Contents:

Ch1: Introduction ....................................................................................1

1-1 Concrete.......................................................................................... 1
1-1-1 what is concrete? ................................................................................................. 1
1-1-2 Good concrete ..................................................................................................... 1
1-1-3 Mix Design ........................................................................................................ 2

1-2 Spreadsheet...................................................................................... 3
1-3 Objectives........................................................................................ 3
Ch2: Mix Design .....................................................................................4
2-1 Materials of concrete .......................................................................... 4
2-1-1 Cement .............................................................................................................. 4
2-1-2 Normal aggregate ................................................................................................ 6
2-1-3 Quality of water ................................................................................................. 12

2-2 Principal requirements for concrete ...................................................... 15

2-3 Methods of concrete mix design ........................................................... 15
Ch3: Excel sheet program flow chart:- ....................................................... 29
Ch4: Results ......................................................................................... 35
Ch5: Conclusion .................................................................................... 42

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pg. 0
1- Introduction
1-1 Concrete
1-1-1 what is concrete?
An overview of concrete as a material is difficult at this stage because we must refrain
from discussing specialized knowledge not yet presented, so that we have to limit
ourselves to some selected features of concrete. Concrete, in the broadest sense, is any
product or mass made by the use of a cementing medium. Generally, this medium is
the product of reaction between hydraulic cement and water. But, these days, even such
a definition would cover a wide range of products: concrete is made with several types
of cement and also containing pozzolan, fly ash, blast-furnace slag, micro-silica,
additives, recycled concrete aggregate, admixtures, polymers, fibers, and so on; and
these concretes can be heated, steam-cured, autoclaved, vacuum-treated, hydraulically
pressured, shock-vibrated, extruded, and sprayed. This book is restricted to considering
no more than a mixture of cement, water, aggregate (fine and coarse) and admixtures.
The second and third view each have some merit and can be used to explain the
behavior of concrete. The first view, that of cement paste diluted by aggregate, we
should dispose of. Suppose you could buy cement more cheaply than aggregate - should
you use a mixture of cement and water alone as a building material? The answer is
emphatically no because the so-called volume changes of hydrated cement paste are far
too large: shrinkage of neat cement paste is almost ten times larger than shrinkage of
concrete with 250 kg of cement per cubic meter. Roughly the same applies to creep.
Furthermore, the heat generated by a large amount of hydrating cement, especially in a
hot climate 5 may lead to cracking. One can also observe that most aggregates are less
prone to chemical attack? than cement paste, even though the latter is, itself, fairly
resistant. So, quite independently of cost, the use of aggregates in concrete is beneficial.

1-1-2 Good concrete

Beneficial means that the influence is good and we could, indeed we should, ask the
question: what is good concrete? It is easier to precede the answer by noting that bad
concrete is, alas, a most common building material. By bad concrete we mean a
substance with the consistence of soup, hardening into a honeycombed, non-
homogeneous and weak mass, and this material is made simply by mixing cement,

pg. 1
 aggregate and water. Surprisingly, the ingredients of good concrete are exactly the
same, and the difference is due entirely to 'know-how'. With this know-how' we can
make good concrete, and there are two overall criteria by which it can be so defined: it
has to be satisfactory in its hardened state and also in its fresh state while being
transported from the mixer and placed in the formwork. Very generally, the
requirements in the fresh state are that the consistence of the mix is such that the
concrete can be compacted by the means which are actually available on the job, and
also that the mix is cohesive enough to be transported and placed without segregation
by the means available. Clearly, these requirements are not absolute but depend on
whether transport is by a skip with a bottom discharge or by a flat-tray lorry, the latter,
of course, not being a very good practice.
As far as the hardened state is considered, the usual requirement is a satisfactory
compressive strength. We invariably specify strength because it is easy to measure,
although the 'number' that comes out of the test is certainly not a measure of the intrinsic
strength of concrete in the structure but only of its quality. Thus, strength is an easy
way of ascertaining compliance with the specification and sorts out contractual
obligations. However, there are also other reasons for the preoccupation with
compressive strength, namely, that many properties of concrete are related to its
compressive strength. These are: density, impermeability, durability, resistance to
abrasion, resistance to impact, tensile strength, resistance to sulphates, and some others,
but not shrinkage and not necessarily creep.
We are not saying that these properties are a single and unique function of
compressive strength, and we are aware of the issue of whether durability is best
ensured by specifying strength, water/cement ratio, or cement content. But the point is
that, in a very general way, concrete of higher strength has more desirable properties.

1-1-3 Mix Design

The mix design of concrete is the process of deciding what type of raw material and
how much of each raw material needs to be selected to make concrete that can meet
prerequisites such as strength, durability, and workability. The required properties of
hardened concrete are specified by the designer of the structure and the properties of
fresh concrete are governed by the type of construction and by the techniques of placing
and transporting. These two sets of requirements are the main factors that determine the
composition of the mix, also taking account of the construction experience on site. Mix
design can, therefore, be defined as the processes of selecting suitable ingredients and
determining their relative quantities, with the purpose of producing an economical
concrete that has certain minimum properties, notably workability, strength, and
durability. It should be pointed out that the mix design of concrete is frequently done
by trial and error. Hence, mix design of concrete is an art, not a science. This means
that the mix design of concrete in the strict sense is not possible: the materials used vary
in a number of respects and their properties can't be assessed truly quantitatively, so
that we are really making no more than an intelligent guess at the optimum
combinations of the ingredients on the basis of relationships established in the earlier
sections. It is not surprising, therefore, that to obtain a satisfactory mix, we must check

pg. 2
the estimated proportions of the mix by making trial mixes and, if necessary, make
appropriate adjustments to the proportions until a satisfactory mix.

1-2 Spreadsheet
By using a grid of cells arranged in numbered rows and letter-named columns to
organize data manipulations like arithmetic operations. It has a battery of supplied
functions to answer statistical, engineering, and financial needs. In addition, it can
display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with a very limited three-
dimensional graphical display. It allows sectioning of data to view its dependencies on
various factors for different perspectives. It use to solving differential equations, And
also has a variety of interfaces features and function.
Excel application can automatically poll external databases and measuring
instruments using an update schedule, analyze the results, make a Word report or
PowerPoint slide show.

1-3 Objectives
(1) Prepare a mix design excel sheet using (B.S) British standerd method and (ACI)
American Concrete Institution method.
(2) Select manual design mix results and compare with excel sheet
(3) Find a suitable equations to predict mix

pg. 3
2- Mix Design
2-1 Materials of concrete
2-1-1 Cement
Ancient Romans were probably the first to use concrete - a word of Latin origin - based
on hydraulic cement that is a material which hardens under water. This property and
the related property of not undergoing chemical change by water in later life are most
important and have contributed to the widespread use of concrete as a building material.
Roman cement fell into disuse, and it was only in 1824 that the modern cement, known
as Portland cement, was patented by Joseph Aspdin, a Leeds builder. Portland cement
is the name given to a cement obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous and
argillaceous, or other silica-, alumina-, and iron oxide-bearing materials, burning them
at a clinkering temperature, and grinding the resulting clinker. The definitions of the
original British and new European Standards and of the American Standards are on
those lines; no material, other than gypsum, water, and grinding aids may be added after
burning.

