Geoheritage (2023) 15:108

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-023-00875-0

ORIGINAL PAPER

Jurassic Geoheritage and Geotourism Potential in the Spiti Valley

of India: a Thing of the Past, Shielded for the Future
Ketan Chaskar1 · Suraj Bhosale1 · D. K. Pandey1 · J. M. Patel2 · Gaurav D. Chauhan1 · M. G. Thakkar1 ·
Subhash Bhandari1

Received: 15 June 2022 / Accepted: 21 August 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Association for the Conservation of Geological Heritage 2023

Abstract
The Tethyan sediments in the Spiti Valley deposited along the northern margin of Indian craton are rich in fossils and hold a
key value in the stratigraphy of the Indian Himalaya and could become a vital geoheritage site. Such geological sites need to
be preserved, making them available for our future generation geoscientists. The present study aims to document, analyze,
and assess geologically frail sites, keeping in mind the existing and impending anthropological responses to such sites. The
study also endorses the idea of sustainably managing the geologically important “geosites” as “Geoparks” and “Fossil parks”
in the Spiti Valley and equally promoting social inclusion by appointing local community members as the guardians of these
sites, thus generating an alternate revenue system through geotourism.

Keywords Jurassic · Spiti Valley · Geotourism · Indian Himalaya · Geoheritage · Geoparks

Introductions protection, education, and sustainable development. United

Geoheritage and geoconservation are notions concerned
with the preservation of the Earth’s natural heritage, such
as landforms, natural, and artificial exposures of rocks and
sites where geological history can be investigated (Brocx
and Semeniuk 2007). The Geoheritage includes landforms
and other geomorphological features that illustrate the
effects of the present and past on climate and Earth forces
(McBriar 1995). Geoconservation derives from geoherit-
age, in that it deals with the conservation of Earth Science
features. Geotourism is a new worldwide phenomenon that
is gaining momentum because it has been recognized that
Earth systems have a story to tell and that they are linked
to the ongoing history of human development, providing
the resources for development, with historical, cultural, aes-
thetic, and religious values (Dowling and Newsome 2006;
Brocx and Semeniuk 2007). Geopark is a geographical area,
whereas, geoheritage sites are part of a holistic concept of
* Ketan Chaskar
ketan.chaskar@gmail.com
1
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, K. S. K. V.
Kachchh University, Bhuj 370001, India
2
Department of Geology, Shri R. R. Lalan College of Science
and Commerce, Bhuj 370001, India
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) defined geoparks as unified geographical areas
where geosites and landscapes of international geological
significance are conserved and managed with a holistic
approach for protection, education, and sustainable devel-
opment (UNESCO - United Nations Education, Scientific
and Cultural Organization 2016). Geosite is geological or
geomorphological object that has acquired a scientific (e.g.,
sedimentological stratotype and relict moraine representa-
tive of a glacier extension), cultural/historical (e.g., reli-
gious or mystical value), aesthetic (e.g., some mountainous
or coastal landscapes), and/or social/economic (e.g., aes-
thetic landscapes as tourist destinations) value due to human
perception or exploitation (Reynard 2004). The synergy
between geodiversity, biodiversity, and culture, in addition
to both tangible and non-tangible heritage, is such that non-
geological themes must be highlighted as an integral part of
each geopark, especially when their importance in relation to
landscape and geology can be demonstrated to the visitors.
For this reason, it is necessary to also include and highlight
sites of ecological, archaeological, historical, and cultural
value within each geopark (GGN 2010).
Due to a lack of awareness, protection policies, urbaniza-
tion, and industrialization, several famous geological sec-
tions were damaged during the latter half of the nineteenth

