10 Contributions made by Ancient Indians to the world of Science and Technology

The Idea of Zero

 Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a symbol for zero and it was
through his efforts that mathematical operations like addition and subtraction started using
the digit, zero.
 The concept of zero and its integration into the place-value system also enabled one to write
numbers, no matter how large, by using only ten symbols.

The Decimal System

 India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols – the
decimal system.
 In this system, each symbol received a value of position as well as an absolute value.
 Due to the simplicity of the decimal notation, which facilitated calculation, this system made
the uses of arithmetic in practical inventions much faster and easier.

Numeral Notations
 Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of different symbols for every number
from one to nine.
 This notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it the hind numerals.
 Centuries later, this notation system was adopted by the western world who called them the
Arabic numerals as it reached them through the Arab traders

Fibonacci Numbers
 The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in Indian mathematics as
mātrāmeru, mentioned by Pingala in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody.
 Later on, the methods for the formation of these numbers were given by mathematicians
Virahanka, Gopala and Hemacandra , much before the Italian mathematician Fibonacci
introduced the fascinating sequence to Western European mathematics.

Binary Numbers
 Binary numbers are the basic language in which computer programs are written.
 Binary basically refers to a set of two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are called
bits and bytes.
 The binary number system was first described by the Vedic scholar Pingala, in his book
Chandahśāstra, which is the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody ( the study of poetic
metres and verse)

Ruler Measurements
 Excavations at Harappans sites have yielded rulers or linear measures made from ivory and
shell.
 Marked out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, the calibrations correspond
closely with the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used in the ancient
architecture of South India.
 Ancient bricks found at the excavation sites have dimensions that correspond to the units on
these rulers.

A Theory of Atom
 One of the notable scientists of the ancient India was Kanad who is said to have devised the
atomic theory centuries before John Dalton was born.
 He speculated the existence of anu or a small indestructible particles, much like an atom. He
also stated that anu can have two states — absolute rest and a state of motion.
 He further held that atoms of same substance combined with each other in a specific and
synchronized manner to produce dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (triatomic
molecules).
The Heliocentric Theory
 Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their mathematical knowledge to make
accurate astronomical predictions.
 The most significant among them was Aryabhatta whose book, Aryabhatiya, represented the
pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time.
 He correctly propounded that the Earth is round, rotates on its own axis and revolves
around the Sun i.e the heliocentric theory.
 He also made predictions about the solar and lunar eclipses, duration of the day as well as
the distance between the Earth and the Moon.

Wootz Steel
 A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz steel is a crucible steel
characterized by a pattern of bands that was known in the ancient world by many different
names such as Ukku, Hindwani and Seric Iron.
 Produced by the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty, the finest steel of the ancient world was made
by heating black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible kept inside
a charcoal furnace.

Smelting of Zinc
 India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique derived
from a long experience of ancient alchemy.
 Zawar in the Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the world’s first known ancient zinc smelting site.
 The distillation technique of zinc production goes back to the 12th Century AD and is an
important contribution of India to the world of science.

Plastic Surgery
 Written by Sushruta in 6th Century BC, Sushruta Samhita is considered to be one of the most
comprehensive textbooks on ancient surgery.
 The text mentions various illnesses, plants, preparations and cures along with complex
techniques of plastic surgery.
 The Sushruta Samhita ’s most well-known contribution to plastic surgery is the
reconstruction of the nose, known also as rhinoplasty.

Ayurveda
 Long before the birth of Hippocrates, Charaka authored a foundational text,
Charakasamhita, on the ancient science of Ayurveda.
 Referred to as the Father of Indian Medicine, Charaka was the first physician to present the
concept of digestion, metabolism and immunity in his book.
 Charaka’s ancient manual on preventive medicine remained a standard work on the subject
for two millennia and was translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and
Latin.