Manufacture of Portland cement

From the definition of Portland cement given above, it can be seen that it is made
primarily from a combination of a calcareous material, such as limestone or chalk, and
of silica and alumina found as clay or shale. The process of manufacture consists
essentially of grinding the raw materials into a very fine powder, mixing them
intimately in predetermined proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at a
temperature of about 1400 °C (2550 °F) when the material sinters and partially fuses
into clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder, with some gypsum
added, and the resulting product is the commercial Portland cement used through- out
the world. The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done either in water or
in a dry condition; hence, the names wet and dry process. The mixture is fed into a
rotary kiln, sometimes (in the wet process) as large as 7 m (23 ft) in diameter and 230
m (750 ft) long. The kiln is slightly inclined. The mixture is fed at the upper end while
pulverized coal (or other source of heat) is blown in by an air blast at the lower end of
the kiln, where the temperature may reach about 1500 °C (2750 °F). The amount of
coal required to manufacture one tone (2200 lb) of cement is between 100 kg (220 lb)
and about 350 kg (770 lb), depending on the process used. Nowadays, gas and various
combustible materials are also used. As the mixture of raw materials moves down the
kiln, it encounters a progressively higher temperature so that various chemical changes
take place along the kiln: First, any water is driven off and CO₂ is liberated from the
calcium carbonate. Further on, the dry material undergoes a series of chemical reactions
until, finally, in the hottest part of the kiln, some 20 to 30 per cent of the material
becomes liquid, and lime, silica and alumina recombine. The mass then fuses into balls,
3 to 25 mm (to 1 in.) in diameter, known as clinker. Afterwards, the clinker drops into
coolers, which provide means for an exchange of heat with the air subsequently used
for the combustion of the pulverized coal. The cool clinker, which is very hard, is inter
ground with gypsum in order to prevent flash-setting of the cement. The ground
material, that is cement, has as many as 1.1 x 10¹2 particles per kilogram (0.5 x 10¹2

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per lb). A single kiln of modern design (using the dry process) can produce as much as
6200 ton of clinker a day. To put this figure into perspective we can quote recent annual
cement production figures: 92 million ton in the US and 12 million ton in the UK.
Expressing the cement consumption (which is not the same as production because of
imports and exports) in another way, we can note that the quantity of cement per capita
was 385 kg (850 lb) in US and 213 kg (470 lb) in UK; the highest consumption in a
large industrialized country was 1216 kg (2680 lb) in Korea. Another figure of interest
is the consumption of about 4000 kg (8500 lb) per capita in Saudi Arabia, Qatar and
United Arab Emirates. Recently China has become the largest consumer of cement in
the world, accounting for nearly one-half of world consumption.

Hydration of cement
So far, we have discussed cement in powder form but the material of interest in practice
is the set cement paste. This is the product of reaction of cement with water. What
happens is that, in the presence of water, the silicates and aluminates of Portland cement
form products of hydration or hydrates, which in time produce a firm and hard mass –
the hardened cement paste. As stated earlier, the two calcium silicates (C3S and C₂S)
are the main cementitious compounds in cement, the former hydrating much more
rapidly than the latter. In commercial cements, the calcium silicates contain small
impurities from some of the oxides present in the clinker. These impurities have a strong
effect on the properties of the hydrated silicates. The 'impure' C3S is known as alite and
the 'impure' C₂S as belite.
The product of hydration of C3S is the microcrystalline hydrate C3S₂H3 with some
lime separating out as crystalline Ca (OH)2 ; C₂S behaves similarly but clearly contains
less lime. Nowadays, the calcium silicate hydrates are described as C-S-H, the
approximate hydration reactions being written as follows:
For C₂S:
2C3 S+ 6H------- C₂S₂H 3 + 3Ca(OH)₂.
[100] [24] [75] [49]
For C₂S:
2C₂S+ 4H---------C₂S₂H₂ + Ca(OH)2
[100] [21] [99] [22]
The numbers in the square brackets are the corresponding masses, and on this basis
both silicates require approximately the same amount of water for hydration, but C,S
produces more than twice as much Ca(OH)₂ as is formed by the hydration of C₂S. The
amount of C,A in most cements is comparatively small; its hydrate structure is of a
cubic crystalline form which is surrounded by the calcium silicate hydrates. The
reaction of pure C,A with water is very rapid and would lead to a flash set, which is
prevented by the addition of gypsum to the cement clinker. Even so, the rate of reaction
of CA is quicker than that of the calcium silicates, the approximate reaction being

pg. 5
C₂A + 6H-------C₂AH6.
[100] [40] [140]
The bracketed masses show that a higher proportion of water is required than for the
hydration of silicates.

2-1-2 Normal aggregate

Since approximately three-quarters of the volume of concrete is occupied by aggregate,
it is not surprising that its quality is of considerable importance. Not only may the
aggregate limit the strength of concrete but the aggregate properties greatly affect the
durability and structural performance of concrete. Aggregate was originally viewed as
an inert, inexpensive material dispersed throughout the cement paste so as to produce a
large volume of concrete. In fact, aggregate is not truly inert because its physical,
thermal and, sometimes, chemical properties influence the performance of concrete, for
example by improving its volume stability and durability over that of the cement paste.
From the economic viewpoint, it is advantageous to use a mix with as much aggregate
and as little cement as possible, but the cost benefit has to be balanced against the
desired properties of concrete in its fresh and hardened state.
Natural aggregates are formed by the process of weathering and abrasion, or by
artificially crushing a larger parent mass. Thus, many properties of the aggregate
depend on the properties of the parent rock, e.g. chemical and mineral composition,
petrographic classification, specific gravity, hardness, strength, physical and chemical
stability, pore structure, color, etc. In addition, there are other properties of the
aggregate which are absent in the parent rock: particle shape and size, surface texture
and absorption. All these properties may have a considerable influence on the quality
of fresh or hardened concrete.
Even when all these properties are known, it is difficult to define a good aggregate
for concrete. Whilst aggregate whose properties are all satisfactory will always make
good concrete, aggregates appearing to have some inferior property may also make
good concrete, and this is why the criterion of performance in concrete has to be used.
For instance, a rock sample may disrupt on freezing but need not do so when embedded
in concrete. However, in general, aggregate considered poor in more than one respect
is unlikely to make a satisfactory concrete, so that aggregate testing is of value in
assessing its suitability for use in concrete.

Size classification
Concrete is made with aggregate particles covering a range of sizes up to a maximum
size which usually lies between 10 mm (in.) and 50 mm (2 in.); 20 mm (in.) is typical.
The particle size distribution is called grading. Low-grade concrete may be made with

pg. 6
aggregate from deposits containing a whole range of sizes, from the largest to the
smallest, known as all-in or pit-run aggregate. The alternative, very much more
common, and always used in the manufacture of good quality concrete, is to obtain the
aggregate in at least two separate lots, the main division being at a size of 5 mm (in.)
or No. 4 ASTM sieve. This divides fine aggregate (sand), from coarse aggregate (see
Table 3.6). It should be noted that the term aggregate is sometimes used to mean coarse
aggregate in contradistinction to sand, a practice which is not correct. Sand is generally
considered to have a lower size limit of about 0.07 mm (0.003 in.) or a little less.
Material between 0.06 mm (0.002 in.) and 0.02 mm (0.0008 in.) is classified as silt, and
smaller particles are termed clay. Loam is a soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay
in about equal proportions.

Specific gravity
Since aggregate generally contains pores, both permeable and impermeable, the
meaning of the term specific gravity (or relative density) has to be carefully defined,
and there are indeed several types of this measure. According to ASTM C 127-04,
specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a material to the density of
distilled water at a stated temperature; hence, specific gravity is dimensionless. BS 812-
2: 1995 and 49 BS EN 1097-3: 1998 use the term particle density, expressed in kg/m³.
Thus particle density is numerically 1000 times greater than specific gravity. The
absolute specific gravity and the particle density refer to the volume of the solid
material excluding all pores, whilst the apparent specific gravity and the apparent
particle density refer to the volume of solid material including the impermeable pores,
but not the capillary ones. It is the apparent specific gravity or apparent particle density
which is normally required in concrete technology, the actual definition being the ratio
of the mass of the aggregate dried in an oven at 100 to 110 °C (212 to 230 °F) for 24
hours to the mass of water occupying a volume equal to that of the solid including the
impermeable pores. The latter mass is determined using a vessel which can be
accurately filled with water to a specified volume. This method is prescribed by ASTM
C 128-04a for fine aggregate. Thus, if the mass of the oven-dried sample is D, the mass
of the vessel full of water is C, and the mass of the vessel with the sample and topped
up with water is B, then the mass of the water occupying the same volume as the solid
is C (BD). The apparent specific gravity is then D/C-(B-D)
The vessel referred to earlier, and known as a pycnometer, is usually a one-litre jar
with a watertight metal conical screw top having a small hole at the apex. The
pycnometer can thus be filled with water so as to contain precisely the same volume
every time. For the apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate. ASTM C 127-04
prescribes the wire-basket method. Because of difficulties in the pycnometer method
and because different particles may have different values of particle density, BS 812-
102: 1995 and BS EN 1097-3: 1998 also prescribe the wire- basket method for
aggregate between 63 mm (2 in.) and 5 mm (in.) in size, and it specifies a gas-jar method
for aggregate not larger than 20 mm (in.). The wire basket, which has apertures 1 to 3
mm (0.04 to 0.12 in.) in size, is suspended from a balance by wire hangers into a
watertight tank. A gas jar is a wide-mouthed vessel of a 1 to 1.5 litre capacity and has