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
108 Page 2 of 11
century. Fortunately, general awareness of protecting the
geoheritage sites was developed during the mid-twentieth
century by establishing geoparks (Page and Wimbledon
2009). The geopark concept was developed to conserve the
geoheritage sites, and it is a proven tool to generate aware-
ness and educate the public about the study of Earth Sci-
ences along with significant sustainable economic develop-
ment of the region through geotourism (Kelley et al. 2019).
Various international agencies are involved at a global plat-
form with common goals of sustainability and conserva-
tion of geoheritage and various values related to science,
natural heritage, education, recreation, economics, ecology,
and culture (Page 2018). The Earth science communities of
India have discussed the geotourism and geopark potential
of India in the form of research articles, books, chapters,
and reports (Anantharamu et al. 2001; Ahluwalia 2006; GSI
2012; Reddy 2013; Singh and Anand 2013; Swarna et al.
2013; Kale 2014; INTACH 2016; Sheth et al. 2017; Shek-
har et al. 2019; Bhosale et al. 2021a; Biswas and Chauhan
2021; Chauhan et al. 2021; Pandey et al. 2022; Chavan et al.
2022; Joshi et al. 2022; Thakkar et al. 2023; Chauhan et al.
2023; Thakkar et al. 2022). The Geological Survey of India
(GSI) initiated the process of setting up “geoparks” in the
country by recognizing 26 geosites as national geological
monuments (Bhosale et al. 2021b).
According to Dowling (2011), there are five key princi-
ples which are fundamental to geotourism. (a) It is geologi-
cally based (based on the earth’s geoheritage), (b) sustaina-
ble (economically viable, community enhancing, and fosters
geoconservation), (c) educative (achieved through geo-inter-
pretation), (d) locally beneficial, and (e) generates tourist
satisfaction. It is imperative that the first three principles
are considered to be essentially present for a function to be
known as “geotourism,” whereas the last two principles are
considered desirable for all forms of tourism (Hassan et al.
2012). Geotourism is a vehicle to foster geoconservation,
understand geological heritage (geoheritage), and appreciate
geological diversity (geodiversity) (Dowling 2013).
Geotourism practices can hold great potential for the
preservation of significant geological wealth and mountain
ecology of the Spiti Valley of Himachal Pradesh, India. Cul-
tural identities and diversity in mountain regions, refined
over generations by local habitants and the wonderful natural
heritage have immense value and attract tourists from all
over the world. The Spiti Valley is well known for its scenic
landscape along high-altitude lakes, biodiversity hot spots,
unique ancient Tibetan history, and culture. It is also famous
for its faunal inhabitants such as the snow leopards, ibex,
which are very rare to sight, as well as fossils like ammo-
nites, bivalves, brachiopods, and trilobites. In the recent
years, the number of tourist arrivals in the Spiti Valley has
seen an unprecedented increase because it was a restricted
region one and half decades ago. From a mere 0.15 million
13
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
tourists in 2011–2012 to a massive 1.072 million tourists in
2019 (domestic and foreign), (Himachal Pradesh State report
2020–21, https://​himac​halto​urism.​gov.​in/​desti​nation/​spiti-​
valley/.), the growth has indeed been tremendous.
Geographical Boundaries and Topography
of Spiti Valley
Spiti, pronounced as “Piti” in the local dialect, interprets as
the “Middle Land” between India and Tibet (Bajpai 2002).
Geographically, the Spiti Valley falls under Lahaul and Spiti
districts of Himachal Pradesh state. The district is situated
between 31.749166° and 32.999166° north latitude and
between 76.774722° and 78.692777° east longitude. Spiti
is a high-altitude cold desert which is bordered by the Tibet
on the east, Lahaul on the west, Kullu and Kinnaur on the
south, and Ladakh on the north-west (Fig. 1). Spiti lies at
an altitude of 4270m, where mountains prevent monsoon
from entering and make the climate arid and arctic (Tsering
2014). By looking at the panaromic landscapes of the Spiti
Valley, one could figure out its history with vast remoteness.
The Spiti Valley is approachable throughout the year from
Shimla-Ramgarh-Tabo route. There is also another route to
reach Kaza (capital of Lahaul-Spiti district) via two high
mountain passes (Rohthang: 3976 m and Kunzam La: 4551
m). These days through Atal Tunnel that bypasses the Roh-
tang pass from Manali, which earlier used to be inaccessible
during the winter months of November to March. Border
Road Organization has recently built 9 km long perennial
tunnel (Atal Tunnel) connecting Manali in the south and
Lahaul and Spiti in the north, which, in turn, has reduced a
total distance of 46 km from Manali to Leh (https://​marve​
ls.​bro.​gov.​in/​AtalT​unnel/).
The topography of the district is entirely hilly, with few
plain grounds. Towards the south of Ladakh is situated the
valley of Lahaul, deriving its name from “Lho-Yu,” mean-
ing Southern Country. The gateway to this valley, the Roh-
tang Pass (3976 m) and Kunzam La (4551 m), connects
Lahaul and Spiti to Kullu district. The mountain ranges
rise to an elevation of 5480 mamsl. However, the highest
peak, i.e., Mulkilla peak exceeds 6400 m, while the lowest
point (ca 2400 m) lies at the exit of river Chenab in the
district of Chamba.
Geological Setting
The Himalaya is most spectacular due to its vast mountain
ranges generated by continent-continent collision type plate
tectonic processes and modified by weathering and erosion.
The roads all along the Spiti Valley from south to north
were originally paleochannels. The Himalayas, which run
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
Fig. 1 a) Map showing geographical boundary of Spiti district showing major villages, monasteries, and high mountain passes (after Reddy
2021), and b) road map to the Spiti Valley of India, indicating (in red circles) four proposed Jurassic “geosites” (after Alberti et al. 2021)
over 2400 km between the Namcha Barwa in the east and
the Nanga Parbat in the west, are the product of a continu-
ing orogeny — the collision of the continental crust of two
tectonic plates, specifically the Indian Plate pushing into the
Eurasian Plate (Fig. 2). In the Early Cretaceous (130–125
Ma), the Indian plate broke off from Australia and Antarc-
tica. In the Late Cretaceous (84 Ma), the Indian plate began
its very rapid northward drift covering a distance of about
6000 km (Dezes 1999). The tectonic interaction between
the Indian and the Eurasian continental plates started about
65 Ma, thus starting the orogeny of the mighty Himalaya as
we know it today.
The Himalayan Mountain chain is traditionally subdi-
vided into the following zones: The Siwalik Foothills/Outer