Iron-Cased Rockets
 The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s by Tipu Sultan of Mysore who
successfully used these rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company
during the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
 He crafted long iron tubes, filled them with gunpowder and fastened them to bamboo poles
to create the predecessor of the modern rocket.
 With a range of about 2 km, these rockets were the best in the world at that time and
caused as much fear and confusion as damage.
 Due to them, the British suffered one of their worst ever defeats in India at the hands of
Tipu.
SUSHRUTA SAMHITA
The Sushruta Samhita is an ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery attributed to Sushruta,
who is often considered the "Father of Surgery" in ancient Indian medical history. It is one of the
earliest texts that provide detailed information about surgical procedures, anatomy, and various
aspects of medicine. The Sushruta Samhita is believed to have been composed around 600 BCE to
200 CE.

Within the Sushruta Samhita, there is a significant section dedicated to surgical techniques, including
plastic surgery. Two types of plastic surgery procedures described in the Sushruta Samhita are:

1. Rhinoplasty (Nasal Reconstruction): This is one of the most famous plastic surgery procedures
described in the Sushruta Samhita. Sushruta detailed the surgical technique for reconstructing a
nose that had been amputated or damaged due to various reasons, such as punishment, disease, or
injury. The procedure involved creating a flap of skin from the patient's cheek or forehead and using
it to form a new nose. The skin flap was carefully shaped and sutured into place, allowing the patient
to regain their nasal structure and appearance.

2. Repair of Torn Earlobes: Another plastic surgery procedure mentioned in the Sushruta Samhita
involves repairing torn earlobes, often caused by wearing heavy earrings or other traumas.
Sushruta's technique involved suturing the torn earlobe to restore its natural shape and appearance.
This procedure was likely quite common in ancient India due to the prevalent use of earrings and
other ear ornaments.

These plastic surgery procedures described in the Sushruta Samhita were remarkable for their time
and demonstrate the advanced knowledge and surgical skills of ancient Indian physicians. They laid
the foundation for many modern plastic surgery techniques and are considered important
contributions to the history of medicine and surgery.

Explain baudhayana method of constructing a square

The Baudhayana method of constructing a square is an ancient geometric technique attributed to
the Indian mathematician and scholar Baudhayana, who lived around 800 BCE. This method is one of
the earliest known procedures for constructing a square with an area equal to that of a given circle.

Start with a Circle: Begin with the given circle, and let's denote its radius as "r."

Draw a Square Inside the Circle: Inside the given circle, draw a square with its corners touching the
circle. This square will be inscribed within the circle, meaning its sides are tangent to the circle at
four points.

Construct a Second Square: Now, construct another square outside the circle. The side length of this
outer square will be equal to the diameter of the circle, which is twice the radius (2r).

Bisect the Sides: Bisect the sides of both squares, creating eight equally spaced points along the
sides of the squares.

Connect the Points: Connect the corresponding points on the inner and outer squares. This will
create an octagon (eight-sided polygon) with the given circle inscribed within it and the outer square
circumscribing it.

Find the Side Length of the Square: The side length of the square that has the same area as the given
circle is approximately equal to the distance between two opposite points where the octagon
intersects the outer square.

Construct the Square: Finally, construct a square with the side length determined in step This square
will have the same area as the given circle.
Derive the methods for obtaining perpendicular bisector
The perpendicular bisector of a line segment is a line that passes through the midpoint of the
segment and is perpendicular to it.

Geometric Construction

How Indians contributed towards the approximation to pi

Indian mathematicians made significant contributions to the approximation of π (pi) in ancient
times. One of the most notable contributions came from the Indian mathematician and astronomer
Aryabhata, who lived around 476-550 CE. Aryabhata provided an approximation of π in his work
"Aryabhatiya."

Aryabhata's approximation of π:
He gave an approximate value of π as follows:
π ≈ 3.1416

This value is remarkably close to the true value of π (3.14159265...). Aryabhata's work in
mathematics and astronomy was highly influential and laid the foundation for many later
developments in Indian mathematics.

Additionally, Indian mathematicians used various geometric methods to approximate π. The ancient
Indian mathematician Bhaskara I (around 600 CE) used the method of inscribing regular polygons
inside and outside a circle to approximate π. He calculated π more accurately as follows:

π ≈ 3.14159265359

These early approximations to π by Indian mathematicians were remarkable considering the limited
mathematical tools and computational methods available at the time.