pg. 7
a flat-ground lip to ensure that it can be made watertight by a disc of plate glass. The
apparent particle density (in kg/m³) is given by 1000 D/C- (B-D)
where the symbols have the same meaning as before, except that B is the apparent mass
in water of the basket (or mass of the gas-jar vessel) containing the sample of saturated
aggregate, and C is the apparent mass in water of the empty basket (or the mass of the
gas-jar vessel filled with water only); all the values of mass are in grammes.
Calculations with reference to concrete are generally based on the saturated and
surface-dry (SSD) condition of the aggregate because the water contained in all the
pores does not participate in the chemical reactions of cement and can, therefore, be
considered as part of the aggregate. Thus, if the mass of a sample of the saturated and
surface-dry aggregate is A, the term bulk or gross specific gravity (SSD) is used, viz.
A/C-(B-A) Alternatively, the bulk particle density (in kg/m³) is given by1000 A/C-(B-
A)
The bulk specific gravity (SSD) and the bulk particle density (SSD) are most
frequently and easily determined, and are necessary for calculations of yield of concrete
or of the quantity of aggregate required for given volume of concrete. BS 812-2: 1995
and BS EN 1097-3: 1998 prescribe the procedure for the determination of the bulk
particle density (SSD) while ASTM C 127-04 and C 128-04a prescribe the procedure
for the measurement of the bulk specific gravity (SSD). The majority of natural
aggregates have an apparent specific gravity of between 2.6 and 2.7, whilst the values
for lightweight and artificial aggregates extend considerably from below to very much
above this range. Since the actual value of specific gravity or particle density is not a
measure of the quality of the aggregate, it should not be specified unless we are dealing
with a material of a given petrological character when a variation in specific gravity or
particle density would reflect a change in the porosity of the particles. An exception to
this is the case of construction such as a gravity dam, where a minimum density of
concrete is essential for the stability of the structure.

Porosity and absorption

The porosity, permeability and absorption of aggregate influence the bond between it
and the cement paste, the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, as well as
chemical stability, resistance to abrasion, and specific gravity. The pores in aggregate
vary in size over a wide range, but even the smallest pores are larger than the gel pores
in the cement paste. Some of the aggregate pores are wholly within the solid whilst
others open onto the surface of the particle so that water can penetrate the pores, the
amount Bone-dry oven-dry or and rate of penetration depending on their size, continuity
and total volume.
The range of porosity of common rocks varies from 0 to 50 per cent, and since
aggregate represents some three-quarters of the volume of concrete it is clear that the
porosity of the aggregate materially contributes to the overall porosity of concrete.
When all the pores in the aggregate are full, it is said to be saturated and surface-dry.
If this aggregate is allowed to stand free in dry air, some water will evaporate so that

pg. 8
the aggregate is air-dry. Prolonged drying in an oven would eventually remove the
moisture completely and, at this stage, the aggregate is bone-dry (or oven-dry). These
various stages, including an initial moist stage, are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2.1.
The water absorption is determined by measuring the decrease in mass of a saturated
and surface-dry sample after oven drying for 24 hours. The ratio of the decrease in mass
to the mass of the dry sample, expressed as

Figure 2.1: schematic representation of moisture in aggregate

a percentage, is termed absorption. Standard procedures are described in BS 813-2:

1995 and BS EN 1097-3: 1998.
The assumption that oven-dry aggregate in an actual mix would absorb sufficient
water to bring it to the saturated and surface-dry state may not be valid. The amount of
water absorbed depends on the order of feeding the ingredients into the mixer and on
the coating of coarse aggregate with cement paste. Therefore, a more realistic time for
the determination of water absorption is 10 to 30 min rather than 24 hours. Moreover,
if the aggregate is in an air-dry state, the actual water absorption will be correspondingly
less. The actual water absorption of the aggregate has to be deducted from the total

pg. 9
water requirement of the mix to obtain the effective water/cement ratio, which controls
both the workability and the strength of concrete.

Moisture content
Since absorption represents the water contained in the aggregate in a saturated, surface-
dry condition, we can define the moisture content as the water in excess of the saturated
and surface-dry condition. Thus, the total water content of a moist aggregate is equal to
the sum of absorption and moisture content. Aggregate exposed to rain collects a
considerable amount of moisture on the surface of the particles, and, except at the
surface of the stockpile, keeps this moisture over long periods. This is particularly true
of fine aggregate, and the moisture content must be allowed for in the calculation of
batch quantities and of the total water requirement of the mix. In effect, the mass of
water added to the mix has to be decreased and the mass of aggregate must be increased
by an amount equal to the mass of the moisture content. Since the moisture content
changes with weather and varies also from one stockpile to another, the moisture
content must be determined frequently. There are several methods available, but the
accuracy depends on having a representative sample for testing. In the laboratory, the
total moisture content can be determined by means of the oven-drying method, as pre-
scribed by BS 812-109: 1990 and BS EN 1097-5: 1999. If A is the mass of an air-tight
container, B the mass of an air-tight container and sample, and C the mass of the
container and sample after drying to a constant mass, the total moisture content (per
cent) of the dry mass of aggregate is (B-C/C-A)*100
The ASTM C 70-06 method is based on the measurement of moisture content of
aggregate of known specific gravity from the apparent loss in mass on immersion in
water (buoyancy meter test). The balance can read the moisture content directly if the
size of the sample is adjusted according to the specific gravity of the aggregate to such
a value that a saturated and surface-dry sample has a standard mass when immersed.
The test is rapid and gives the moisture content to the nearest 0.5 per cent. Electrical
devices have been developed to give instantaneous or continuous reading of the
moisture content of aggregate in a storage bin; these devices operate on the basis of the
variation in electrical resistance or capacitance with a varying moisture content. In some
batching plants, moisture content meters are used in connection with automatic devices
which regulate the quantity of water to be add to the mixer, but an accuracy of greater
than 1 per cent cannot be achieved.

Fineness modulus
A single factor computed from the sieve analysis is sometimes used, particularly in the
US. This is the fineness modulus (FM), defined as the sum of the cumulative
percentages retained on the sieves of the standard series, divided by 100. The standard
series consists of sieves, each twice the size of the preceding one, viz.: 150, 300, 600
um, 1.18, 2.36, 5.00 mm (ASTM No. 100, 50, 30, 16, 8, 4) and up to the largest sieve

pg. 10
size present. It should be remembered that, when all particles in a sample are coarser
than, say, 600 μm (No. 30 ASTM), the cumulative percentage retained on 300 μm (No.
50 ASTM) should be entered as 100; the same value, of course, would be entered for
150 μm (No. 100 ASTM). For the example of Table 3.7, the fineness modulus is 2.46
(column (5)). The grading curve is plotted in Fig. 3.2. Usually, the fineness modulus is
calculated for the fine aggregate rather than for coarse aggregate. Typical values range
from 2.3 and 3.0, a higher value indicating a coarser grading. The usefulness of the
fineness modulus lies in detecting slight variations in the aggregate from the same
source, which could affect the workability of the fresh concrete.

Fig 2.2: Example of grading curve

Maximum aggregate size

The larger the aggregate particle the smaller the surface area to be wetted per unit mass.
Thus, extending the grading of aggregate to a larger maximum size lowers the water

pg. 11
requirement of the mix so that, for specified workability and rich- ness of mix, the
water/cement ratio can be reduced with a consequent increase in strength. However,
there is a limit of maximum aggregate size above which the decrease in water demand
is offset by the detrimental effects of a lower bond area and of discontinuities
introduced by the very large particles. In consequence, concrete becomes grossly
heterogeneous, with a resulting lowering of strength. The adverse effect of an increase
in size of the largest particles in the mix exists, in fact, throughout the range of sizes,
but below 40 mm (1 1/2 in.) the advantage of the lowering of the water requirement is
dominant. For larger sizes, the balance of the two effects depends on the richness of the
mix, in lean concrete containing 170 kg/m³ (280 lb/yd') of cement, the use of 150 mm
(6 in.) aggregate is advantageous. However, in structural concrete, the maximum size
is usually restricted to 25 mm or 40 mm (1 in. or 1 1/2 in.) because of the size of the
concrete section and of spacing of reinforcement; more specifically, in British practice,
the maximum aggregate size should be smaller by 5 mm than the horizontal bar spacing
and smaller than 2/3 of the vertical spacing.
Moreover, in deciding on the maximum size, the cost of stockpiling a greater range
of size fractions has to be considered together with the handling problems, which could
increase the risk of segregation.