Himalayas, The Lesser Himalayas, The Higher Himalayas,
The Tethyan Himalaya, and The Indus-Tsangpo Suture
Zone (Gansser 1980). The Spiti Valley, located north of the
Pir Panjal Range (The Lesser Himalaya) and The Higher
Himalaya and south of the Zanskar Range, exhibits an
exceptional stretch of Neoproterozoic-Cretaceous rocks in
Himachal Pradesh. The fossiliferous Jurassic formations of
Spiti have attracted geologists as early as the middle of the
Page 3 of 11 108
nineteenth century, despite its remoteness. The geological
details of the Spiti Valley in earlier years were provided by
Gerard (1833), Hutton (1839, 1840, 1841), Everest (1841),
Blanford (1863), Stoliczka ( 1864a, 1864b, 1868), Gries-
bach (1889), Diener (1895, 1897, 1903), and von Kraft
(1899, 1900). Hayden (1904) mapped and presented an
account of various geological formations which until this
day provides a sound edifice for any detailed work. Palae-
ontological studies in the Spiti Valley were initially carried
out by Uhlig (Uhlig 1903-1910, b) and Diener (1907, 1908,
1912, 1915) and later on studied by many workers, viz.,
Bhargava and Kathiara (1969), Jain and Mannikeri (1975),
Goel (1977), Goel and Srivastava (1978), Bhatt and Joshi
(1978a, 1978b), Bhatt et al. (1981a, 1981b), Goel et al.
(1981, 1984, 1987), Mehrotra et al. (1982), Pant and Azmi
(1983), Ranga Rao et al. (1984), Bhargava and Bassi (1985,
1986, 1987), Shah and Paul (1987), Kato et al. (1987), Bhar-
gava and Gadhoke (1988), and Garzanti et al. (1995). Recent
paleontological and isotopes studies in the Spiti valley have
been carried out by Krishna et al. (1982), Parcha (1996,
1998, 2021, 2008), Pathak (1997, 2007); Bhargava (2008),
Parcha and Singh (2005), Parcha and Pandey (2011), Pathak
13
108 Page 4 of 11
Fig. 2  The northward journey of the Indian plate for the formation of
the Himalayas (Biswas and Chauhan 2022)
et al. (2011), Pandey and Parcha (2013), Krishna (2017),
Bhosale et al. (2021a), Singh et al. (2021), Fursich et al. (
2021, 2022), and Alberti et al. (2021).
The Spiti Basin is the richly fossiliferous and encloses
continuous succession from Cambrian to Cretaceous
(Table 1). Many villages and localities in the Spiti Valley
bear witnesses to the pre-existing Tethys sea by exhibiting
fossils of marine ecosystem (Fig. 3).
Langza village, considered to be one of the highest
villages in the world connected with a motorable road
(Fig. 4d), is enriched with Jurassic ammonite fossils.
Ammonites were marine predators with a spiral shell, and
they were known to breed prolifically, resulting in a large
number of ammonite fossils that became extinct around
13
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
the same period as the dinosaurs at the end of Cretaceous
— 65 Mya. Locally, it is also known as a fossil village and
attracts tourists who come to visit these sites. Although
possession and collection of fossils are illegal in India, the
locals in the village sell these collectables to the travel-
ers visiting their village. In Spiti valley, the fossiliferous
Spiti Shale is exposed near the villages named Gete, Kib-
ber, Komic, and Rangrik and along the sides of Pin river
(a tributary of Spiti River) (Krishnanand 2019; Bhosale
et al. 2021b; Fürsich et al. 2021). Tagling Formation of
the Triassic to Middle Jurassic age is also exposed near
the Langza village and is a source of many fossils, viz.,
bivalves, oysters, and corals. Tagling Formation is very
well exposed near the Kee Gompa, which contains a great
number of fossils. Guimal village exhibits a transitional
sequence of Upper Jurassic to Cretaceous rocks. The vil-
lage sits upon highly fertile black soil which derives from
the Spiti Shale Formation (Fig. 4b).
The Spiti Shale Formation is known for the presence of
ammonites (Fig. 4e), belemnites, and other invertebrates.
Among them, ammonites are very significant fossils since
it is a guide fossil and helps in delineating the relative
age of the rocks. The oldest fossils of ammonites are from
Callovian (161.5 to 165.3 Myr, while the Berriasian (139
to 145 Myr) is the youngest; however, it is still debatable
(Bhosale et al. 2021a). More than 60 species of Jurassic
ammonites are recorded from the Spiti valley by various
palaeontologists (Uhlig 1903-1910,b; Pathak 1997; Bho-
sale et al. 2021b). These ammonites belong to a vast sea
known as Tethys connected all the way to the Mediterra-
nean towards the east and to The New Zealand towards the
south (Enay 2009; Bhosale et al. 2021a). Even though after
centuries of research, the datum problem is not resolved,
due to the tectonism in the Himalaya, The ammonites act
as a biostratigraphic markers and help in the identification
of Jurassic starta. Most of the Indian tourists collect or
purchase ammonites as in the Hindu mythology they are
considered as a “Saligarm.” The fossil wealth in the Spiti
Valley, especially ammonites, has declined greatly due to
continual collection by amateurs, and if not preserved, it
will be vanished one day.
Cultural Aspect
The everyday life of a Spitian is highly influenced by the tra-
ditions of the land, which is testified by the piles of “mani”
stones, whitewashed chortens that house Buddhist relics and
prayer flags fluttering relentlessly in thin air which echoes of
“Om Mani Padme Hum” (translating to “Behold the Jewel
in the Lotus”) (Fig. 3b). Most locals here follow a combi-
nation of Hinduism and Tibetan Buddhism of the Drukpa
Kagyu order of Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelugpa order.
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
Table 1  Important sites in Spiti Valley exhibiting Jurassic age rocks and their cultural importance
Name of village GPS co-ordinates Age/formation
Langza 32.274433, 78.080579 Late Jurassic
Demul 32.144414, 78.174895 Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous 1. Jurassic ammonites, bivalve, and belemnite fossils can be seen
Chichim 32.343826, 77.979990 Middle Jurassic to Late Jurassic 1. Along with the ammonites, the village sits on the stratigraphic
Kee 32.293162, 78.011828 Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic 1. Massive limestone of Kioto Group of Early Jurassic period with
Raja Ghepan is one of the major deities who is widely wor-
shipped by almost all of Lahaul and Spiti Valley today and
is well known to the world also because of its breathtaking
monasteries and their history. Spiti has four major monas-
teries: Tabo Monastery, Dhankar Monastery, Kaza Monas-
tery, and Kee Monastery (Fig. 5). These monasteries are
highly structured socioeconomic entities that also serve as
educational and religious centers of Budhism (Besch 2006).
Through festivities and rituals, monasteries dictate the cul-
tural, economic, social, and religious activities of people
(Ray 2007).
Tabo monastery, (Fig. 5a) located at an elevation of
3050 m in Tabo village, is the most recognized and most
famous monastery in Spiti Valley. It is also known as the