Who is called as the father of Plastic Surgery?

Sushruta is considered the "Father of Plastic Surgery." He lived in India sometime between 1000 and
800 BC.

How many diseases were documented in Sushruta Samhita?

1,120 illnesses were documented
Explain the manufacturing process of seamless celestral globle with neat sketch
Manufacturing a seamless celestial globe is a complex and intricate process that involves several
steps.

Selection of Materials: The first step is to choose suitable materials for the celestial globe. Typically,
these globes are made from high-quality metals like brass or aluminum. The choice of material may
vary based on the desired finish and durability.

Blank Preparation: A spherical blank is created from the chosen material. This blank is essentially a
solid sphere, and its size depends on the desired diameter of the celestial globe. Precision machining
or casting processes are used to create this blank.

Surface Smoothing: The surface of the blank is then meticulously smoothed and polished to
eliminate any imperfections or irregularities. This step is crucial to achieve a seamless appearance
and ensure accurate celestial mapping.

Engraving and Marking: The celestial markings, including constellations, stars, and other celestial
features, are engraved onto the surface of the blank. This requires incredible precision and attention
to detail. Engraving can be done manually by skilled artisans or through automated CNC (Computer
Numerical Control) machines.

Painting and Coloring: The engraved celestial features are often painted or colored to make them
stand out and provide visual clarity. This step adds aesthetic value and enhances the overall
appearance of the celestial globe.

Adding the Globe Stand: The celestial globe is typically mounted on a stand that allows it to be
displayed and rotated easily. The stand can be made from the same material as the globe or a
different complementary material like wood or marble.

Quality Control: Rigorous quality control checks are performed to ensure the accuracy of the
celestial markings, the seamless appearance, and the overall quality of the globe.

Final Finishing: The celestial globe undergoes a final finishing process, which includes additional
polishing and protective coatings to preserve its appearance and prevent tarnishing.

Packaging and Presentation: The finished celestial globe is carefully packaged to prevent any damage
during transportation and to maintain its pristine condition. It is then ready for presentation and
sale.

Manufacturing a seamless celestial globe is a labor-intensive and specialized process that demands a
high degree of craftsmanship and precision. Each step must be executed with great care to create a
stunning and accurate representation of the night sky

How ancient Indians done the smelting of zinc in zawar and explain it with neat sketch?.(10)
The smelting of zinc in ancient India, particularly in the region of Zawar in present-day Rajasthan, is a
fascinating historical process. This ancient zinc smelting technique, which dates back to at least the
6th century BCE, is one of the earliest known methods for producing zinc metal.

Here's a simplified explanation of how the smelting of zinc was done in Zawar:

1. Ore Selection: The process began with the selection of zinc ore, which primarily consisted of zinc
carbonate (ZnCO3) or zinc silicate (Zn2SiO4). These ores were often found in the Zawar region.
2. Roasting: The selected zinc ores were first subjected to a process called roasting. Roasting
involved heating the ores in open-air furnaces to convert the zinc compounds into zinc oxide (ZnO).
This step released carbon dioxide (CO2) and other impurities, leaving behind zinc oxide.

3. Reduction: Once the zinc oxide was obtained, it was mixed with carbon-rich materials, such as
charcoal or carbonaceous plant matter. This mixture was then heated in a vertical retort or furnace.
The key chemical reaction that occurred during this stage is known as the carbothermal reduction
reaction:

ZnO + C → Zn (vapor) + CO (carbon monoxide)

This reaction released zinc vapor, which was then collected and condensed into solid zinc metal as it
passed through a cooling system. The zinc vapor was condensed and collected as molten zinc in a
condensation chamber.

4. Collection: The collected zinc metal was typically in the form of small ingots or crystalline
structures. These were then further processed to remove any impurities.

5. Further Purification: The obtained zinc metal could still contain impurities like lead or cadmium. It
was often subjected to additional purification steps, such as distillation or re-smelting, to obtain
high-purity zinc.

