REPRODUCTION: BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM OF  The production of a new cell through mitosis is the  Cell division goes through a process
 Cell division goes through a process similar to that of
HEREDITY
 Heredity
 Do you know that the traits that an offspring inherits from
his or her parents can be identical or varied?
 Heredity is the transfer of traits from parents to their to
their offspring.
 This happens through reproduction, or the biological
process by which an offspring is produced from its
parents.
 Two methods of reproduction
 Asexual reproduction, an individual organism produces
an offspring even without interacting with another
organism.
 Sexual reproduction, an offspring is produced from the
fusion of the female gamete of one organism with the
male gamete of another.
 Cellular Reproduction
 A cell grows. Growth, in general, results from
subsequent cell reproduction, during which a single cell
divides into two, then into four, then into eight and so on.
 Cell division, in turn, result in cell differentiation, as new
cells, sperm cells, or egg cells.
 In a single celled organism, the zygote, or the fertilized
egg cell that resulted from the fusion of the male and
female gametes, gradually divides and transforms into a
sexually mature organism.
 Cell Division
 Cells vary but each of them reproduce new cells in either
of two ways: mitosis or meiosis.
 Mitosis
 A duplicative process, whereby a single parent cell
produces two identical “daughter” cells with identical sets
of chromosomes.
 Chromosomes contain genes.
 A gene is the part of the chromosome that controls the
physical characteristics, growth, and development of an
organism.
 The Cell Cycle
beginning of the cell cycle, when the new cell also
divides into two to produce another cell.
 G1 (Gap 1)
 S (Synthesis)
 G2 (Gap 2)
 M (Mitosis)
 The G1 phase is the earliest stage in the interphase of
the cell cycle. It is characterized by a period of increased
RNA and protein synthesis.
 The cell is in its S phase when the DNA replicates from
precursors produced during the G1 phase.
 The G2 phase is characterized by protein synthesis. It
paves the way to actual cell division during the M phase.
 During replication, a new chromosome strand, which is
an exact copy of the parent strand, is formed.
 Each chromosome has two sets of chromatids, or arms,
joined to gather by centromeres or kinetochore.
 Phases of Mitosis
 The interphase phase in cell division leads us to the six
phases that are involved in mitosis. (phophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and
cytokinesis)
 During prophase, the chromosomes duplicate. In the
early part of the phase, the centrioles start to move apart
to the opposite sides of the nucleus.
 During metaphase, the nuclear membrane disappears
and the chromosomes align at the equatorial region and
divide equally and longitudinally.
 During anaphase, the centromeres split and the
chromosomes move toward the opposite poles of the
spindle.
 During telophase, the chromosomes move to the poles.
The nuclear membranes form around each set of
chromosomes. Two daughter nuclei are formed.
 During cytokinesis, the cell divides into two daughter
cells, with each daughter cell containing the same
number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
 Meiosis
mitosis, although with some complexity.
 In meiosis, a parent cell produces four daughter cells,
each containing 23 individual chromosomes instead of
the 23 pairs of chromosomes produced in mitosis.
 Phases of Meiosis
 Just as in mitosis, meiosis takes place in several phases
that are clustered in two major nuclear divisions.
 Each division is comprised of four stages: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 During prophase I, matching chromosomes, pair up,
forming a tetrad of chromatids. This pairing is called
synapsis. This does not occur in mitosis.
 During metaphase I, the pairs of chromosomes line up
across the equator of the spindle and are divided equally
and longitudinally.
 During anaphase I, the chromosomes separate from
each other and move to opposite poles of the cell.
 During telophase I, the nuclear membrane forms around
each group of chromosomes.
 A cell wall separates the cell into two daughter cells.
 During prophase II, two sister chromatids of a
chromosome are connected together in the centromere
region and stay side by side with a chromosome that has
its own chromatids.
 During metaphase II, the chromosomes, each with two
chromatids, line up on the equator of the spindle.
 During telophase II, the nuclear membranes form and
the cell walls divide the two cells into four daughter cells.
 Each daughter cell has half the chromosomes of each
pair of chromosomes.
 There is no duplication of chromosomes between the
two divisions.
 Sexual and asexual Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Sexual reproduction is the formation of new organisms
from parent cells that have undergone meiosis, gamete
formation, and fertilization.
 Parts of Flower
 Four major parts of the flower:  Conjugation is considered a primitive form of sexual
 Pistil reproduction for lower forms of animals such as
 Stamen paramecium.
 Petals  Sexual Reproduction in Animals
 Sepals  Syngamy, which is also called fertilization, is the
 Reproductive Parts permanent union of egg and sperm cells.
 The stamen is the male reproductive structure and  It occurs in higher forms of animals.
consists of the anther and the filament. The anther is the  The reproductive organ of some animals are collectively
fertile part of the stamen and is responsible for the referred to as gonads, or specifically, testis in males and
production of the sticky powder called pollen. An anther ovaries in females.
usually contains two pollen sacs. Within the pollen sacs  Internal and External Fertilization
are many cells called microspore mother cells. The  Animals exhibit two patterns for bringing their sperm and
anther is found at the tip of the filament, a long threadlike egg cells together. These are through internal and
stalk. external fertilization
 Reproductive Parts  External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic
 The pistil is the female reproductive structure and environments where both eggs and sperm are released
consists of the stigma, style, and ovary. It is responsible into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg,
for collecting the pollen. The stigma is the bulb that is fertilization takes place.
found in the center of most flowers. It receives the pollen  Internal fertilization occurs most often in land-based
grains that then germinate in this part. The style is the animals, although some aquatic animals also use this
long stalk to w/c the stigma is attached. The ovary method.
contains the ovules, or the seeds that turn into fruit.
 The petals are the colorful and attractive parts of the
flower while sepals are the outer and green leaflike parts
that enclose a developing bud of the plant and protect it.
 Tissue Culture
 Tissue culture method makes use of plant tissue
samples such as leaf stems.
 The surface of a leaf stem can be scraped or cut thinly
into small pieces and transferred to a sterile agar-based
growth medium.
 The scraped or thinly cut tissue samples are cultures for
a certain period of time until these grow into small plants
or plantlets.
 Sexual Reproduction in Animals
 Conjugation is the temporary sexual union of two or
more cells or organisms where they share genetic
material through a cytoplasmic bridge.