“Himalayan Ajanta.” It was built in 996 AD on behalf of
King Lah Lama Yeshe of Guge Kingdom by the Great
Translator Lotsawa Rinchen Zangpo (Klimburg-Slater
and Luczanits 1997). In the tenth and eleventh centuries,
when Indian and Tibetan monks translated and interpreted
ancient literature from Sanskrit to Tibetan, Tabo Mon-
astery played an important role in the introduction and
spread of Buddhism in the western Himalayas and west-
ern Tibet (Verma 2016). Dhankhar monastery, (Fig. 5b)
also known as Tashi Choeling Gompa, is one of the most
beautiful monasteries in Spiti, perched on a rock overlook-
ing the Spiti and Pin rivers. It is located at an elevation
of 3894 m in Dhankhar hamlet, the historical capital of
Spiti. The monastery’s unusual location became a subject
of attraction for all kinds of people. The Tangyud Monas-
tery, (Fig. 5c) belonging to the Skaya sect of Tibetan Bud-
dhism, was initially located on the tip, over a ridge pro-
jecting out between two gorges below Hikkim village and
above Kaza. The ruins of the monastery are still present
as it was desecrated during Zorawar Singh’s expedition to
Tibet in 1841 (Tobdan 2015). Kee monastery, (Fig. 5d)
Page 5 of 11 108
Geological and cultural importance
1. Jurassic ammonites, gastropods, bivalves, and belemnite fossils
and marine seashells from the time of the Tethys sea can be seen
here.
2. It has a Buddha statue at the top of a hill, also 8 km from
Langza, nearby Hikkim village hosts the highest post office in
the world.
here.
2. Highest peak in the Spiti Valley, at a trekking distance of 400 m
boundary between Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments.
2. Home to the highest bridge in Asia.
bivalves and other marine fossils.
2. Kee monastery is one of the largest of its kind in Spiti Valley.
located in the Kee village at an altitude of 4166 masl on
a hilltop, is the largest religious training center for Lamas
in Spiti. The location of the monastery is apparent to any
invading army and became an obvious target for plunder
(Sharma and Sharma 1997). The different construction
techniques and architectural features explain that the cur-
rent complex has been rebuilt and enlarged many times.
Strength‑Weakness‑Opportunity‑Threats
(SWOT) Analysis
SWOT analysis is commonly implemented in the business
sector. However, due to its effectiveness in analyzing the
qualitative potential of geosites, it is now frequently used
as a tool in the geotourism field. The analysis is useful in
determining the possible avenues and ongoing threats to
convert them into opportunities. The SWOT method aids
in the assessment of geosites to understand their viability as
potential tourist attractions. Based on this, strategies can be
implemented to enhance the strengths and reduce the weak-
nesses in the internal factors and maximize the opportuni-
ties and minimize the threats from external factors (Bhosale
et al. 2021b). In this paper, SWOT analysis has been used to
understand, in essence, the threats, advantages, and geotour-
ism potential and opportunities of the Jurassic sites in the
Spiti Valley (Table 2).
Geotourism as a Source of Income
The Spitian economy has been subsistence agriculture,
livestock rearing, and commodity exchange until the mid-
nineteenth century (Besch 2006; Tsering 2014). However,
the economic development in the area has been directly
13
108 Page 6 of 11
Fig. 3  a) Mani stone carving in Tabo monastery, b) prayer flags,
which can be seen at all places in Spiti, and c) a signboard of the
highest motorable road in Komic, Spiti
related to the extent of government involvement including
road access, watershed projects, healthcare facilities, and
elementary schools. Aside from this, cash crop produc-
tion (Green Peas, Apples) has brought changes in the local
economy resulting in a significant change from a subsist-
ence economy to a production and commodity economy
geared in the direction of the mainstream Indian market
(Ray 2007; Jahoda 2015). The significant effect in the
livelihood and standard of living of the Spitians has been
brought by the increase in tourism in the high-altitude
region, which has boosted infrastructure development in
the region. Tourism has had a multiplier impact and has
affected the different sections of society directly or indi-
rectly. It is bridging a socio-cultural influence wherein a
13
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
cultural understanding between guests and hosts is devel-
oping as well as promoting peace and harmony leading
to generating employment opportunities in various areas
(Kumar 2011).
The introduction of the geological aspect in the tour-
ism industry of Spiti Valley (geotourism) has a three-fold
inculcation:
1. Identification of geosensitive sites: Specific sites in the
Spiti Valley need to be identified and protected. The
unsolicited picking of fossils needs to be barred. Plaques
illustrating the geological importance of the location and
fossils need to be put up on all important geosites.
2. Training of guides: Travel agents and guides need to
be updated with the latest development in the field of
Geology in the area also be briefed with the importance
of the fossil wealth, and training should be extended
for the protected sites at regular intervals. Such sites
could be made a part of the tourist circuit of the Spiti
Valley or separate tours could be drafted focusing on
the geosensitive sites.
3. Outreach: The existence of such sites should not be kept
a secret but instead should be broadcasted by the means
of professional documentaries. Viewing of geological
formations should be the message of the outreach. This
could lead to an additional income source for the locals.
A problem arises when only the scientific experts are
asked for the outreach and conservation of the geoherit-
age sites while local participation is scarce. The locals hold
tremendous emotional and cultural values to their land and
for the conservation of the natural heritage. The collabora-
tion between the scientific, administrative, and local people
should be considered as a principal necessity (Erikstad 2013).
Inclusion of these geologically important sites into the cul-
ture of the land by writing inscriptions and poems in the local
language and making them part of their folklore will benefit
not only the local inhabitants but also the government.
Conclusion
The authors based on the field study and SWOT analysis
suggest the following points to enhance the geotourism in
the Spiti Valley of Higher and Tethys Himalaya with a view
to protect the valuable geological sections, preserve, and
protect the exclusive Jurassic and younger fossils.
1. Separate tourist circuit for Langza, Domel, Chichim,
and Kee may be framed with numbers of geological
sites description in English, Hindi, and Local Tibetan
languages in order to ease the local, Indian and inter-
national tourists.
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108 Page 7 of 11 108

