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Iiser 10
Iiser 10
lim f (x) = `
x→a−
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Limits of Functions
If both the left and right-handed limits exist and :
Thus
lim f (x) does not exist.
x→2
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Theorem on a Sequence of Intervals
Theorem If a sequence of closed intervals In = [an , bn ] be such that
In+1 ⊆ In and lim(bn − an ) = 0 then ∃ one and only one point common
to all the intervals.
Proof : Since In+1 ⊆ In :
a1 ≤ a 2 ≤ . . . ≤ a n . . . b 1 ≥ b2 ≥ . . . ≥ b n . . .
lim(bn − an ) = ξ − η = 0 ⇒ ξ = η
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Condition for existence of a limit
The necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a finite limit of
f (x) as x → a is that given > 0 however small, there exists another δ > 0
such that : |f (x1 ) − f (x2 )| < for every pair x1 , x2 which satisfy the
condition : |x1 − a| ≤ δ and |x2 − a| ≤ δ (that is if x1 , x2 are any two points
other than a, which belong to [a − δ, a + δ]
Proof :
(i) First assume that f (x) → ` as x → a. Then given > 0 ∃ δ > 0 such
that |f (x) − `| < /2 whenever |x − a| ≤ δ. Now choose two other
points x1 , x2 also in [a − δ, a + δ] :
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Condition for existence of a limit
(ii) Let us set up a monotonically decreasing sequence {n } and a
corresponding monotonically decreasing sequence {δn }, such that :
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Condition for existence of a limit
Now choose a m such that for n > m 2n < . So that for n > m :
f (a + δn ) − n ≤ ` ≤ f (a + δn ) + n
Also f (a + δn ) − n < f (x) < f (a + δn ) + n for |x − a| ≤ δn
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
The Heine-Borel Theorem
Theorem Let a, b ∈ <, and let I be a family of open intervals covering [a, b] (that
is ∀x ∈ [a, b], ∃ I ∈ I such that x ∈ I). Then we can find a finite number of open
intervals I1 , I2 , . . . In such that k=1 Ik ⊃ [a, b].
Sn
Proof : Let the theorem be untrue. That is a open cover of a closed interval does
not admit of a finite sub-cover. Take c = (a + b)/2. The theorem must be untrue
for at least one of [a, c] and [c, b]. If the theorem was true for both, then there will
be a finite subcover I 0 of [a, c] and another I ” for [c, b]. Then I ’∪I ” will cover
[a.b], this we have assumed to be untrue.
Let [a, c] be the one not admitting of a finite sub-cover. Again choose
d = (a + c)/2 and in a similar argument let [a, d] not admit of a sub-cover. In this
way we generate a set of closed intervals C1 , C2 , . . . Cn such that Cn+1 ⊆ Cn
and the length of these closed intervals is (b − a)/2n → 0 as n → ∞. Then there
exists only one point ξ common to all the intervals (note a ≤ ξ ≤ b). Since ξ
belongs to [a, b] there must exist a Ip ∈ I to which ξ belongs. Also, then there is a
m such that Cm ⊂ Ip . So Cm admits of a finite cover. This is impossible.
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Continuity of a Function
A function f : < → < is said to be continuous at x0 ∈ < if given
ε > 0 ∃δ > 0 such that
Proof : Let |f (x0 )| = 2m > 0. Since f (x) is continuous, ∃ δ > 0 such that
for all |x − x0 | < δ we have |f (x) − f (x0 )| < m. But :
This means : |f (x0 )| − m < |f (x)| < |f (x0 )| + m. The left hand inequality
proves the theorem.
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Continuity of a Function
If f : < → < is continuous at x0 ∈ < then the sequence {f (xn )} converges to
f (x0 ) whenver {xn } converges to x0 and conversely.
Also, since the sequence {xn } converges to x0 , given 0 > 0 ∃m such that
∀n > m |xn − x0 | < 0 .
Thus for n > m0 > m |xn − x0 | < δ < 0 ⇒ |f (xn ) − f (x0 )| < .
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p.
Intermediate Value Theorem
If f : < → < is continuous in a < x < b and f (x1 ) > 0 and f (x2 ) < 0 where
x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b], then ∃ x0 ∈ a < x < b lying between x1 and x2 at which
f (x0 ) = 0
Proof Without loss of generality let us take f (x1 ) > 0 and f (x2 ) < 0 (othersie
replace f (x) by -f (x)). Take y = (x1 + x2 )/2.
If f (y) = 0 then x0 = y and we have proved the theorem.
If not, for f (y) > 0 write a1 = y and b1 = x2 ; for f (y) < 0 write a1 = x1 and b1 = y :
so again f (a1 ) > 0 and f (b1 ) < 0.
Again bisect z = (a1 + b + 1)/2, if f (z) = 0 then z = x0 and we have proved the
theorem. If not for f (z) > 0 write a2 = z and b2 = b1 ; for f (z) > 0 write a2 = a1
and b2 = z. We carry out this process and generate a monotonically decreasing
sequence {an } bounded above by x2 and a monotonically increasing
sequence {bn } bounded below by x1 . Also bn − an = (x2 − x1 )/2n → 0 as
n → ∞. Thus, The nested intervals [an , bn ] then have one and only one point
common to all of them, call this point x0 . Since for all an f (an ) > 0
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p. 1
Intermediate Value Theorem
Corollary : If f : < → < is continuous in an interval a < x < b and takes the values
f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) at two dintinct points within the interval, then it takes all values c
lying between f (x1 ) and f (x2 ) at at least one point x0 lying between x1 and x2 .
Simply replace f (x) in the above theorem by f (x) − c and the proof follows
trivially.
IISER
IISER Kolkata
Kolkata J I
– p. 1