The uniqueness of the ancient Indian zinc smelting process in Zawar lies in its early discovery and
mastery, as well as the advanced knowledge of chemistry and metallurgy that was applied. It was a
significant achievement in ancient metallurgy and contributed to the development of various alloys,
including brass (a mixture of zinc and copper), which had widespread use in antiquity.

Traditional Water Conservation Systems of India

Jackwells - The Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands uses this system, in which bamboos are
placed under trees to collect runoff water from leaves and carries it to jackwells which are pits
encircled by bunds made from logs of hard wood.

Pat system – It is developed in Madhya Pradesh, in which the water is diverted from hill streams into
irrigation channels by diversion bunds. They are made across the stream by piling up stones and teak
leaves and mud.

Eri – It is tank system, widely used in Tamil Nadu which acts as floodcontrol systems, prevent soil
erosion and wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall, and also recharge the groundwater.

Johads – They are small earthern check dams used to conserve and recharge ground water, mainly
constructed in an area with naturally high elevation.

Panam keni – The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad) uses wooden cylinders as a special type
of well, which are made by soaking the stems of toddy palms and immersed in groundwater springs.

Ahar Pynes – They are traditional floodwater harvesting systems indigenous (The meaning of
INDIGENOUS is produced, growing, living, or occurring natively or naturally in a particular region or
environment.) to South Bihar. Ahars are reservoirs with embankments on three sides and Pynes are
artificial rivulets led off from rivers to collect water in the ahars for irrigation in the dry months.

Jhalara - Jhalaras are typically rectangular-shaped stepwells that have tiered steps on three or four
sides in the city of Jodhpur.

Bawari - Bawaris are unique stepwells that were once a part of the ancient networks of water
storage in the cities of Rajasthan.
Taanka - It is a cylindrical paved underground pit into which rainwater from rooftops, courtyards or
artificially prepared catchments flows. It is indigenous to the Thar Desert region of Rajasthan.

Khadin – Also called dhora, is a long earthen embankment that is built across the hill slopes of
gravelly uplands. It is indigenous to Jaisalmer region and similar to the irrigation methods of Ur
region (Present Iraq).

Kund – It is a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the central circular
underground well. It is found in the sandier tracts of western Rajasthan and Gujarat

Explain about the iron pillar of Mehrauli in detail.

It is famous for the rust-resistant composition of the metals used in its construction
 The pillar weighs more than 6 tonnes and is thought to have been erected elsewhere, perhaps
outside the Udayagiri Caves, and moved to its present location by Anangpal Tomar in 11th century.
 An iron pillar near the Qutub Minar in Mehrauli, in Delhi, was built by an ironsmith circa 400 BC.
 This iron pillar stands 8 metres tall and weighs 6 tonnes (1 ton =1000 kg).
 Even after centuries, the pillar is in good condition and has not rusted. This demonstrates that our
forefathers devised a method to prevent rusting.
 According to studies, o it has a layer of iron oxide on its surface. o At the moment of its
development, they had mingled phosphorus. o It had been painted with a mixture of different
substances and had been exposed to a lot of heat. o Apart from Delhi, antique metal work may be
seen in the Sun temple in Konark in Odisha; Mookambika temple in Kollur, Karnataka; and Dhar,
Madhya Pradesh. o Iron and its alloys are widely utilised in the building of a wide range of structures,
as well as in a wide range of equipment and objects. As a result, iron corrosion avoidance is quite
vital.
 The following are some preventative measures: o Some iron alloys are rust-resistant. o Stainless
steel (which has a coating of chromium(III) oxide) and weathering steel are two examples. o When
compared to conventional steel, COR-TEN steel rusts at a slower pace. o The rust in this alloy
provides a protective layer on the alloy's surface, preventing additional corrosion.
 Galvanization is the process of coating a metal with a protective layer of zinc. It is a standard way
of protecting iron from rusting. This can be accomplished by either dipping the metal to be
protected in hot, molten zinc or electroplating it. It has been shown for 150 years that coating iron
and steel with molten zinc protects them from corrosion.
The zinc coating protects the part's surface from corrosion and weathering by shielding it from the
elements.
 Galvanization extends the life of steel parts by establishing a membrane between the metal and
the air, which prevents iron oxide from developing on the steel layer.
 Galvanization also provides greater corrosion protection to parts that are exposed to the elements.
 The galvanizing process consists of three basic steps, namely:- (i) Surface preparation (ii) Fuxing (iii)
Galvanizing
 Galvanizing protects against rust in several ways: It acts as a barrier, preventing corrosive
chemicals from reaching the steel or iron beneath.
 The zinc acts as a sacrificial anode, meaning that even if the coating is damaged, the exposed steel
is still protected by the zinc that remains.

