Estravo, Leegerald U.

BES03
BS ECE III-GG Engr. Clarizza S. Javier

1. Name the two atomic models cited and note the differences between them.
The Bohr model, proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913, describes the atom as a small, positively charged
nucleus surrounded by electrons that orbit the nucleus in circular paths. This model assumes that electrons move
in fixed, discrete energy levels or orbits, and that they can only absorb or emit energy as they transition between
these levels. While this model is useful for understanding basic atomic properties and chemical bonding, it is
limited in its ability to fully explain the behavior of electrons.
The wave-mechanical model describes the behavior of electrons using wave functions, which are
mathematical descriptions of the probability of finding an electron at a particular location around the nucleus.
The wave-mechanical model also recognizes the existence of electron spin and the fact that electrons can have
both wave-like and particle-like properties. This model provides a more complete understanding of atomic
behavior and is the basis for modern chemistry and material science.
To summarize, the main difference between the Bohr and the wave-mechanical model is that the Bohr
model is a simple, classical model that assumes fixed electron orbits, while the wave-mechanical model is a
more complex, mathematically based model that considers the probabilistic behavior of electrons in terms of
wave functions.
2. Describe the important quantum-mechanical principle that relates to electron energies.
The Pauli exclusion principle, which is a quantum mechanical concept used to determine the manner in
which electron states are filled with electrons. The principle states that each electron state can hold no more
than two electrons, which must have opposite spins. Therefore, each subshell (s, p, d, and f) can accommodate a
maximum of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively. It also notes that not all possible states in an atom are filled
with electrons. In most atoms, the electrons fill up the lowest possible energy states in the electron shells and
subshells, two electrons (having opposite spins) per state. An atom is said to be in its ground state when all
electrons occupy the lowest possible energies in accord with the foregoing restrictions. The electron
configuration or structure of an atom represents the manner in which these states are occupied. In the
conventional notation, the number of electrons in each subshell is indicated by a superscript after the
shell-subshell designation. The passage also notes that electron transitions to higher energy states are possible,
which are discussed in future chapters.
Overall, the Pauli exclusion principle is important in determining the electron configuration and
structure of atoms, which plays a critical role in understanding the physical and chemical properties of
materials.
 3. (a) Schematically plot attractive, repulsive, and net energies versus interatomic separation for two atoms
or ions.
(b) Note on this plot the equilibrium separation and the bonding energy

4. (a) Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen, and van der Waals bonds.
(b) Note which materials exhibit each of these bonding types.
Ionic bonding occurs between metallic and nonmetallic elements. In this type of bonding, atoms of a
metallic element lose their valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms, resulting in the formation of positively
charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions). The opposite charges of the ions attract each other,
creating an ionic bond.Ionic bonds are found in many compounds, including salts, oxides, and some minerals.
Sodium chloride (NaCl), for example, is a compound formed by the ionic bonding between sodium cations
(Na+) and chloride anions (Cl-).
Covalent bonding occurs between nonmetallic elements. In this type of bonding, atoms share electrons
to attain stable electron configurations. Covalent bonds can be single, double, or triple bonds depending on the
number of electrons shared. Covalent bonding is directional, meaning it exists only between specific atoms that
participate in electron sharing. Covalent bonds are typically found in non-metallic elements and compounds,
such as water (H2O), methane (CH4), and nitrogen gas (N2).
Metallic bonding occurs between metals and their alloys. In this type of bonding, the valence electrons
of the atoms are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are free to move throughout the material. This
creates a "sea" of delocalized electrons that hold the atoms together in a metallic lattice structure. Metallic
bonds occur between atoms of metallic elements, such as copper, gold, and iron.
Van der Waals bonds, also known as secondary or physical bonds, are relatively weak compared to
primary or chemical bonds, with bonding energies typically around 10 kJ/mol (0.1 eV/atom). These bonds exist
between virtually all atoms or molecules, but their presence may be less noticeable if primary bonding types are
present. For example, van der Waals bonding is evidenced in inert gases, which have stable electron structures,
and in molecular structures that are covalently bonded.