2-1-3 Quality of water

The vital influence of the quantity of water in the mix on the strength of the resulting
concrete will become clear. At this stage, we are concerned only with the individual
ingredients of the concrete mix: cement, aggregate, and water, and it is the quality of
the latter that is the subject matter of this chapter.
The quality of the water is important because impurities in it may interfere with the
setting of the cement, may adversely affect the strength of the concrete or cause staining
of its surface, and may also lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. For these reasons,
the suitability of water for mixing and curing purposes should be considered. Clear
distinction must be made between the effects of mixing water and the attack on
hardened concrete by aggressive waters because some of the latter type may be
harmless or even beneficial when used in mixing.

Mixing water
In many specifications, the quality of water is covered by a clause saying that water
should be fit for drinking. Such water very rarely contains dissolved solids in excess of
2000 parts per million (ppm), and as a rule less than 1000 ppm. For a water/cement
ratio of 0.5 by mass, the latter content corresponds to a quantity of solids equal to 0.05
per cent of the mass of cement, and thus any effect of the common solids (considered
as aggregate) would be small. If the silt content is higher than 2000 ppm, it is possible
to reduce it by allowing the water to stand in a settling basin before use. However, water
used to wash out truck mixers is satisfactory as mixing water (because the solids in it
are proper concrete ingredients), provided of course that it was satisfactory to begin

pg. 12
with. ASTM C 94-05 allows the use of wash water, but, obviously, different cements
and different admixtures should not be involved. The criterion of potability of water is
not absolute: drinking water may be unsuitable as mixing water when the water has a
high concentration of sodium or potassium and there is a danger of alkali-aggregate
reaction.
While the use of potable water is generally safe, water not fit for drinking may often
also be satisfactorily used in making concrete. As a rule, any water with a pH (degree
of acidity) of 6.0 to 8.0 which does not taste saline or brackish is suitable for use, but a
dark color or a smell do not necessarily mean that deleterious substances are present.
Natural waters that are slightly acidic are harmless, but water containing humic or other
organic acids may adversely affect the hardening of concrete; such water, as well as
highly alkaline water, should be tested.
Two, somewhat peripheral, comments may be made. The presence of algae in mixing
water results in air entrainment with a consequent loss of strength. Hardness of water
does not affect the efficiency of air-entraining admixtures.
Sometimes it may be difficult to obtain sufficient quantities of fresh water and only
brackish water is available, which contains chlorides and sulfates. For chloride ion
content, a general limit of 500 mg per litre is recommended by BS 3148: 1980, but the
limits of BS EN 1008: 2002 and
ASTM C 1602-06 vary according to concrete usage. Table 2.1 compares the limits for
chloride, sulfate and alkali according to the various standards. Methods of measuring
solids in water are described by ASTM C 1603-05a.
Table 2.1: Limits of impurities in mixing water, MG per litre (ppm)

Occasionally, the use of sea water as mixing water has to be considered. Sea water
has, typically, a total salinity of about 3.5 per cent (78 per cent of the dissolved solids
being NaCl and 15 per cent MgCl, and MgSO4). Such water leads to a slightly higher
early strength but a lower long-term strength; the loss of strength is usually not more
than 15 per cent and can therefore be tolerated. The effects on setting time have not
been clearly established but these are less important if water is acceptable from strength
considerations. Strength and setting time performance tests are required for by UK and
US standards.
Sea water (or any water containing large quantities of chlorides) tends to cause
persistent dampness and efflorescence (see page 263). Such water should not be used

pg. 13
where appearance of the concrete is of importance or where a plaster finish is to be
applied.
In the case of reinforced concrete, sea water increases the risk of corrosion of the
reinforcement, especially in tropical countries. Corrosion has been observed in
structures exposed to humid air when the cover to reinforcement is inadequate or the
concrete is not sufficiently dense so that the corrosive action of residual salts in the
presence of moisture can take place. On the other hand, when reinforced concrete is
permanently in water, either sea or fresh, the use of sea water in mixing seems to have
no ill-effects. However, in practice, it is generally considered inadvisable to use sea
water for mixing.
With respect to all impurities in water, it is important to consider that another possible
source is surface moisture in the aggregate, which can represent a significant proportion
of the total mixing water.

Curing water
Generally, water satisfactory for mixing is also suitable for curing purposes. However,
iron or organic matter may cause staining, particularly if water flows slowly over
concrete and evaporates rapidly. In some cases, discoloration is of no significance, and
any water suitable for mixing, or even slightly inferior in quality, is acceptable for
curing.
However, it is essential that curing water be free from substances that attack hardened
concrete. For example, concrete is attacked by water containing free CO₂. Flowing pure
water, formed by melting ice or by condensation, and containing little CO₂, dissolves
Ca(OH), and causes surface erosion. Curing with sea water may lead to attack of
reinforcement.

Tests on water
A simple way of determining the suitability of water for mixing is to compare the setting
time of cement and the strength of mortar cubes using the water in question with the
corresponding results obtained using de-ionized or distilled water as prescribed by BS
EN 1008: 2002, which requires the initial setting time to be not less than 1 hour and to
be within 25 per cent of the result with distilled water: final setting time shall not exceed
12 hours and also be within 25 per cent. The mean strength should be at least 90 per
cent. Those requirements may be compared with BS 3146: 1980, which suggests a
tolerance of 30 min in the initial setting time and recommends a tolerance of 10 per cent
for strength. The ASTM C 1602-06 requirement for setting time is from 1 hour early to
1 hour 30 min later, while strength has to be at least 90 per cent.
Whether or not staining will occur due to impurities in the curing water cannot be
determined on the basis of chemical analysis and should be checked by a performance
test involving simulated wetting and evaporation.

pg. 14
2-2 Principal requirements for concrete
The main purpose of the mix design is to obtain a product that will perform according
to predetermined requirements. These requirements include the following concrete
properties:
(a) Quality (strength and durability): Strength and permeability of hydrated cement
paste are mutually related through the capillary porosity that is controlled by w/c ratio
and degree of hydration. Since durability of concrete is controlled mainly by its
permeability, there is a relationship between strength and durability. Consequently,
routine mix design usually focuses on strength and workability only. When the concrete
is exposed to special environmental conditions, provisions on durability (e.g., limit on
w/c ratio, minimum cement content, minimum cover to steel reinforcement) will also
beconsidered.
(b) Workability: As mentioned earlier, workability is a complicated concept for fresh
concrete and embodies various properties, including consistency and cohesiveness.
There is still not a single test method that can fully reflect workability. Since the slump
represents the ease with which the concrete mixture will flow during placement, and
the slump test is simple and quantitative, most mix design procedures rely on slump as
a crude index of workability. Sometimes, the VEBE time may be employed.
(c) Economy: Among all the constituents of the concrete, the admixture has the highest
unit cost, followed by cement. The cost of aggregates is about one-tenth that of cement.
Admixtures are often used in small amounts, or they are required to achieve cert ain
properties. To minimize the cost of concrete, the key consideration is the cement cost.
Therefore, all possible steps should be taken to reduce the cement content of a concrete
mixture without sacrificing the desirable properties, such as strength and durability. The
scope for cost reduction can be enlarged further by replacing a part of the Portland
cement with cheaper materials, such as fly ash or ground blast-furnace slag. As
mentioned earlier, under normal conditions, it is sufficient to consider workability and
strength for concrete design. For special conditions, additional considerations on
dimensional stability and durability have to be taken into account.