Physics – Kanad – Anu

 In the Vedic period, the great philosopher Kanad authored the Veseshik Sutra which is basic
nuclear physics for scientists of the West. He propounded the atomic theory of Veseshik philosophy.
 He gave the concept that atom combines together to make molecules. He ate Tandual particles
(Sama rice in Hindi) during his meditation that made his name ‘Kanad’. He was the originator of the
particle-molecule theory and hence called Kanad.
 Maharshi Kanad was a great philosopher. He was famous because he has contributed a lot in the
Structure of atoms and atomic theory of matter. To explain his theory he applied logic and realism.
 The idea of atomic structure given by Maharshi Kanad explains units of matter as atoms (
parmanu) that are the smallest particles that can retain their original form under any circumstances
and situations and cannot be destroyed.
 Some of the points of the atomic theory given by Kannad are as follows;
1.He called atom as Parmanu and said that an atom can have two States, a state of absolute rest and
state of motion
2.Parmanu combine with each other to form a molecule
3.Parmanu is not visible to the naked eye
4.Parmanu who is indestructible and that is eternal
5.It cannot be further divided and thus is indivisible
6.Anything that subdivides results in the creation of atoms or Parmanu after sometime, these
Parmanu are the smallest things existing.
7.The basis for all the material science is Parmanu or atom.
Maharshi Kanad was the founder of the school of Vedic philosophy known as Vaisheshika. The
creation and existence of this universe was explained by this school by proposing an atomic theory
which was discovered by Maharshi Kanada 2600 years ago.
Kanad, an ancient sage, formulated the atomic theory known as Vaisheshika in the 6th century BCE.
He postulated that matter is composed of indivisible particles called “anu” or atoms.
 Kanad’s atomic theory was centuries ahead of its time and anticipated several concepts later
confirmed by modern atomic physics.
List out the different type of water conservation system used by ancient times
Ancient civilizations employed various water conservation systems to ensure a stable water supply
for their communities. These systems were often ingenious and environmentally sustainable. Here
are some different types of water conservation systems used in ancient times:

Qanat System: Originating in Persia (modern-day Iran), qanats are underground tunnels that tap into
groundwater sources, allowing for the efficient transport of water over long distances while reducing
evaporation.

Stepwells: Common in India, stepwells are deep wells with a series of steps leading down to the
water level. They allowed for access to groundwater even during dry seasons and also served as
gathering places.

Aqueducts: Ancient Rome is famous for its aqueducts, which were raised channels or bridges that
transported water from distant sources, such as springs or rivers, to cities for public use, agriculture,
and sanitation.

Terraced Farming: In hilly or mountainous regions, terraced farming involved creating stepped fields
that reduced soil erosion and retained rainwater for crops.

Rainwater Harvesting: Various ancient cultures, including those in the Indus Valley and
Mesopotamia, collected rainwater in specially designed catchment systems, such as cisterns and
rooftop collection systems.

Ziggurats: In Mesopotamia, ziggurats were large, stepped pyramids with cisterns at the top to collect
and store rainwater for religious ceremonies and public use.

Ponds and Reservoirs: Ancient civilizations like the Maya and the Khmer Empire (Angkor Wat)
constructed reservoirs and ponds to store water during the rainy season for use during dry periods.

Canals and Dams: Civilizations like the ancient Egyptians used canals and small dams to redirect and
store river water for irrigation and agriculture.