Fig. 4  Geologically important

landscapes and sites. a) Unique
rock formations seen parallel
to the Spiti river. b) Weath-
ered rocks of the Spiti Shale
Formation act as an excellent
soil and are used for agricul-
ture. c) Bivalves collected
from the Spiti Shale Formation
near Demul in Spiti Valley.
d) Langza village exhibits huge
and massive blocks of Jurassic
age limestone which till date
contains life from the past in
form of fossils. e) Ammonites
collected from the Spiti Shale
Formation near Demul in Spiti
Valley

Fig. 5  Major monasteries in

Spiti Valley of India, which are
visited by tourists and the local
people all year round. a) Tabo
Monastery, b) Dhankar Mon-
astery (https://​vargi​skhan.​com/​
log/​dhank​ar-​monas​tery-​travel-​
guide/), c) Kaza Monastery
(https://​royte​llsta​les.​com/a-​
glimp​se-​of-​spiti-​valley-​in-​winte​
rs-a-​photo-​blog/), and d) Kee
Monastery

2. Separate pictorial brochure for each site mentioned 3. Based on the SWOT analysis, an awareness campaign
above may be prepared and propagated through vari- may be made in order to sensitize the local admin-
ous social media. istration and government officials. Using the same, a

13
 108 Page 8 of 11 Geoheritage (2023) 15:108

Table 2  SWOT analysis of the potential Jurassic Geoheritage sites in the Spiti Valley

Strengths
1. The Spiti Valley encompasses historically and culturally rich monasteries such as Tabo, Dhankar, Kaza, and Kee (historical/
cultural value)
2. Avenues to study paleontology, stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural geology, geomorphology, etc. and scope for further
research (scientific/educational values).
3. Availability of roads, state, local transportation, and communication (infrastructural values) hotels and home stays
4. Well-established tourist sites around all geosites (economic value)
Weaknesses
1. Lack of awareness among the local administration, locals, and tourists regarding the geoheritage values of the sites.
2. Tourist season is limited to the summer season only.
3. Loss of fossil heritage due to melted glacial waters and farmlands and also a collection of fossils as souvenirs by tourists.
4. Absence of fossil specimens in the state museum.
Opportunities
1. Local government can conserve the sites through a joint venture of GSI, state and local governments, or through geologists/
paleontologists.
2. Public awareness can be raised through modern methods such as television, social sites, and traditionally by school/college
events, hoardings, and brochures
3. An established local museum and fossil specimens in state museum too.
4. A training program by the local administration for the tour guides, regarding geosconservation and sustainable geotourism.
5. Opportunities for government and locals to sell geo-inspired products such as fossil replicas, t-shirts, and postcards
Threats
1. Undocumented collection of fossils by locals and tourists
2 Destruction/damage of geosites due to the construction of small dams and roads.
3. Lack of rules and regulations regarding geoconservation and self-sustainable development.
4. Unavailability of proper medical services and banking facilities

realistic picture of loss of environment and academic
treasure may be projected, and their remedial measures
may be suggested.
4. Considering the centuries work on geology of this region
and considering the academic and geological research
importance of Spiti Valley, the prime locations (Lagza,
Domel, Chichim, and Kee) may combinely be declared
as state government-run “Geopark.” Later on, strength-
ening the other aspects of ecology, environment, culture,
history, flora, and fauna, the documentation may be pre-
pared for UNESCO for the “Geopark.”
Acknowledgements We thank Franz T. Fürsich, Matthias Alberti,
Jorg Habermann, and Valzamaa Fürsich (Germany) for motivating and
accompanying in the field and the Alexander von Humboldt Founda-
tion for financial support in the framework of their Research Group
Linkage Programme. Furthermore, Shekhar Verma, Salil Agrawal,
Ajit Kumar, Aruna Pandey, and Rajesh Singh Shekhawat (Jaipur) and
Abha Singh (Lucknow) accompanied DKP in separate field sessions.
Bhawani Singh Desai (Gandhinagar) accompanied SAB and KC in the
field. The association of various field geologists in the field is greatly
acknowledged
Author Contribution KC and SAB designed the manuscript; GDC,
MGT, SB, and JMP helped in formulating the idea; DKP was instru-
mental during the field and also helped in making the manuscript.
Funding The visit to the Spiti Valley was funded by Alexander von
Humboldt Foundation through a Research Group Linkage Programme.
Declarations
Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests.
References
Ahluwalia AD (2006) Indian geoheritage, geodiversity: geosites and
geoparks. Curr Sci 91(10):1307
Alberti M, Fürsich FT, Pandey DK, Andersen N, Garbe-Schönberg
D, Bhosale S, Chaskar K, Habermann JM (2021) First record
of stable isotopes (δ13C, δ18O) and element ratios (Mg/Ca,
Sr/Ca) of Middle to Late Jurassic belemnites from the Indian
Himalayas and their potential for palaeoenvironmental recon-
structions. J Palaeogeogr 10(1):1–22
Anantharamu TR, Bellur D, Bhasker AA (2001) National geological
monuments. Geol Survey of India Special Publication 61(6):98
Bajpai SC (2002) Lahaul-Spiti: a forbidden land in the Himalayas.
Indus Publishing
Besch NF (2006) Tibetan medicine off the roads: modernizing
the work of the Amchi in Spiti. Dissertation. University of
Heidelberg
Bhargava ON (2008) An updated introduction to the Spiti geology.
J Palaeontol Soc India 53(2):113–128
Bhargava ON, Kathiara RS (1969) Montlivaltia sp. from the Triassic
of Spiti. Bull Indian Geol Assoc 2(3/4):123