2-3 Methods of concrete mix design

There are many different methods for designing the concrete mix, for example, the ACI
method and the UK method. However, there are no fundamental differences among
these methods. Thus, it is sufficient to introduce one method. Here, the method
proposed by American Institute of Concrete (ACI 211.1-81) is introduced.
Before starting concrete mix design, basic information on raw materials and background data
should be collected, including

(a) Sieve analysis results and fineness modulus of fine and coarse aggregate
(b) Dry-rodded density (unit weight) of coarse aggregate
(c) Bulk specific gravity of each raw material
(d) Absorption capacity or moisture content of the aggregates

pg. 15
(e) Variation of the approximate mixing water requirement with slump, air content, and
grading of the available aggregates
(f) Relationships between strength and water/cement ratio for available combinations
of cement and aggregate
(g) Job specifications, if any, e.g., maximum water/cement ratio, minimum air content,
minimum slump, maximum size of aggregate, and strength at early ages (normally, 28-
day compressive strength is specified)

- American Concrete Institution approach

In a way, the diverse and urgent need for facilities in a fast-growing and expeditiously
expanding industrial scenario of the last century, with the vastly varying geographic
complexities of the North American continent, particularly the United States, is
probably the best example. In particular, one can see that each of the organizations
charged with the responsibility of the construction needs of highways, bridges and dams
had to look more closely at the specific requirements of such constructions. These
requirements have led to the different regulatory bodies like the Bureau of Reclamation
(USBR), the Transportation Research Board (TRB), the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) of the U.S. Department of Transportation and its various
associates from the different states. At the same time, the primary cement industry in
its own perspective had to look at its requirements and its extended need to support the
industry using products through an organization such as the Portland Cement
Association (PCA). The backbone of any industrial activity is obviously the research
and development support that it gets from both the academic institutions (universities)
and research laboratories (like the NRC, NSF, and NIST) that are actually charged with
the responsibility of addressing many of the needs by the industry. There are also
professional associations linked to such activities with member groups trying to present
a regulatory framework such as the American Concrete Institute (ACI), American
Society for Civil Engineers (ASCE) and American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM). Apart from these, several individual user groups with a considerable presence,
all looking to support and promote the appropriate use of concrete in their individual
but diverse spheres, also present documents for individual use of products and
processes. They are also active in formulating norms specific to the particular industry
and some of these are the ones like National Ready Mixed Concrete Association
(NRMCA), Precast/Pre stressed Concrete Institute (PCI) and Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) that have a more specific role, apart from the several private
research units from the various industries that work to promote the growth of the
industry. However, as a matter of abundant caution one should be aware that the
industry concepts always highlight and even actively promote only the few
characteristics that are obviously of their interest, while unobtrusively not presenting or
possibly obscuring the other and more effective alternatives as well as limitations. It is
in the interests of the concrete user community that the present report explains the
relevant facts in their entirety, with the appropriate background reported in literature to
the extent possible In the American context, a host of highly professional organizations
address the needs of the construction industry overall. Some of the more prominent and

pg. 16
active amongst these organizations that are often looked upon as the forerunners in such
activity could be listed as ASCE, ASTM,ACI, PCA, NIST, TRB, etc. It is only
appropriate if not imperative that one looks at the reports and recommendations from
these major institutions to have an idea of the American thought toward the application
of concrete in the creation of the different constructed facilities. It is also important to
note that most of these organizations have been forerunners and pioneers in their efforts
to the popularization through the appropriate regulations for ensuring adequate
performance of the constructed facility, and naturally have had not only a national
presence but also an international recognition. It is enough to say that they are taken to
be not just as recommendations alone but also as the most appropriate practices even in
addressing the legal commitments in the industry all over the world. This not only puts
a lot of focus on these organizations which have a very broad audience in membership
and naturally a balanced approach to most specific needs of the industry for which the
regulations are generally address. While it is the effort at this point to look at this
complex scenario in its proper perspective, it is to be fundamentally accepted that one
cannot reflect on the complexity as well as the breadth and depth of the information that
is available even just looking at the American scenario. Naturally, the present effort is
to appropriately highlight some of the major recommendations, their consequences and
limitations in a broad perspective to have clarity toward the fundamental aspects of
concrete mixture designs overall. It is obvious that such an effort can only be
meaningful only if it can be related suitably to the basic background of the fundamentals
in the development of cement and concrete composites to help understand these
regulations in their proper perspective along with the probable limitations or boundaries
of their applicability It is important to note that as was already seen in the previous
chapters, one of the most prominent and probably the most important axiom in the
design of concrete mixtures ever came from the work of Abrams.)1919( Though there
have been efforts toward relating the strength to the concrete constituents in general, it
is obvious that the water cement ratio to strength relationship proposed by him paved
the way for a better understanding of the design of concrete for a specific strength,
which is the basic structural design parameter. This is probably not only a milestone in
the American thought regarding concrete mix design, but could easily be termed as the
earliest milestone in concrete mix design procedures of later years. One can say that
though there are better explanations or even relationships in terms of the void or air
content, the density, the porosity and permeability to explain the strength and more
importantly the performance characteristics of concrete, for the operator on the site the
physical clarity of the water cement ratio in ensuring the required strength has always
been the cornerstone. One can also say that this is also the starting point for a
mathematical modeling of the concrete mixture designs, or by extension the
methodology for an appropriate understanding of all the cementitious compositions in
general.

Regardless of whether the concrete characteristics are prescribed by the

specifications or left to the mix designer, the batch weights in per kilograms cubic meter
of concrete can be computed in the following sequence.

pg. 17
Step 1: Choice of slump. If the slump value is not specified, an appropriate value for
the particular work can be selected from Table 2.2 according to the type of structure to
be built.

Table 2.2 : slump values are appropriate for different types of construction

Step 2: Choice of maximum size of aggregate. For the same volume of coarse
aggregate, using a large maximum size of well-graded aggregate will produce less void
space than using a smaller size, and this will have the effect of reducing the mortar
requirement in unit volume of concrete. Generally, the largest size of coarse aggregate
economically available should be selected as long as it can meet the general requirement
mentioned earlier. In no event should the maximum size exceed one-fifth of the
narrowest dimensions between the size of the forms, one-third the depth of slabs, or
three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing between reinforcing bars.
Step 3: Estimation of mixing water and the air content. The quantity of water per unit
volume of concrete required for a given slump value depends on the maximum particle
size shape, and grading of the aggregates, as well as on the amount of entrained air. If
data based on experience with the given aggregates are not available, assuming
normally shaped and well-graded particles, an estimate of the mixing water, with or
without air entrainment, can be obtained from Table 2.3 for the purpose of deriving the
trial batches.

Table 2.3; Approximate Mixing water and Air content Requirements for different
slumps and Maximum aggregate size

pg. 18
Step 4: Selection of water/cement ratio. Since different aggregates and cements
generally produce different strengths at the same w/c, it is highly desirable to develop
the relationship between strength and w/c for the materials actually to be used. In the
absence of such data, approximate and relatively conservative values for the concretes
made with type I Portland cement can be selected from Table 3-1. Since the selected
w/c must satisfy both the strength and the durability criteria, the values of w/c (w/b)
should conform to the values in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: water cement ratio and compressive strength relationship

Step 5: Calculation of cement content. The required cement content is equal to the
mixing water content obtained in step 3 divided by the w/c determined in step 4

pg. 19
Step 6: Estimation of coarse aggregate content. To reduce the cost of concrete,
aggregates should be used as much as possible. Statistics on a large number of tests
have shown that for properly graded materials, the finer the sand and the larger the size
of the particles in a coarse aggregate, the more the volume of coarse aggregate that can
be used to produce a concrete mixture with satisfactory workability. It can be seen from
Table 2.5. Fresh Concrete a unit volume of concrete depends only on its maximum size
and fineness modulus of the fine aggregate. It is assumed that differences in the amount
of mortar required for workability with different aggregates, due to differences in
particle shape and grading are compensated for automatically by differences in dry-
rodded void content.
Table 2.5: Maximum permissible water/cement ratios for concrete in
severe exposures

Step 7: Estimation of fine aggregate content. At the completion of step 6, all the
ingredients of the concrete have been estimated except the fine aggregate. The amount
of fine aggregate can be determined by either the weight method or volume method
According to the weight method, if the unit weight of the wet fresh concrete is known
from previous experience, then the required weight of fine aggregate is simply the
difference between the unit weight of concrete and the total weight of water cement,
and coarse aggregate. In the absence of a reliable estimate of the unit weight of concrete,
Table 2.5 can be used to as a guide to choose the unit weight of fresh concrete.
Experience shows that even a rough estimate of the unit weight is adequate for the
purpose of producing trial concrete,where Um is the weight of fresh concrete, kg/m3;
Ga is the weighted average bulk specific gravity (SSD) of combined fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate, assuming reasonable weight proportions; Gc is the specific gravity of
cement; A is the air content. Wm is the mixing water content, kg/m3; Cm is the cement
content, kg/m3 , In the absolute volume method, the total volume displaced by the
known ingredients (i.e., water, air, cement, and coarse aggregate) is subtracted from the
unit volume of concrete to obtain the required volume of fine aggregate. This in turn is
converted to weight units by multiplying by the density of fine aggregates
Step 8: Adjustment of amount of free water. The mix proportions determined by steps
1 to 7 assume that aggregates are in SSD condition. Generally, however, the stock
aggregates are not in a balanced condition, i.e., the SSD condition. They are either in

