(EN-312) Integrated

Electronics
Feedback &
Oscillator Circuits

By Dr. Yaseer A. Durrani

Dept. of Electronics Engineering
University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila

Outline
❑ Feedback Concepts
❑ Feedback Connection Types
❑ Practical Feedback Circuits
❑ Frequency Amplifier-Phase & Frequency
❑ Phase-Shift Oscillator
❑ Tuned Oscillator Circuit

1
 Feedback Concepts
❑ What is feedback?
Taking a portion of signal arriving at load and feeding it back to input
❑ What is negative feedback?
Adding f/b signal to input so as to partially cancel the input signal to
amplifier

❑ Doesn’t feedback reduce the gain?

Yes, this is the price we pay for using feedback
❑ Why use feedback?
Provides a series of benefits, such as improved bandwidth, that outweigh
the costs in lost gain and increased complexity in amplifier design

Vs + Vi
Amplifier
Vo
-

Vf
β

Feedback Amplifier 3

Feedback
❑ Feedback plays an important role in electronic circuits
❑ To improve its performance and to make it more ideal
❑ Signal are in phase - Positive feedback
❑ Signal are out of phase - Negative feedback
❑ At input ,we have two signal
– Input signal
– Feedback signal

2
 Feedback
❑ Consists of returning part of output of system to input
❑ Negative Feedback: a portion of output signal is returned to input in
opposition to the original input signal
– Reduces & Stabilizes gain
– Reduces non linear distortion
– Reduces certain types of noise
– Higher input impedance
– Improve frequency response
– Controls I/O impedances
– Extends bandwidth
❑ Disadvantage:
– Loss of gain, may require an added gain stage to compensate.
– Added complexity in design

❑ Positive Feedback: Feedback signal aids the original input signal

– Positive feedback provides an easy way to obtain large gain
– It leads to poor gain stability , a slight shift in power supply Or temp
can change the magnitude of loop gain to unity & cause the Amplifier
to break into oscillation

Feedback amplifier circuit

A
Af = -ve feedback (Af<A)
1 + A Af: Closed loop gain
Aβ: Open loop gain
A
Af = +ve feedback (Af>A) A: Loop gain
1 − A

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 Types of Feedback
❑ Basic types of feedback:
– Voltage series f/b
– Current series f/b
– Voltage shunt f/b
– Current shunt f/b
❑ Units of  are inverse of units of amplifier gain
❑ Voltage series f/b: A=Av and  is unit less
❑ Current series f/b: A=Gm and  is in W
❑ Voltage shunt f/b: A=Rm and  is in Siemens
❑ Current shunt f/b: A=Ai and  is unit less

Basic types of feedback amplifiers

❑ There are four basic types of feedback amplifiers. Why?
– Output sampled can be Current or Voltage
– Quantity f/b to input can be Current or Voltage
– Four possible combinations of type of output sampling and input f/b

❑ One particular type of amplifier, e.g. voltage amplifier, current amplifier, etc.
is used for each one of four types of feedback amplifiers

❑ Feedback factor is a different type of quantity, e.g. voltage ratio, resistance,

current ratio or conductance, for each feedback configuration

❑ Before analyzing f/b amplifier’s performance, we need to start by recognizing

type or configuration

❑ Terminology used to name types of f/b amplifier, e.g. Series-shunt

– First term refers to nature of f/b connection at input
– Second term refers to nature of sampling connection at output

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 Effects of various types of feedback on gain
Af =
x0
=
A Gain Stabilization
xs 1 + A
•Ifwe design the amplifier so that Ab >> 1, then
v0 Av closed loop gain Af is approximately 1/b
Avf = =
vs 1 + Av
•Under this condition Af depends only on stable
passive components (R or C) used in f/b network,
x0 Gm instead of depending on open loop gain A which in
Gmf = =
xs 1 + Gm turn depends on active device parameters (gm)
which tend to be highly variable with operating point
and temperature
x0 Rm
Rmf = =
xs 1 + Rm

x0 Ai
Aif = =
xs 1 + Ai

Feedback Connection types

Voltage-Series f/b Voltage-Shunt f/b
Ii
+ +
Vo + Vo +
Vs AC
Vi A= Vo RL Is Vi A= Vo RL
- Vi - Ii
- -