13
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
Bhargava ON, Bassi UK (1985) Upper Triassic Coral Knoll Reefs:
Middle Norian, Spiti-Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India.
Facies 12:219–242
Bhargava ON, Bassi UK (1986) Silurian reefal buildups, Spiti-Kin-
naur, Himachal Himalaya, India. Facies 15:35–52
Bhargava ON, Bassi UK (1987) Algae from the Silurian Manchap
Formation, Tidong Valley (Kinnaur), Himachal Himalaya. J
Geol Soc India 29(5):500–502
Bhargava ON, Gadhoke SK (1988) Triassic microfauna of the Lilang
Group with special reference to Scythian–Anisian Conodonts,
Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh. J Geol Soc India 32(6):494–505
Bhatt DK, Joshi VK (1978a) Early Lower Triassic conodonts from Spiti
river section. Curr Sci 47(4):118–120
Bhatt DK, Joshi VK (1978b) A record of foraminifera from the Lower
Triassic Strata of Spiti, Tethys Himalaya. Curr Sci 47(10):348
Bhatt DK, Joshi VK, Arora RK (1981a) Neospathodus praekummeli -
a new species of conodont from Lower Triassic of Spiti. J Geol
Soc India 22:444–447
Bhatt DK, Joshi VK, Arora RK (1981b) Conodonts of the Otoceras bed
of Spiti. J Palaeontol Soc India 25:130–134
Bhosale S, Chaskar K, Pandey DK, Lakhote A, Thakkar A, Chauhan
G, Bhandari S, Thakkar MG (2021a) Jurassic geodiversity and
geomorphosite of Kanthkot area, Wagad, kachchh, western India.
Int J Geoheritage Parks 9(1):51–68
Bhosale S, Pandey DK, Fürsich FT, Alberti M, Chaskar K, Thakkar
MG (2021b) Palaeobiogeography of the Late Jurassic ammo-
nite genus Paraboliceras in the Indo-Pacific Realm and newly
collected material from Spiti Valley, India. Neues Jahrbuch für
Geologie und Paläontologie-Abhandlungen, pp 63–87
Biswas SK, Chauhan G (2021) The Kutch Rift Basin–potential loca-
tion for a national geopark of India. A monograph on potential
geoparks of India. Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural
Heritage (INTACH), New Delhi, pp 1–36
Biswas SK, Chauhan GD (2022) Intra-plate dynamics and active tec-
tonic zones of the Indian Plate. Adv Plate Tectonics. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​5772/​intec​hopen.​105647
Blanford HF (1863) On. Dr. Gerard’s collection of fossils from the
Spiti Valley, in the Asiatic Society’s Museum. J Asiat Soc Bengal
32:124–138
Brocx M, Semeniuk V (2007) Geoheritage and geoconservation-his-
tory, definition, scope and scale. J R Soc West Aust 90(2):53–87
Chauhan G, Biswas SK, Thakkar MG, Page K (2021) The unique
geoheritage of the Kachchh (Kutch) Basin, Western India, and
its conservation. Geoheritage 13:23. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s12371-​021-​00535-1
Chauhan NK, Chauhan G, Agrawal V, Thakkar MG (2023) Geo-
logical heritage and geotourism potential of Udaipur region,
Rajasthan, India. Geoheritage 15:10. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s12371-​022-​00773-x
Chavan A, Sarkar S, Thakkar A, Solanki J, Jani C, Bhandari S, Bhat-
tacharya S, Desai BG, Ray B, Shukla AD, Sajinkumar KS, Mitra
S, Gupta S, Chauhan G, Thakkar MG (2022) Terrestrial Martian
analog heritage of Kachchh Basin, Western India. Geoheritage
14:33. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s12371-​022-​00666-z
Chauhan GD, Biswas SK, Thakkar MG, Bhadari S, Desai BG (2016)
Kachchh Basin of Western India: a potential geo-park in South
Asia. In: 9th international geographical union (IGU) conference.
Abstract Volume, New Delhi
Dezes P (1999) Tectonic and metamorphic evolution of the central
Himalayan domain in southeast Zanskar (Kashmir, India). Mem
Geol Univ Lausanne 32:1–160
Diener C (1895) Cephalopoda of the Muschelkalk. Palaeontologia
Indica 2(2):188
Diener C (1897) Cephalopoda of the Lower Trias. Palaeontologia
Indica 2(1):181
Page 9 of 11 108
Diener C (1903) The Permian fossils of the Himalayas. Palaeontologia
Indica 1(5):204
Diener C (1907) Fauna of the Himalayan Muschelkalk. Palaeontologia
Indica 5(2):140
Diener C (1908) Ladinic, Carnic and Noric fauna of Spiti. Palaeonto-
logia Indica 5(3):157
Diener C (1912) The Trias of the Himalayas. Mem Geol Survey of
India 36:202–358
Diener C (1915) The Anthracolithic fauna of Kashmir, Kinnaur and
Spiti. Palaeontologia Indica 5(2):135
Dowling RK (2011) Geotourism’s global growth. Geoheritage
3(1):1–13
Dowling RK (2013) Global geotourism–an emerging form of sustain-
able tourism. Czech J Tourism 2(2):59–79
Dowling RK, Newsome D (2006) Geotourism. Elsevier, Oxford
Everest R (1841) Geological remarks made during a journey from
Delhi through the Himalaya mountains to the frontier of Little
Tibet. Proc Geol Society of London 3:66
Erikstad L (2013) Geoheritage and geodiversity management–the ques-
tions for tomorrow. Proc Geologists’ Assoc 124(4):713–719
Fürsich FT, Alberti M, Pandey DK, Chaskar K, Bhosale S (2021)
Facies analysis and palaeoecology of the Jurassic Spiti Shale
Formation in the Spiti area, Northern India. J Palaeogeography
10(4):438–462
Fürsich FT, Alberti M, Pandey DK, Ayoub-Hannaa WS (2022) Jurassic
bivalves from the Spiti area of the Himalayas, northern India.
Zitteliana 96:153–178
Gansser A (1980) The significance of the Himalayan suture zone. Tec-
tonophysics 62(1-2):37–52
Garzanti E, Jadoul F, Nicora A, Berra F (1995) Triassic of Spiti (Tethys
Himalaya, N India). Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigra-
fia 101(3)
Gerard JG (1833) Observations on the Spiti Valley. Asia Res 18(2):238