pg. 20
an air dry or wet condition that will either absorb mixing water or given up extra water
to the mix during mixing process. Moreover, when admixtures in liquid form are used,
extra water will be supplied. If water related to these sources is not taken into account
for the adjustment of mixing water, the actual w/c of the trial mix will be inaccurate.
Hence, the moisture content of aggregates and the extra water in liquid admixtures has
to be carefully calculated and the amount of mixing water should be adjusted. The
procedures will be demonstrated in the sample computations.
Step 9: Trial mixes. Due to so many assumptions underlying the foregoing theoretical
calculations, the mix proportions for the actual concrete have to be checked and
adjusted by means of laboratory trials consisting of small batches (e.g., 0.02 m3 or 50
kg of concrete). Fresh concrete should be tested for slump, cohesiveness, finishing
properties, and air content, as well as for unit weight. The specimens of hardened
concrete cured under standard conditions should be tested for strength at specified ages.
If any property cannot meet the design requirement, adjustments to the mix proportions
have to be conducted. For example, lack of cohesiveness can be corrected by increasing
the fine aggregate content at the expense of the coarse aggregate content. The rules of
thumb for other adjustments are as follows:
(a) If the correct slump is not achieved, the estimated water content is increased (or
decreased) by 6 kg/m3 for every 25 mm increase (or decrease) in slump.
(b) If the desired air content is not achieved, the dosage of the air-entraining admixture
should be adjusted to produce the specified air content. The water content is then
increased (or decreased) by 3 kg/m3 for each 1% decrease (or increase) in air content.
(c) If the estimated density (unit weight) of fresh concrete by the mass method is not
achieved and is of importance, the mix proportions should be adjusted, with allowance
being made for a change in air content.
(d) If the projected strength cannot be met, w/b should be reduced at a rate of 0.05 for
every 5 MPa.
Step 10: Mix proportion adjustments. After several trials, when a mixture satisfying the
desired criteria of workability and strength is obtained, the mix proportions of the
laboratory size trial batch can be fixed and scaled up for producing large amounts of
field batches.

The British Approach

:Developments and Perspective
Developments toward the concept of the present day hydraulic cements primarily
started with the construction professionals in the early part of the eighteenth century in
Britain. With its several colonies, the British concrete mix design principles and
methodology were responsible for several construction all over the world and have been
the forerunner for many other national recommendations in those erstwhile colonial
states. The ubiquitous reference “Road Note No. 4—Design of concrete mixes” (RRL,
1950) is very common in several of these national recommendations. An important and

pg. 21
noteworthy characteristic of the British approach is that the design method makes it
possible to arrive at compositions for concretes of a specific strength at the different
ages. This indeed is the hallmark of the developments that started with the Road Note
No. 4 and its modifications to the present DoE method (Neville, 2013) unlike the 28
day strength design of approach by most others. Another important aspect of the British
approach, starting even from second edition of the Road Note No. 4, is the importance
and the stress that is given to the method of combining the aggregates of different sizes
to enforce an overall grading to ensure the highest strength possible for the resulting
concrete. The fact that incomplete compaction due to an appropriate consistency can
lead to severe loss in strength of the concrete (assessed to be 30% for every 5% air
voids in the system) has been recognized explicitly. These early beginnings got
modified over the years several times (Mcintosh and Erntroy, 1955; Mcintosh, 1966
Teychenné, 1997, etc.) culminating in the present British method.
After this brief outline in arriving at the provisions of British recommendations for
concrete mixture designs, the actual procedure and the recommendations provided
therein were looked into explicitly to understand the specific relationships of the
various factors involved. It is obvious from the very beginning that the British
regulations of concrete mixture designs starting even from the earliest Road Note No.
4 have concentrated on the strength to water cement ratio relationships at the various
ages like—1, 3, 7, 28, 90 days and beyond. Obviously, the rate of hydration of the
different constituents in cement being time-dependent, the relationships follow
different paths.
A brief outline of the possible concrete compositions are also evaluated and
discussed. A critical look at the water cement ratio strength relationships proposed by
the British method presents a considerable challenge for any mathematical
manipulations. The earlier attempts discussed were at best only approximations that
could be considered adequate for the normal low or medium strength concrete
compositions. An effort was made to look at it from different perspectives and to see if
a much broader and more reliable formulation is possible. The broad differences from
the earlier American regulations were also discussed Incidentally, over the years during
its several research activities of concrete composites in the laboratory, a large database
of the normal concretes studied within and also those that are compiled as a part of the
research efforts was available. In an effort to correlate the strength characteristics of
concretes with age, the available database was also used. This could be useful in looking
at and projecting the correspondence of the relationships from the database to the
British recommendations available.

Earlier Methodologies:
It is quite obvious that the overall philosophy of concrete-like compositions was
available even several centuries before the introduction of hydraulic cements. This fact
is evident from the lime and lime-pozzolanic constructions of Romans and Babylonians
dating back to over 3000 years or even more. In fact one can say that the present
cementitious compositions owe a lot to the unsung innovators of these yesteryears.
Probably the specifc facets of their uncanny ability to design materials that lasted over

pg. 22
2000 years (a standing example of that being the Pantheon in Rome) has not been
appropriately understood even today, and many of the present-day so called inventions
are in fact reproductions of some of the tenets that are not so clearly and explicitly stated
by them.
In this perspective, as already stated, the Road Note No. 4 is one of the earliest
efforts that envisages to explain the design of concrete mixtures forming the basis for
the modern-day recommendations of several national and international standards. The
fact that in those early times itself the importance of workability along with the
influence of aggregate grading on the strength characteristics of concrete were being
discussed should not be lost sight of. The information contained regarding the method
of combining different sizes of aggregates is probably relevant if not of primary
importance even in the context of the entire range of concrete mixtures of today. While
it may be felt superfluous if not outdated by some to talk about this earlier report, it is
obvious that it paves the way for an appropriate and correct understanding of the mix
design methodology even today The philosophy or purpose of the design of a concrete
mixture as stated by Road Note No. 4 (RRL, 1950) is probably the most apt of the
definitions—that in its simplest form, obtaining a concrete of the required strength and
workability at the lowest cost, by a suitable choice of materials and of the proportions
in which they are used.” It also proposes the following basic steps
Defining a minimum strength making allowance for its variability,
Determining the water cement ratio required for the given strength,
Establishing the degree of workability required for the specific job,
- Arriving at the aggregate cement ratio at the required water cement ratio (for the given
strength) and workability considering the grading, size and type of aggregates.
The different values obtained above help in establishing the concrete mixture
details. These apart, the specifications lay stress on the grading of aggregates by
suggesting both individual and combined aggregate grading along with a procedure for
combining the aggregates.
The British Approach gives more freedom for the designer to estimate the
proportions of concrete with strength requirements at an early age, provided the strength
of cement when tested as per standard method is known for that same age. The DOE
method provides guidelines through graphs rather than in tables and numbers (like other
methods discussed previously), making it much easier for the process of mix
Proportioning. The following are the steps involved in DOE method:
Step 1: Find Target Mean Strength
The producer of concrete should design the concrete mix using a higher strength than
that of the characteristic strength by a certain Margin (risk factor), in order to ensure
satisfying the quality criteria set by the client. This higher strength is called Target
Mean Strength.
Target mean strength = specified characteristic strength + Margin
Target mean strength = FM

pg. 23
Specified characteristic strength = FC
Margin = K.S
FM = FC + K.S
The constant k is derived from the mathematics of the normal distribution and increases
as the proportion of defectives is decreased, thus:
K for 10% defectives = 1.28
K for 5% defectives = 1.65
K for 2.5% defectives = 1.96
K for 1% defectives = 2.33
Step 2: Calculation of Water/Cement Ratio
This is done in a rather round about method, using Table 2.5 and Figure 2.3
Table 2.6: Approximate compressive strengths (MPA) of concrete mixes
made of free-water/cement ratio of 0.5

pg. 24
Figure 2.3: Relation between compressive strength and free-water/cement
ratio
Step 03: Calculation of free Water Content
Table 2.7: Approximate free-water contents (kg/m 3) required to give various levels of
workability

pg. 25
Step 04: Calculation of cement Content
Cement content= water content / w/c ratio
The calculated cement content should be compared with any given minimum cement
content.
Step 05: Weight of Total Aggregate
This requires an estimate of the wet density of the fully compacted concrete. This can
be found out from Figure below for approximate water content and specific gravity of
aggregate. An approximation can be made by assuming an average value of specific
gravity of 2.6 for uncrushed aggregate and 2.7 for crushed aggregate.