I f = Vo

Vf If
V f = Vo + = =
- Vo Vo

Current-Series f/b
+
Current-Shunt f/b
I Io = IL
Vs AC
Vi A= o RL
- Vi +
I
Is Vi A= o RL
- Ii

I f = I o
Vf
V f = I o + =
- Io
If
=
Io

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5
 Feedback Connection- Ideal Case
Voltage-Series f/b Voltage-Shunt f/b
Ii
+
Vo +
Vi +
Vs AC A= Vo RL Vo +
- Vi - Is Vi A= Vo RL
- Ii -

I f = Vo
Vf
V f = Vo + = If
- Vo =
Vo

A
Af = A
1 + A Af =
1 + A
Vs
Z if = = Z i + (A)Z i = Z i (1 + A) Zi
Ii Z if =
1 + A
V Z
Z of = = o
I 1 + A
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Feedback Connection- Ideal Case

Current-Series f/b
+
Io
Vs AC
Vi A= RL
- Vi

Vf
V f = I o + =
- Io

= Z o (1 + A)
V
Z of =
I

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 Summary (Effects on feedback)

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Basic feedback
◼ Feedback amplifier in which output signal is sampled & f/b to input to form
Error signal that derive amplifier
◼ Depending type, variable, x, y, z are either V or I
◼ Non-inverting amplifier: Summing junction at inputs subtracts f/b signal
[E=x–βy]
◼ Inverting amplifier: Summing junction at input signal adds f/b signal
[E=x+βy]

Non inverting f/b amp Inverting f/b amp

-ve f/b amplifier +ve f/b amplifier

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7
 Important features
❑ Af reduce by factor of 11 (from 100-9.09) is complemented by reduce Ri
and increase Ro by same factor 11

❑ Af reduce by factor of 51 provide Af of only 2 but Ri increase by factor of

51 (over 500k Ω) Ro reduce from 20kΩ

❑ F/b offers designer the choice of trading away some

available amplifier gain for other improved circuit features

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Important features
◼ Reduction in Frequency Distortion:
 For –ve f/b amplifier having βA>>1, gain with f/b is Af=1/β
 Frequency distortion arising because of varying amplifier gain with frequency is
considerably reduced in –ve voltage f/b amplifier circuit

◼ Reduction in Noise & Nonlinear Distortion:

 F/b tends to hold down the amount of noise signal and nonlinear distortion
 Factor (1+βA) reduces both input noise and nonlinear distortion
gain
◼ Effect of –ve f/b on Gain and Bandwidth :
 Overall gain with –ve f/b: for β>>1
 Open loop drop off at high frequencies due to Ao A
active device and circuit capacitances
 Gain maybe drop at low frequencies for 0.707Afo
capacity coupled amplifier stages Afo
0.707Ao
 Once open loop gain A drops low enough and
factor βA is no longer much larger than 1 f1 BW f2 f

f1f BWf f2f

A A 1
Af =  =
1 + A A 

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8
 Important features
◼ Gain stability with feedback:
 β factor setting a precise gain value, we also interesting in how
stable f/b amplifier is compared to an amplifier without f/b
dA f 1 dA
=
Af 1 + A A

dA f 1 1 dA

Af A A A For βA>>1
dA f
Magnitude of relative change in gain A f reduces
the factor  A compared to that without f/b dA
A

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Mason signal-flow graph

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 BJT Amplifier

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Practical Feedback Circuits

VDD

RD

Voltage Series Feedback

CD + A − g m RL
Af = =
+ R1
Ro
1 + A 1 + R2 RL / (R1 + R2 )g m
Vo
R +R
Vi
+ 1
Af  =− 1 2
+
AC -
V f R2 A  1
Vs -  R2
-
-

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10
 Practical Feedback Circuits
Voltage Series Feedback Voltage Series Feedback
in an Op-amp connection
Vo h fe RE
A= =
- +VCC Vs hie
+ Vo
Vi Vf
+ - = =1
Vs AC + Vo
- h fe RE
Vo A
RC Af = = =
R1
Vs 1 + A hie + h fe RE
RB
+
Vf R2 h fe RE  hie
-
Af  1
+
R2 + + +
= Vs AC Vi Vf RE
R1 + R2 - - Vo
-
A -
Af =
1 + A