GGN (2010) Guideline and criteria for Canadian sites seeking geopark
designation within the Global Geopark Network (GGN). Cana-
dian Federation of Earth Science: 115–118
Goel RK (1977) Triassic conodonts from Spiti (Himachal Pradesh).
India. J Palaeontology 51(6):1085–1101
Goel RK, Srivastava SS (1978) Anisian microfossils from Guling,
Spiti. Nat Geogr Jour Ind 24(314):159–162
Goel RK, Zennineti L, Srivastava SS (1981) Les foraminiferes di
Laislon (T’rias Moyen) de la localite de Guling, Vallea de Spiti
(Himalaya Inde Septerlrionale). Arch Sc 34(2):227–234
Goel RK, Kozur H, Srivastava SS (1984) Middle Anisian (Pelsonian)
Ostracoda from Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), India. Geoscience J
2:53–62
Goel RK, Kato M, Jain AK, Srivastava SS (1987) Fauna from the Muth
Quartzite, Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Fac Sci Hokkaido Univ
22(2):247–257
Griesbach CL (1889) Geological notes - a sequence of formations in
Spiti. Rec Geol Survey of India 22:158–167
GSI (2012) Travel brochure on National Geological Monuments of
India: region south. Geological survey of India, Hyderabad, p 12
Hassan SS, Andrzej K, Einafshar A (2012) A tourism demand based
method of geosites assessment on prioritization modeling:
the case of Razavi Khorasan Province. J Hosp Manag Tour
3(5):82–94
Hayden HH (1904) The geology of Spiti with parts of Bashahr and
Rupshu. Mem Geol Survey of India 36(1):121
Hutton T (1839) Journal of trip through Kunawar, Hangrang and Spiti.
J Asiat Soc Bengal 8:901
Hutton T (1840) Journal of trip through Kunawar, Hangrans and Spiti.
J Asiat Soc Bengal 9:489
Hutton T (1841) Geological report on the Valley of Spiti. J Asiat Soc
Bengal 10:198
13
 108 Page 10 of 11
INTACH (2016) A monograph on National Geoheritage Monuments
of India. Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage,
New Delhi
Jahoda C (2015) Socio-economic organisation in a border area of
Tibetan culture: Tabo, Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh. Verlag
der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wein, India
Jain SP, Mannikeri MS (1975) Ostracoda from the Spiti Shales, Spiti
Valley. Himalayan Geology 5:133–138
Joshi AU, Gorania P, Limaye MA, Chauhan GD, Thakkar MG (2022)
Geoheritage values of the Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological
Park, UNESCO World Heritage Site, Gujarat, Western India.
Geoheritage 14(3):88
Kale VS (2014) Geomorphosites and geoheritage sites in India. In:
Kale VS (ed) Landscapes and landforms of India. Springer,
World Geomorphological Landscapes, 247–267
Kato M, Goel RK, Srivastava SS (1987) Ordoyician algae from Spiti.
J Fac Sci Hokkaido Univ 22(2):313–323
Kelley D, Page K, Quiroga D, Salazar R (2019) Geoheritage, geo-
tourism and conservation in the Galapagos Islands, geoheritage,
geoparks and geotourism. Springer. 1–183. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1007/​978-3-​030-​05915-6_1
Klimburg-Salter DE, Luczanits C (1997) Tabo : A lamp for the king-
dom : Early Indo-Tibetan Buddhist art in the western Himalaya.
Milan, Skira.
Krishna J (2017) The Indian Mesozoic chronicle: sequence strati-
graphic approach. Springer Singapore, pp 1–693
Krishna J, Kumar S, Singh IB (1982) Ammonoid stratigraphy of
the Spiti Shale (Upper Jurassic), Tethys Himalaya, India.
Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Montashefte
1982:580–592
Krishnanand RVAV (2019) Geographical analysis of geotourism
based seasonal economy in Lahaul and Spiti district of Himachal
Pradesh. GeoJ Tour Geosites Year XII 24(1):118–132
Kumar J (2011) Tourism potential and its impact in Himachal Pradesh
- a case study of Lahaul Spiti Kullu and Una Districts. Unpub-
lished Ph. D thesis, Himachal Pradesh University (https://​hdl.​
handle.​net/​10603/​120982)
McBriar M (1995) Foreword. In: Joyce EB (ed) A report prepared for
the Australian Heritage Commission by the Standing Commit-
tee for the Geological Heritage of the Geological. Society of
Australia Inc, Sydney, NSW
Mehrotra PC, Singh G, Kumar GA, Ahluwalia AD (1982) Chitinizoa
from Lower Palaegzoic sequence of Spiti, H.P., India. Geophytol-
ogy 12(1):111–116
Page KN (2018) Fossils, heritage and conservation: managing demands
on a precious resource. In: Geoheritage: assessment, protection,
and management, 128, p 107
Page KN, Wimbledon WA (2009) The conservation of Jurassic heritage
in the UK -a critical review of current practice and effectiveness.
Volumina Jurassica 6:163–173
Pandey DK, Wadhawan KS, Bhosale S (2022) Geoconservation
through geotourism around geologically significant sites and
desert landscapes in potential geopark in Jaisalmer Basin. West-
ern India. Geoheritage 14:108
Pandey S, Parcha SK (2013) Systematics, biometry of the species Opsi-
discus from the Middle Cambrian succession of the Spiti Basin,
India. J Geol Soc India 82:330–338
Pant PC, Azmi RJ (1983) A record of ostracodes from the middle Trias-
sic of Spiti, Himachal pradesh. Himalayan Geology 11:444–449
Parcha SK (1996) Cambrian sequences in the Tethyan zone of Spiti
Himalaya and its boundary problems. Newsletters on Stratig-
raphy 34:3–11
Parcha SK (1998) Biostratigraphy of the Middle Cambrian sequences
of Spiti Himalaya and its correlation with analogous sequences
in Kashmir Himalaya. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläon-
tologie-Abhandlungen 209:231–246
13
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