Figure 2.4: Wet density of fully compacted concrete

Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete
Then, total weight of aggregate is find out:
Weight of total aggregate =wet density – [weight of cement + weight of free water]
Step 06: Weight of Fine Aggregate
Then, proportion of fine aggregate is determined in the total aggregate using Figure
above. Figure (a) is for 10 mm size, (b) is for 20 mm size and (c) is for 40 mm size
coarse aggregate.

pg. 26
The parameters involved are maximum size of coarse aggregate, -
the level of workability,- water/cement ratio, and - Fineness Modulus (FM).-

Figure 2.5: Proportion of fine aggregate determined from fineness modulus

Then:
Fine aggregate content = total aggregate content × % wt of fine aggregates

pg. 27
Coarse aggregate content = total aggregate content – fine aggregate content
Coarse aggregate content can be subdivided if single sized 10, 20 and 40 mm aggregates
are to be combined. The best proportions will depend on aggregate shape and concrete
usage, but the following ratios are suggested as a guide:
For combination of 10mm and 20mm aggregates 1 : 2
For combination of 10mm, 20mm and 40 mm aggregates 1 : 1.5 : 3
Step 07: Trial Mixes
The design procedure outlined above is based on materials which may not be what is
used for your design. It is unlikely that the first mix design would achieve the target
results. It usually takes a few trials before a satisfactory design is achieved.
After each trial mix, the concrete mix design should be adjusted before the next trial.
The following items may be given consideration:
Density: The density of the concrete measured during the trial mix should be checked
against the assumed density during the mix design, and necessary adjustments should
be made accordingly.
Slump: The slump can be adjusted by adjusting the water content and the fine
aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio. Slump can be increased by increasing the water
content and/or decreasing the fine aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio. A slump
adjustment of 20 mm can be achieved by changing the water content by 5 kg and fine
aggregate by 5 kg. The water/cement ratio should be maintained so that the strength is
not altered.
Strength: The strength can be adjusted by adjusting the water/cement ratio according to
the Figure 1. Use the results from the trial mix, the water/cement ratio and the strength,
and plot a point in Figure 1. Draw the curve parallel to the other curves through the
point, and use this curve to estimate the water/cement ratio required for the target
strength.
Step 08. Adjustments for Aggregate Weights and Water Content.
1-The effective absorption (EA) represents the amount of water required to bring
an aggregate from the AD state to the SSD, expressed as a fraction of the SSD
weight:
EA = (WSSD – WAD) / WSSD x 100%
The surface moisture (SM) represents water in excess of the SSD state, also
expressed as a fraction of the SSD weight:
SM = (WWET – WSSD) / WSSD x 100%
Aggregate weights. Aggregate volumes are calculated based on oven dry unit
weights, but aggregate is typically batched based on actual weight. Therefore, any
moisture in the aggregate will increase its weight and stockpiled aggregates almost

pg. 28
 always contain some moisture. Without correcting for this, the batched aggregate
volumes will be incorrect.
Amount of mixing water. If the batched aggregate is anything but saturated
surface dry it will absorb water (if oven dry or air dry) or give up water (if wet) to
the cement paste. This causes a net change in the amount of water available in the
mix and must be compensated for by adjusting the amount of mixing water added.

3- Excel sheet program flow chart:-

IF function:
The IF function is one of the most popular function in EXCLE, and it allows you to
make logical comparisons between a value and what you expect.
So an IF statement can have two results. The first result is if comparison is true, the
second if your comparison is False.

The first sheet by British approach:

(1) In put:

1-compressive strength
2-defective rate and number of results

pg. 29
3-maximum aggregate size
4-specific gravity
5-fineness modulus
6-cement class
8-maximum free w/c ratio
9-minimum cement content
10-absorption and moisture of fine and coarse aggregate.

(2) Out put

(1)Target mean strength:

According to the formula (FM=F+K.S)
(2) Compressive strength for w/c =0.50
According to Table 2.6 and by using IF function the formula is:
(IF(N18=42.5;7.9735*LN(N4)+14.047;7.3585*LN(N4)+21.971

pg. 30
(3) Water/cement ratio:
According to figure 2.3 the formula is:
364 * LN (D2) + 1.8642-
(4) Water content:
According to Table 2.7 and by using IF function the formula is:
IF(N7=180;-32.46*LN(N14)+323.91;IF(N7=60;-28.85*LN(N14)+296.44;IF(N7=30;-
21.64*LN(N14)+254.83;-18.03*LN(N14)+222.3)))
(5) Cement content:
= water content / w/c ratio
(6) Wet density of concrete:
According to figure 2.4 and by using IF function the formula is;
IF(N15=2.9;-1.7958*D8+2944.1;IF(N15=2.8;-1.669*D8+2847.8;IF(N15=2.7;-
1.5653*D8+2751;IF(N15=2.6;-1.3182*D8+2631.6;IF(N15=2.5;-1.1405*D8+2537.7;-
1.1405*D8+2437.8)))))
(7) Weight of total aggregate:
= weight of concrete – weight of water – weight of cement
(8)Weight of fine aggregate:
According to figure 2.5 and by using IF function the formula is:
* weight of total aggregate(IF(N14=10;AC23;IF(N14=20;AC24;AC20
(9)Coarse aggregate content:
= total aggregate – fine aggregate
(10)Adjustments:
According to absorption and moisture percentage of fine and coarse aggregate.

pg. 31
The second sheet by ACI approach:
In put: (1)

1-compressive strength
2-type of construction
3-sulmp
4-maximum aggregate size
5-spacific gravity
6-dry rodded unit weight
7-coarse aggregate bulk specific gravity
8-absorpation of coarse aggregate
9-moisture content of coarse aggregate
10-fine aggregate bulk specific gravity
11-absorpation of fine aggregate
12-moisture content of fine aggregate
13-fineness modulus

pg. 32
Out put: (2)

1-mixing water content

According to Table 2.2 and by using IF function the formula is:
IF(M6=50;0.0057*M8^2-1.622*M8+219.16; IF(M6=100;(- 0.0003*M8^3)+(0.0482*M8^2)-
(3.4368*M8)+254.38;-38.78*LN(M8)+328.71))
2-water/cement ratio
According to Table 2.3 the formula is: 0.374*LN(M2)+1.8078;0.001-
3-cement content
Water content / w/c ratio
4-coarse aggregate volume
According to Table 2.4 and by using IF function the formula is:
IF(M8=9.5;-0.1*M26+0.74;IF(M8=12.5;-0.1*M26+0.83;IF(M8=19;-
0.1*M26+0.9;IF(M8=25;-0.1*M28+0.95;IF(M8=37.5;-0.1*M26+0.99;-
0.1*M26+1.02)))))
5-coarse aggregate content
Dry rodded unit weight * coarse aggregate volume
7-fine aggregate volume

pg. 33
[1- (cement content/specific gravity*1000 + water content/1000 + coarse aggregate
content / bulk specific gravity*1000)]
8- Adjustments
According to absorption and moisture percentage of fine and coarse aggregate.

pg. 34
4- Results

Example:
Mix design calculation sheet for 40 N/mm2 concrete mix (28 day strength)
A) NA
Characteristic strength at 28 days 40 N/mm2
Margin strength (M)
M-specified NS N/mm2 (NS = not specified)
M-calculated = 1.64 * S
S = Standard deviation = 8 N/mm2
M-calculated 1.64 * 8
M = 13 N/mm2
Target mean strength (FM) FM = 53 N/mm2
Cement type OPC
Aggregate:
Coarse: Crushed (Crushed or Uncrushed)
Fine: Uncrushed (Crushed or Uncrushed)
Free-water cement ratio (w/c):
Concrete age 28 days
Type of cement OPC
Coarse aggregate Crushed
Estimated compressive strength (fcu) = 49 N/mm2 (Table 2.6)
Target mean strength (FM) = 53 N/mm2
w/c 0.4 (figure 2.3)
w/c NS
(Use the lower value as w/c)
w/c = 0.4
Free-water content (W):