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Practical Feedback Circuits

+VCC Current Series Feedback
Ib Io
+

+ RC Vo
AC RB hie h fe I b
RC Vs
RB - -
+

+
Vi
+ - Io Vo Without feedback With feedback
Vs AC + Io − h fe Io A − h fe
- RE A= = Af = = 
Vf
Vi hie + RE Vs 1 + A hie + h fe RE
-
Vf − I o RE Z if = Z i (1 + A)  hie + h fe RE
- = = = − RE
Io Io
 h fe RE 
Z of = Z o (1 + A) = RC 1 + 
Z i = RB (hie + RE )  hie + RE  hie 
Z o = RC Vo − h fe RC
Avf = 
Vs hie + h fe RE 22

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11
 Practical Feedback Circuits
Voltage Shunt Feedback
in an Op-amp connection
If Ro
R1
Ro
R1 -
V1 Ii 
- V1 Vo
Is =
Vo R1 +
+
Vo
A= =
Ii
If −1
= =
Vo Ro
V o Vo A 1
Af = = = = = − Ro
I s I i 1 + A 
Vo I s − Ro
Avf = =
I s V1 R1

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Practical Feedback Circuits

+VCC

RF
Vo
RD
RF
IF
Vo

Rs Ii RD
Is Rs

+
AC
Vs
-
If −1 Vo
 = = A=  − g m RD RS
Vo RF Ii
Vo − g m R D R S R F Vo I s RF
Af = = Avf = = (− g m RD )
I s R F + g m R D RS I s Vs R F + g m R D Rs

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12
 Feedback Amplifier- Phase & Frequency Considerations
◼ Amplifier gain will change with frequency, dropping off at high
frequencies from mid frequency value
◼ Phase shift of an amplifier also change with frequency
◼ If amplifier oscillates at some high/low frequency, it is no longer
useful amplifier
◼ Proper f/b design requires that circuit be stable at all frequencies
◼ Otherwise, transient disturbance could cause seemingly stable amplifier
to suddenly start oscillating

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Phase & Frequency concept

Two Oscillators have same frequency & different phases,

phase difference called Out of-Phase

In-Phase Out of-Phase

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13
 Phase & Frequency Concept
❑ Amount by which such oscillators are out of step with each other can be
expressed in 0° to 360°, or 0 to 2π
❑ If phase difference is 180°, then two oscillators are said to be in antiphase
❑ If two interacting waves meet at a point where they are in antiphase, then
destructive interference will occur. It is common for waves of electromagnetic
(light, RF), acoustic (sound) or other energy to become superimposed in their
transmission medium. When that happens, phase difference determines
whether they reinforce or weaken each other. Complete cancellation is possible
for waves with equal amplitudes
❑ Time is sometimes used (instead of angle) to express position within the cycle of
an oscillation
❑ Phase difference is analogous to 2 athletes running around a race track at same
speed/direction but starting at different positions on track. They pass a point at
different instants in time. But time difference (phase difference) between them is
a constant - same for every pass since they are at same speed and in same
direction. If they were at different speeds (different frequencies), phase
difference would only reflect different starting positions
❑ We measure rotation of earth in hours, instead of radians, and therefore time
zones are an example of phase differences

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Nyquist Criterion
❑ Nyquist Method most popular method to investigate stability
❑ Judging stability of f/b amplifier, as a function of frequency , βA, phase
shift between I/O are determining factors

Closed-Loop
Transfer Function

Nyquist Root-Locus Bode

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 Nyquist Criterion
❑ Nyquist diagram used to plot gain & phase shift as a function of frequency on
complex plain
❑ If points representing phase shift & gain for amplifier circuit are plotted at
increasing frequency, then Nyquist plot is obtained