Wadi Farming: In arid regions like North Africa, people cultivated crops in wadis (seasonal riverbeds)
by utilizing the moisture-retaining qualities of the soil and taking advantage of occasional flash
floods.

What are the the major archeological discoveries that provide insights into Indus valley civilization
Some major archaeological discoveries that have provided insights into the Indus Valley Civilization
include:

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro: These two ancient cities are among the most significant discoveries and
give their name to the civilization. They reveal well-planned streets, advanced drainage systems, and
evidence of a highly organized urban society.

Seals and Script: Thousands of seals have been found, featuring pictographic script that is yet to be
fully deciphered. These seals suggest the existence of a writing system and provide valuable
information about trade and administration.

Artifacts: Numerous artifacts, such as pottery, jewelry, figurines, and tools, have been unearthed,
shedding light on the culture, craftsmanship, and daily life of the people of the Indus Valley.
Great Bath: Mohenjo-Daro is home to a remarkable structure known as the "Great Bath." It is a large
public bathing area, possibly of religious significance, showcasing the civilization's architectural and
engineering prowess.

Urban Planning: The layout of the cities with grid-like streets, well-organized buildings, and a
centralized sewage system highlights the advanced urban planning of the civilization.

Agricultural Practices: Discoveries of granaries and evidence of wheat and barley cultivation indicate
a sophisticated agricultural system.

Trade and Contacts: Artifacts from the Indus Valley have been found in Mesopotamia, suggesting
extensive trade and cultural connections with other ancient civilizations.

Decline and Abandonment: Evidence of the decline and eventual abandonment of many Indus Valley
cities has also been uncovered, though the exact reasons for this decline remain a subject of debate
among historians and archaeologists.

These discoveries collectively provide valuable insights into the social, economic, and cultural
aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization, which thrived around 2600-1900 BCE in what is now India
and Pakistan.

What are the needs in understanding the rich heritage of ancient science and technology?
Historical Perspective
Cultural Appreciation
Innovation and Inspiration
Environmental and Sustainability Lessons

How ancient Indians measure the length of the year?

'Nakshatra', 'Savana', 'Lunar' and 'Saura

How does the statement rigveda confine the concept of gravity?

The gravitational effect of Solar System keeps the earth stable. The Rigveda, as a religious and
mythological text, does not directly address the concept of gravity as understood in contemporary
physics

What are the primary reasons for development of the water conservation system
The primary reasons for the development of water conservation systems are:

Resource Scarcity: Water is a finite and essential resource, and in many regions, there is a scarcity of
fresh water. Water conservation helps ensure a sustainable supply for current and future
generations.

Environmental Protection: Conserving water helps protect aquatic ecosystems, reduces the energy
required for water treatment and distribution, and minimizes the environmental impact of
extracting and using water resources.

Drought Mitigation: Water conservation measures are crucial during droughts to ensure that
essential water needs, such as for agriculture and drinking, are met when natural water sources are
depleted.

Reducing Water Bills: Implementing water-saving practices can lead to lower water bills for
individuals, businesses, and municipalities, resulting in cost savings.
Energy Savings: Treating and transporting water consumes a significant amount of energy.
Conserving water reduces this energy consumption, contributing to lower greenhouse gas emissions
and energy costs.

Infrastructure Pressure: Growing populations and urbanization put stress on water infrastructure.
Water conservation helps alleviate this pressure by reducing the demand for costly infrastructure
expansion.

Climate Change Resilience: Climate change is altering precipitation patterns and increasing the
frequency of extreme weather events. Water conservation measures can enhance a community's
resilience to these changes.

Regulatory Compliance: Many regions have water use regulations and restrictions, and conservation
practices are often required to comply with these regulations.

Public Awareness: Promoting water conservation encourages a culture of responsible water use,
leading to long-term behavioral changes and sustainable practices.

Long-Term Sustainability: Water conservation is essential for ensuring a sustainable and reliable
water supply for future generations, as global population growth and environmental pressures
continue to increase.

Overall, the development of water conservation systems addresses these reasons to protect this
vital resource and ensure its availability for a growing and changing world.