pg. 35
Use Table 2.7
Slump 30-60 mm
Maximum aggregate size 20 mm
Type of coarse aggregate Crushed
Type of fine aggregate Unrushed
Wf = 180 kg/m3 Wc = 210 kg/m3
W =2/3Wf + 1/3Wc = 190 kg/m3
[When coarse and fine aggregates are of different types]
Free-water content W = 190 kg/m3
Cement content:
W/C ratio 0.4 (Figure 2.3)
Free-water content 190 kg/m3
Cement content 475 kg/m3 Say 475 kg/m3
Maximum specified cement content NS
Minimum specified cement content NS
(Use 8.1 if 8.1 ≤ 8.2, or use 8.3 if 8.3 > 8.1, use 8.2 if 8.2 < 8.1 )
Cement content 475 kg/m3
Modified free-water to cement content 0.4
Concrete density:
Relative density of aggregate (SSD) = 2.65 (Known )
Free-water content = 190 kg/m3
Wet concrete density of the mix = 2400 kg/m3
Total aggregate content, TAC (Coarse and fine aggregate) (figure 2.4)
TAC = Wet density - Free-water content - Cement content
TAC = 1735 kg/m3
Proportion of fine and coarse aggregate (figure 2.5):
Maximum aggregate size (mm) 20
Percentage of fine aggregate passing 600 µm sieve (%) 54
Modified free-water content to cement ratio 0.4
Proportion of fine aggregate (%) 35 (figure 2.5)

pg. 36
TAC = 1735 kg/m3
Fine aggregate content = FAC = % Fine aggregate * TAC = 607.25 kg/m3
Say FAC= 610 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate content = TAC - FAC = 1125 kg/m3
Summary of quantities for 1 m3 (SSD):
Cement = 475 kg/m3
Water = 190 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 610 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 1125 kg/m3
Wet density = 2400 kg/m3
Proportion of gradients per trial mix (SSD) of : 0.0083m3 (For small mixer):
Cement = 3.9 kg
Water = 1.6 kg
Fine aggregate = 5.1 kg
Coarse aggregate = 9.3 kg
This trial will make about 20 kg of concrete; enough for slump and Vebe tests.
Miscellaneous:
Material Cement Water Coarse agg. Fine agg
RD 3.15 1 2.7 2.6

pg. 37
Example in the excel program:

Deviation rate in results:

Water = 1%
Cement = 3%
fine aggregate= 7%
Coarse aggregate= 1.1%

American Concrete Institution method:-

Example (1)
Required average strength will be 24 MPa with slump of 75 to 100 mm. The coarse
aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm and dry-rodded mass of 1600 kg/m 3,
other properties of the ingredients are: cement -- Type I with specific gravity of 3.15;
coarse aggregate -- bulk specific gravity 2.68 and absorption 0.5 percent; fine
aggregate -- bulk specific gravity 2.64, absorption 0.7 percent, and fineness modulus
2.8
Step 1 -- The slump is required to be 75 to 100 mm.
Step 2 -- The aggregate to be used has a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm.
Step 3 -- The concrete will be non-air entrained since the structure is not exposed to
severe weathering. From Table 2.2, the estimated mixing water for a slump of 75 to
100 mm in non-air-entrained concrete made with 37.5 mm aggregate is found to be

pg. 38
181 kg/m3.
Step 4 -- The water-cement ratio for non air-entrained concrete with a strength of 24
MPa is found from Table 2.3 to be 0.62.
Step 5 -- From the information developed in Steps 3 and 4, the required cement
content is found to be 181/0.62 = 292 kg/m3.
Step 6 -- The quantity of coarse aggregate is estimated from Table 2.4. For a fine
aggregate having a fineness modulus of 2.8 and a 37.5 mm nominal maximum size of
coarse aggregate, the table indicates that 0.71 m3 of coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded
basis, may be used in each
cubic meter of concrete. The required dry mass is, therefore, 0.71 x 1600 = 1136 kg.
Step 7 -- With the quantities of water, cement and coarse aggregate established, the
remaining material comprising the cubic meter of concrete must consist of fine
aggregate and whatever air will be entrapped. The required fine aggregate may be
determined on the basis of either mass or absolute volume as shown below:
Mass basis -- the mass of a cubic meter of non-air-entrained concrete made with
aggregate having a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm is estimated to be 2410 kg.
(For a first trial batch, exact adjustments of this value for usual differences in slump,
cement factor, and aggregate specific gravity are not critical.) Masses already known
are:

Water (netmixing) 181kg

Cement=292kg
Coarse,aggregate=1136kg
Total=1609kg
The mass of fine aggregate, therefore, is estimated to be
2410 - 1609 = 801 kg
Absolute volume basis -- With the quantities of cement, water, and coarse aggregate
established, and the approximate entrapped air content (as opposed to purposely
entrained air) the sand content can be calculated as follows:

Volume of water = 181 0.181 m3

Solid volume of cement = 292/ 3.15 x 1000 = 0.093 m3

Solid volume of coarse aggregate = 1136 / 2.68 x 1000 = 0.424 m3

Volume of entrapped air = 0.01 x 1.000 = 0.010 m3

Total solid volume of ingredients except fine aggregate = 0.708 m3
Solid volume of fine aggregate required = 1.000 - 0.705 = 0.292 m3
Required weight of dry = 0.292 x 2.64
fine aggregate x 1000 = 771 kg
Step 8 -- Tests indicate total moisture of 2 percent in the coarse aggregate and 6 percent in
the fine aggregate. If the trial batch proportions based on assumed concrete mass are used,
the adjusted aggregate masses become Coarse aggregate (wet) = 1136(1.02) = 1159 kg
Fine aggregates (wet) = 801(1.06) = 849kg
Absorbed water does not become part of the mixing water and must be excluded from the

pg. 39
adjustment in added water. Thus, surface water contributed by the coarse aggregate
amounts to 2 - 0.5 = 1.5 percent; by the fine aggregate 6 - 0.7 = 5.3 percent. The estimated
requirement for added water, therefore, becomes
181 - 1136(0.015) - 801(0.053) = 122 kg
The estimated batch masses for a cubic meter of concrete are:
Water (to be added) 122 kg
Cement 292 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1159 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) 849 kg
Total 2422 kg

Step 9 -- For the laboratory trial batch, it is found convenient to scale the masses
down to produce 0.02 m3 of concrete. Although the calculated quantity of water to be
added was 2.44 kg, the amount actually used in an effort to obtain the desired 75 to
100 mm slump is 2.70 kg. The
batch as mixed, therefore, consists of
Water (added) 2.70 kg
Cement 5.84 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 23.18 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) 16.98 kg
Total 48.70 kg
The concrete has a measured slump of 50 mm and unit mass of 2390 kg/m? It is
judged to be satisfactory from the standpoint of workability and finishing properties.
To provide proper yield and other characteristics for future batches, the following
adjustments are made:
Since the yield of the trial batch was
48.70/2390 = 0.0204 m3
and the mixing water content was 2.70 (added) + 0.34 (on coarse aggregate) + 0.84
(on fine aggregate) = 3.88 kg, the mixing water required for a cubic meter of concrete
with the same slump as the trial batch should be
3.88/0.0204 = 190 kg
As indicated in A1.5.3.9.1, this amount must be increased another 8 kg to raise the
slump from the measured 50 mm to the desired 75 to 100 mm range, bringing the total
mixing water to 198 kg.
With the increased mixing water, additional cement will be required to provide the
desired water-cement ratio of 0.62. The new cement content becomes
198/0.62 = 319 kg
Since workability was found to be satisfactory, the quantity of coarse aggregate per
unit volume of concrete will be maintained the same as in the trial batch. The amount
of coarse aggregate per cubic meter becomes
23.18/0.0204 = 1136kg wet

pg. 40
Example in the excel program:

Deviation rate in results:

Water = 3%
Cement = 7%
fine aggregate= 8%
Coarse aggregate= 3%

pg. 41
5- Conclusion:
- An excel sheet was designed for concrete mix design using (BS) British Standard
method and (ACI) American Concrete Institution method.
- To verify that the output of excel sheet were verified a manual calculation were
compared with sheet output and the result give a good justification.
- The value obtained from program and manual value gives a good results and the
difference in calculation not exceed 8%.
- For easiest and fastest results mix design equation as shown (Chapter 4).

Recommendation:
- New inputs can be added to the excel sheet in the future, such as admixtures, which
it can be taken into consideration in high and low temperature in order to improve the
concrete quality.
- Coarse aggregate size can be increased by up to about 10% for pavement applications.
- The producing concrete is non-air entrained unless the structure is exposed to severe
weathering.

pg. 42
References:
First Edition:
- Advanced Concrete Technology - Zongjin Li
- Concrete Technology - A.M.Neville and J.J.Brooks
Second Edition:
- Concrete Mix Design, Quality Control and Scientifiction - Ken W.Day
3rd Edition:
- Mathematical Modeling of Concrete Mixture Proportioning
- Practical Concrete Mix Design - Avijit Chaubey

pg. 43