Imaginary
axis

 A = 1at = 1800  A = 2at = 0 0

Φ Real
axis

Complex plain
Continous frequency domain
 A = 3at = −1350

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Nyquist Criterion
❑ At origin A=0 at f=0, at increasing f1, f2, f3 and phase
shift increased as did the magnitude of βA
f→∞
❑ f4 value of A is the vector length from origin to f4 and
phase shift Φ
❑ F5 phase shift is 180 , at high frequencies gain
decrease back to 0 f5 f=0
Φ
❑ Nyquist criterion: Amplifier is unstable if the
Nyquist curve plotted encloses (encircles) the -1
point, and it is stable otherwise f4 A
f1
❑ Nyquist plot intersects –ve real axis 180°. If this f2
intersection occurs to left of point (-1,0), the magnitude
of loop gain at this frequency is greater than unity and f3
system will unstable
❑ If intersection occurs to right of point (-1,0) system will
be stable A
Af
1+ A − 
❑ It follows that if Nyquist encircles the point (-1,0) the
amplifier will be unstable Discrete frequency
domain

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15
 Phase and Gain Margins
◼ Gain Margin: -ve of value of βA in decibels at frequency at which phase
is 180
◼ Thus 0dB equal to value βA=1 is on the border of stability and any –ve
decibel value is stable
◼ Phase Margin: Angle of 180 minus the magnitude of angle at which the
value βA is unity (0dB)

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Oscillators
◼ A device which works on principle of +ve feedback, producing waveform
of desired frequency
◼ Oscillator: Circuit which acts as a generator, generating output signal
which oscillates with constant amplitude & constant desired frequency
 It does not require any input signal
 Generates output waveform of high frequency up to GHz
 Produce a continuous signal of some type without need of an input
 Produces a repetitive signal from dc voltage

◼ Applications:
 Communication systems
 Digital systems (including computers)
 Test equipments

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 Oscillators
❑ Requirements for oscillation by Baukhausen Criterion:
– Magnitude of loop gain A must be 1
– Phase shift of loop gain A  must be 0 or 360 or integer multiple of 2π

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Classification of Oscillators
◼ Based on output waveform
 Sinusoidal Oscillators: produce sinusoidal waveform
 Nonsinusoidal Oscillator: produce square, sawtooth, triangular
waveform

◼ Based on circuit components

 RC Oscillators: using components of R, C
 LC Oscillators: using components of R, L

◼ Based on range of frequency

 Low frequency: produce oscillations from 20 Hz to 100-200
kHz(audio frequency)
 High frequency: produce oscillations more than 200-300 kHz upto
GHz(radio frequency)

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17
 Phase Shift Oscillator (PSO)
❑ PSO is sine wave electronic oscillator. It contains an inv. Amp. & f/b filter
which 'shifts' phase by 180 at oscillation frequency

❑ Filter must be designed so that at frequencies above and below the

oscillation frequency the signal is shifted by either more or less than
180. This results in constructive superposition for signals at oscillation
frequencies, and destructive superposition for all other frequencies

❑ Most common way of achieving this kind of filter is using three cascaded
RC filters, which produce no phase shift at one end of frequency scale,
and a phase shift of 270 at other end. At oscillation frequency each
filter produces a phase shift of 60 and whole filter circuit produces a
phase shift of 180

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RC Phase Shift Oscillator (PSO)

❑ Consists of amplifier and f/b network having R,C in ladder fashion
– RC ladder n/w produce phase shift of 180
– βA >1, A>1/ β or 29
– Select values of R/C to provide 60-phase shift/section

Oscillator requirements A
βA >1
Phase shift around 180
1
f = Cn
2RC 6 C1 C2 C3
Vin
1 R1 R2 R3 Rn Vo
A=
29
f/b n/w

Ideal RC Oscillator
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 Phase Shift Oscillator
VCC
Voltage-shunt f/b
VDD A = g R BJT PSO
m L
Practical
FET PSO RD rd
RL = RC
Practical R RD + rd R1

gm, rd

R2

RE CE
Rs Cs

C C C
C C C
R’
R R
R R R
1 1 1
f = f = 37
2 6 RC 2RC 6 + 4(Rc / R )
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Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp

❑ Use Op-amp to obtain an amplifier circuit to stabilize gain and
incorporate signal f/b to produce oscillator circuit
❑ If Op-amp provides A > 29, β>1 (by setting Rf, Ri), circuit act as
oscillator

Rf
C1=C2=C3=C
R1=R2=R3=R
Rs +VCC
-
Op-amp

+ -VCC C1 C2 C3

R1 R2 R3

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 Wien Bridge Oscillator (WBO)
❑ WBO generates sine waves
❑ It can generate large range of frequencies
❑ Circuit is based on electrical n/w developed by Max Wien in 1891
❑ Bridge comprises 4 R and 2 C