Parcha SK (2008) Himalayan trilobite fauna: present studies with
respect to the Cambrian biostratigraphy. In I. Ra´bano, R.
Gozalo, and D. Garcia-Bellido (eds.), Advances in Trilobite
Research. Cuadernos del Museo Geominero, No. 9. Instituto
Geologico y Minero de Espana, Madrid.
Parcha SK (2021) Stratigraphy and the fossil record of the Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic Tethyan sequences of North-western Himalaya.
Himalayan Geology 42(1):1–68
Parcha SK, Pandey S (2011) Ichnofossils and their significance in the
Cambrian successions of the Parahio Valley in the Spiti Basin,
Tethys Himalaya, India. J Asian Earth Sci 42(6):1097–1116
Parcha SK, Singh BP (2005) Palaeoecological significance of ichno-
fossils from the Early Cambrian succession of the Spiti Valley,
Tethys Himalaya, India. Current Science, pp 158–162
Pathak DB (1997) Ammonoid stratigraphy of the Spiti shale formation
in Spiti Himalaya, India. Geol Soc India 50(2):191–200
Pathak DB (2007) Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary in the Spiti Himalaya,
India. J Palaeontological Soc India 52(1):51–57
Pathak DB, Krishna J, Pandey B (2011) Differentiation of the signifi-
cant Late Valanginian (Early Cretaceous) transgressive event in
the Spiti Himalaya, India. J Asian Earth Sci 42(6):1226–1231
Ranga Rao A, Cl D, Ram Jokhan Rao SV, Shah SK (1984) Contribu-
tion to the stratigraphy of Spiti. Himalayan Geology 12:98–115
Ray A (2007) Tantric Buddhism and worldview in Spiti Valley: a case
study on nature-man interface. Anthropos India 3(2):116–180
Reddy DR (2013) Proceedings of national workshop and brainstorming
session on geoheritage: need for an Indian activism. Visakhapat-
nam, Department of Geology, Andhra University, pp 30–31
Reddy VS (2021) GIS based interactive maps for exploring the reli-
gious geography of Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh. Dissertation.
IIT Hyderabad
Reynard E (2004) Geosites. In: Goudie A (ed) Encyclopedia of geo-
morphology. Routledge, London
Shah SK, Paul S (1987) Oryctocephalid fauna from the Cambrian of
Spiti. J Geol Soc India 30(3):187–193
Sharma JP, Sharma J (1997) The conservation of monasteries in the
Western Himalayas. J Architectural Conserv 3(2):68–84
Shekhar S, Kumar P, Chauhan G, Thakkar MG (2019) Conserva-
tion and sustainable development of geoheritage, geopark, and
geotourism: a case study of Cenozoic successions of Western
Kachchh, India. Geoheritage 11(4):1475–1488
Sheth H, Samant H, Patel VD, Souza J (2017) The volcanic geoheritage
of the Elephanta caves, Deccan traps, Western India. Geoherit-
age 9:359–372
Singh A, Deori N, Pandey DK, Shekhawat RS, Verma P (2021)
Biostratigraphic implications of the calcareous nannofossils
from the Spiti Formation at Langza, Spiti Valley. In: Mesozoic
stratigraphy of India. Springer, Cham, pp 429–442
Singh RB, Anand S (2013) Geodiversity, geographical heritage and
geoparks in India. Int J Geoheritage 1:10–26
Stoliczka F (1864a) Fossils from Spiti. In: Verhandi KK (ed). Geologi-
cal Reichsanstalt
Stoliczka F (1864b) Geological section across the Himalayan mountain
range from Wangtu bridge on the river Sutlej to Sungdeo with
an account of the formations in Spiti accompanied by a revision
of all known fossils from that district. Memoirs of Geological
Survey of India 5:153
Stoliczka F (1868) On Jurassic deposits in the Northwest Himalaya.
Journal of Geological Society of India 24:506
Swarna K, Biswas SK, Harinarayana T (2013) Development of Geo-
tourism in Kutch region, Gujarat, India: an innovative approach. J
Environ Protect 4:1360–1372
Tobdan (2015) Spiti: a study in socio-cultural traditions. Kaveri Books,
New Delhi
Geoheritage (2023) 15:108
Tsering T (2014) Social inequality and resource management: gen-
der, caste and class in the rural Himalayas. University of British
Columbia, Vancouver
Thakkar A, Jadeja JM, Rajesh SV, Chavan A, Abhayan GS, Bhandari
S, Chauhan G, Thakkar MG (2022) Geoarchaeological herit-
age of Kachchh Region, Gujarat. Western India: geotour-
ism potentials Geoheritage 14:128. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s12371-​022-​00748-y
Thakkar MG, Chauhan G, Padder AH, Parcha SK, Sharma S, Thakur
VC, Dorjay CP (2023) Geoheritage merits of the Zanskar Range
of the Kashmir Himalaya: a field geology museum from Pre-
cambrian to Present. Geoheritage 15:75. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/​
s12371-​023-​00842-9
Uhlig V (1903-1910) Himalayan fossils. The fauna of the Spiti Shales.
Palaeontologica Indica, 15(4):1-132, 18 pi. (1903); 2-3, pp. 133-
395, 76 pi. (1910), Calcutta
Page 11 of 11 108
UNESCO - United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
zation (2016) UNESCO global geoparks. Celebrating earth herit-
age, sustaining local communities. UNESCO, Paris http://​www.​
unesco.​org/​new/​en/​natur​alsci​ences/​envir​onment/​earth-​scien​ces/​
unesco-​global-​geopa​rks/
Verma VS (2016) Tabo Monastery, conservation, challenges and the
climate change. Indian 63(1):43
von Kraft A (1899) Spiti fossils. Geological Survey of India:11–22
von Kraft A (1900) Stratigraphical notes on the Mesozoic rocks of
Spiti. Geological Survey of India:199–229
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds
exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the
author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of
such publishing agreement and applicable law.
13