of the flywheel, from (4.64), is MaMa _ 892 _ 9 764 04/32. Oe SaeU Fee a 1000) (iv) The equation of motion for the angular oscillation of the flywheel, from (4.64), is #6 Jae = M — Mp = 2000sin 20 — 1800 cos 26. (a) Without introducing any serious error, we may substitute @ = way.t in the terms on the right-hand side to simplify the differential equation (a), which gives #6 Jy Gq = 2000sin 2(wav.t) ~ 1800 cos 2(wav-t), Integrating this equation, we get do 1000 900 Ii Fe ~ pgp 608 Aeay.t) — T= sin 2Auay.t) + Cr ‘Thus, i o=Gr -7aR [1000 cos 2(wav.t) + 900sin 2(way.t)] + C2, (b)DYNAMIC FORCE AND MOTION ANALYSIS OF PLANE MECHANISMS — 203 where C = Ci/J;, Cy = constant of integratin. In (b), as the terms within the square brackets are harmonic quantities, the average value of w is Cz. With Cz = way, integrating (b), we get 1 Jyviy 0 = (wayt) — (500sin 2(way.t) ~ 450 cos 2(wav.t)] + Cs, where Cs is the constant of integration. Assuming @ = 0 when t = 0, we have Cy = —450/Jjw3y. Thus, 1 450 8 (wawt) = 7 [450c082( unr A) — 800sin vay) ~ 7. So, i =, S1ORS, sone’ a8. 227 jag é (0 (ay.tmax = 5a (48" + 50")? — T= FTF rad = 0.054" (leading), 10 450 _ 1123 (0 — (wav-t) nin = ~ Fy (48? + 502)? — = AUB rad = —0.238° (laggin, (0 - wav-t) min ue ik upoiseau pale (lagging), ‘The maximum angle of lag is 0.238°. 4.13 FLYWHEEL IN PUNCHING PRESS In the previous section, we discussed the function of a flywheel to reduce fluctuations of speed with reference to an engine where the load on the crankshaft is constant whereas the applied torque varies during a cycle. The flywheel can also be used for the same purpose (i.e., to reduce the fluctuations of speed during a cycle so as to be within specified limits) when the driving torque is constant. but the load varies during the cycle. This is the case, for example, in a punching press or in a riveting machine. ‘A punching press is shown schematically in Fig. 4.30. The punching tool is at the position of the slider in the slider-crank mechanism. The crank is driven by a motor which supplies a uniform torque (i.e., the energy is transmitted at almost a steady rate if the speed remains nearly constant). It is seen from Fig. 4.30 that the load acts only during the rotation of the crank from @ = 6, to 6 = 02, when the punching takes place, and that the load is zero for the rest of the cycle. Unless a flywheel is used, the speed of the crankshaft will increase substantially during the rotation from 0 = 6s to 0 = 2n (= 0), and again from 8 = 0 to 0 = 6, because there is no load while energy continues to be supplied. On the other hand, there will be a big drop in the speed of the crankshaft, during the rotation from @ = 6; to @ = 02 due to the load being much more than the amount of energy supplied. The excess energy available at one stage of the cycle has to be absorbed by the flywheel, and the deficiency of energy at the other stage has to be made up by it so as to keep the speed change within the permissible limits. This is done by suitably choosing the moment of inertia of the flywheel. Let E be the energy required for one punch. This energy is determined by the size of the hole, and the thickness and properties of the material to be punched. For stable operation (i.e., for the speed to be almost constant), the energy supplied to the crank per revolution should also be equal to E (assuming one punch per revolution). ‘The energy supplied to the crankshaft from the motor during punching (assuming the power of the motor to remain constant) is approximately {(@ — 01)/(2n)] if the crank rotates at constant204 + THEORY OF MECHANISMS AND MACHINES speed, which is almost so with a flywheel. The balance energy required for punching, i.e., E[1 — (02 — 61)/(2n)], is supplied by the flywheel by the decrease in its kinetic energy when its speed falls from Wmax 10 Wyyin- Thus, e; (AKE)max = (1 — “ 1 Js (einax — Ynin) = Jevavks which is the same as (4.63). ‘The values of @; and é2 can be computed only if the crank radius r, connecting-rod length J, and the relative position of the job (of given thickness t) with respect to the crankshaft axis are given. In the absence of relevant data, taking the velocity of the tool to be constant, we shall assume that M-A t_t Qe 25 ar (4.65) where $ is the stroke of the punch (= 2r). It should be noted, that for the same value of (AKE)max and k,, the flywheel size (J) can be reduced, for example, if its average speed way is increased by using gears. PROBLEM 4.7 A machine punching 3.8-cm-diameter holes in a 3.2-cm-thick plate does 600 J of work per square cm of sheared area. The punch has a stroke of 10.2 em and punches 6 holes per minute. The maximum, speed of the flywheel at its radius of gyration is 27.5 m/s. Find the mass of the flywheel so that its speed at the same radius does not fall below 24.5 m/s. Also determine the power of the motor driving this machine. SOLUTION ‘The sheared area per punch is A, =m dt, where d = diameter of the hole = 3.8 cm, t thickness of the job = 3.2 em. This gives A, = 38.2 cm?, Thus, the energy required per punch is E = 600 x 38.2 = 22,920 J. Assuming, from (4.65), that equation (4.64) gives (AKE)max = E( feel Ee (0 22, 920(1 — 554) = gmyh*(whnax where k is the radius of gyration of the flywheel and my is its mass. Given that nin)» Vinax = kumax = 27.5 m/s,DYNAMIC FORCE AND MOTION ANALYSIS OF PLANE MECHANISMS — 205 Venin = min = 24.5 m/s, we get jae 22,920 x 554 = m{(27.5)* ~ (24.5) 22,920 x 34.4 ™ = “tyaxtes | ~4 ke ‘The energy required per minute is 6 x 22,920 J. So, 6x 22,920). motor power = Theq 5-9 KW = 2.202 kW, 4.14 DESIGN OF RIM-TYPE FLYWHEEL It is seen that the moment of inertia and not the mass of the flywheel is the only criterion for its satisfactory operation. In order to have a large moment of inertia with the least possible material, the flywheel is usually made in the form of a rim, which is connected to the hub by several arms. Neglecting the moment of inertia of the spokes and the hub, the required moment of inertia of the flywheel (obtained by the procedures discussed in Sections 4.12 and 4.13) can be written as Jy=mR,, (4.66) where R= mean radius of the rim, and m = mass of the rim. ‘The maximum value of Rm, that can be adopted for a flywheel of a given mass is decided by the maximum value of the hoop stress that the flywheel material can withstand. Let p = density of the flywheel material, A, = cross-sectional area of the rim (rectangular), and = allowable tensile stress for the flywheel material. Referring to Fig, 4.31, the maximum centrifugal force acting radially on a differential element is dF. = pAcRm 49 Winax Rm: Taking one-half of the rim as a free body, the total vertical component of the centrifugal force is m/2 F. = (pAwinaxR?,)2 [ sin d0 = 2pA.winax R>, (4.67) ‘This has to be balanced by the vertical forces at the ends of the free body, the maximum of which (as shown in Fig. 4.31) is 20.Ac. (4.68) (The horizontal component of the centrifugal force is balanced because of symmetry.) Equating (4.67) and (4.68) for the maximum value of Ry, we get 2pAcwinaxRm = 20-Ac, Ri, = 0/(pwinax)