Classical WBO

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Wien Bridge Oscillator (WBO)

❑ R1, R2, C1, C2 form the frequency adjustment elements
❑ R3, R4 form f/b path R3 R C
= 1 + 2
Practical R 4 R 2 C1
a
RC bridge circuit 1
fo =
2 R1C1 R2 C 2
+VCC
d Output If
- Sinusoidal
b
Op-amp
signal R1 = R2 = R
+ -VEE C1 = C 2 = C
c
then
1 R3
fo = =2
2RC 4
R

Provides loop gain to

oscillate at frequency

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 Tuned Oscillators
◼ Variety of circuits can be built by providing tuning in both I/O sections of
circuit
◼ Following types of oscillators are obtained when reactance are designed
 Colpitts Oscillator
 Hartley Oscillator
 Tuned input, tuned output :
Amplifier
Oscillator Type X1 X2 X3
Colpitts Oscillator C C L
Hartley Oscillator L L C
Tuned input, tuned output LC LC -

X1 X2

X3

Basic resonant circuit

oscillator

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FET Colpitts Oscillator

VDD ◼ Colpitts oscillator, inventor by Edwin H. Colpitts
FET PSO
◼ Key features: Simplicity & Robustness
RFC
◼ It is electrical dual of Hartley oscillator

Vo ◼ 2 C & 1L determines frequency of oscillation

Cc
◼ F/b needs for oscillation is taken from a voltage
divider made by 2C, where in the Hartley circuit the f/b
is taken from a voltage divider made by 2L
RG
◼ Note: C can be a variable device by using a Varactor
Radio frequency choke
1
fo = Permits easy flow of Idc, at same time
C1 C2 2 LC eq Offers, high Z to high frequency current
other words, RFC look like DC short
C1C 2
C eq = & AC open
C1 + C 2
L

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21
 Transistor Colpitts Oscillator (CO)
VCC ◼ CO has fairly good frequency stability, is easy to tune, and
FET PSO can be used for a wide range of frequencies

◼ Large value of split capacitance is in parallel with junctions

RFC and minimizes the effect on frequency stability

◼ CO is very similar to the shunt-fed Hartley oscillator, except

C1 that two capacitors are used in the tank circuit instead of a
tapped coil

L Vo ◼ Hartley oscillator has a tap between two coils, while the

Colpitts has a tap between two capacitors
R1 C2
◼ We can change frequency of CO either by varying L of coil or
by varying C of 2C in the tank circuit

◼ I/O capacitive effect can be minimized on tank circuit and

better frequency stability can be obtained than with Armstrong
CC or Hartley oscillator
R2
1
RE CE
fo =
2 LC eq

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IC Colpitts Oscillator
◼ Op-amp provides basic amplification needed
◼ While oscillator frequency is set by an LC f/b n/w of Colpitts configuration
Rf

R1 +VCC
-
Op-amp
Output
+ -VCC
1
fo =
2 LC eq

C1 C2

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 Hartley Oscillator
❑ Invented by Ralph Hartley in 1920
❑ Hartley oscillator is an LC oscillator that derives its f/b from a tapped coil in
parallel with C (the tank circuit)
❑ Hartley oscillators may be series or shunt f/b. A Hartley oscillator is made up of
following:
❑ 2 L, 1 tuning C
❑ Advantages:
❑ Frequency is varied using a variable capacitor
❑ Zo remains constant over frequency range
❑ F/b ratio of tapped inductor remains constant
❑ Disadvantages include:
❑ Harmonic-rich content of output
❑ It is not suitable for pure sine wave

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Hartley Oscillator
VDD L1,L2 have mutual coupling M which must be taken into account
in determining equivalent L for resonant tank circuit
FET Hartlay
Oscillator RFC VCC

RFC Tank circuit

Cc

L1
CG
C Vo
RG CC CE
R1 L2

L L Transistor Hartley
Oscillator
1 R2
fo =
M 2 Leq C RE CE

C Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
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 Crystal Oscillator
❑ Operation: Crystal is a solid in which constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed
in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions
❑ Almost any object made of elastic material can be used like crystal with transducers
❑ All objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic
and has high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz
❑ Resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity & speed of sound
❑ High-frequency crystals are typically cut in shape of simple, rectangular plate
❑ Low-frequency crystals used in digital watches, are typically cut in shape of a tuning fork.
For applications no need for precise timing

❑ Low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of quartz crystal

❑ When crystal of quartz is properly cut & mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric
field by applying voltage to electrode near or on crystal. This property is called
piezoelectricity

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Crystal Oscillator
❑ When field is removed, quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous
shape, and this can generate voltage. In result quartz crystal behaves like a circuit
composed of L, C, R, with precise resonant frequency

❑ Quartz has further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a
way that frequency dependence on temperature can be very low

❑ Specific characteristics will depend on mode of vibration & angle at which quartz is cut.
Therefore, resonant frequency of plate, which depends on its size, will not change
much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate.

❑ For critical applications quartz oscillator is mounted in temperature-controlled

container, called crystal oven & can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent
perturbation by external mechanical vibrations

❑ Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a 10kHz-10MHz

❑ Applications: Wristwatches, Clocks, Radios, Computers, Cellphones, Counters,

signal generators, oscilloscopes

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 Crystal Oscillator
◼ Crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of
piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal R
with a very precise frequency

◼ This frequency is commonly used to keep track of

time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable L CM
clock signal for digital IC, and to stabilize frequencies
for radio transmitters/receivers
C
◼ When AC Voltage applied to crystal, mechanical
vibrations setup-these vibrations have natural
frequency. RLC circuit is equivalent of electrical
resonant circuit Piezoelectric
crystal resonator
◼ RLC eq. circuit has two resonant frequencies z
◼ 1. When reactance of series RLC leg are equal (and Crystal Z Vs. f
opposite) and series resonant impedance is very low
◼ 2. When reactance of leg equals to reactance of
capacitor called parallel/antiresonance of crystal

f1 f2 f
Series-resonance antiresonance 49

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Crystal Oscillator
◼ F/b path is used to excite Series Resonant Circuits
crystal in series-resonant mode
(srm) VCC
VDD

◼ At (srm) impedance is smaller &

+ve f/b is largest BJT FET
◼ R1,R2, RE provides Vdivider RFC RFC
stabilized DC curccuit
R1
◼ CE for AC bypass, RFC coil Output Output
provides DC bias while Cc XTAL Cc
decoupling any AC signal on
power lines affecting output
XTAL
signal

◼ CC has negligible impedance RG

but blocks any DC R2 RE
CE

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 Crystal Oscillator
◼ Parallel resonant impedance of crystal is max value, it is connected in shunt
◼ Crystal connected as inductor element in modified Colpitts circuit
◼ In Miller crystal oscillator tuned LC circuit in drain section is adjusted near parallel resonant
frequency VDD

VCC

Parallel Resonant Circuit

RFC L C
Parallel resonant
mode
R1
Output Output

C1 Miller crystal
oscillator

XTAL RG
CB
R2 RE C2 XTAL RE C2
RFC

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Crystal Oscillator
◼ Op-amp can be used in a crystal oscillator
◼ Crystal connected in series-resonant path and operates at series-
resonant frequency
◼ This circuit has high gain so that output square wave signal
◼ Pair of Zener diodes at output provide output amplitude at exactly Zener
voltage Rf

VZ
Ri +VCC
-
Op-amp
0V
+
-VEE

VZ
XTAL C
R1

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 Unijunction Oscillator

◼ Unijunction transistor can be

VBB
used in single-stage oscillator
circuit to provide a pulse
signal suitable for digital- VBB
circuit applications RT R2 VE
VB2 VP=VE
◼ RT, CT are timing
components that set circuit B2
oscillating rate. CT is charged VE E VEmin
through RT toward VBB
B1 VB1 0V
CT Time
VB1
R1
0V
Time
VB2
1
fo 
RT CT ln1 / (1 −  ) 0V
Instrinsic stand-off
Time
ratio as factor in Oscillator
53
operating frequency
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53

Unijunction Oscillator
VBB VBB VBB

R2
RT RT RT
R2
RC
VO

RB
CT CT CT

R1 R1

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