foods
Article
Quality Characteristics of Rice-Based Ice Creams with Different
Amylose Contents
Gi-Un Seong 1 , Ji-Yoon Kim 2 , Jung-Soo Kim 2 , Sae-Ul Jeong 2 , Jun-Hyeon Cho 3 , Ji-Yoon Lee 1 , Sais-Beul Lee 1 ,
Nkulu-Rolly Kabange 1 , Dong-Soo Park 1 , Kwang-Deog Moon 2, * and Ju-Won Kang 1, *
Citation: Seong, G.-U.; Kim, J.-Y.;
Kim, J.-S.; Jeong, S.-U.; Cho, J.-H.;
Lee, J.-Y.; Lee, S.-B.; Kabange, N.-R.;
Park, D.-S.; Moon, K.-D.; et al.
Quality Characteristics of Rice-Based
Ice Creams with Different Amylose
Contents. Foods 2023, 12, 1518.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
foods12071518
Academic Editors: Yuliang Cheng
and He Qian
Received: 27 February 2023
Revised: 24 March 2023
Accepted: 31 March 2023
Published: 3 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Foods 2023, 12, 1518. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12071518
1 Department of Southern Area Crop Science, National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development
Administration, Miryang 50424, Republic of Korea
2 School of Food Science and Technology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
3 National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Sangju 37139, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: kdmoon@knu.ac.kr (K.-D.M.); kangjw81@korea.kr (J.-W.K.);
Tel.: +82-53-950-5773 (K.-D.M.); +82-55-350-1156 (J.-W.K.)
Abstract: Ice cream consumption has increased over the years. In this study, we investigated the
potential of using rice varieties with varying amylose contents for ice cream production. We analyzed
the physical and chemical properties and sensory quality characteristics (appearance, taste, texture,
chewiness, aroma, and rice flavor) of rice-based ice cream made from five varieties with low and
high amylose levels. To make the ice cream, we ground rice into a fine powder and combined it
with skim milk powder, butter, sugar, glycerin esters of fatty acids, locust bean gum, and water to
form a gelatinized mixture. This mixture was then aged, frozen, and hardened. The ice cream’s key
quality characteristics, such as viscosity (2170–25,030 cP), hardness (4.27–49.55 N cm−2 ), and overrun
(17.95–46.99%), showed a wide range. Ice cream made from Saemimyeon (high amylose content rice
variety) exhibited the highest hardness value (49.55 N cm−2 ) among the varieties tested, but had
relatively low viscosity (4030 cP), overrun (17.95%), and drip-through (0.75 g/min) values. These
findings suggest that rice varieties with different amylose contents are suitable for making ice cream
and have the potential to expand the rice processing market and increase its value.
Keywords: rice; ice cream; amylose content; physicochemical properties; sensory quality
1. Introduction
In the context of global warming, mainly caused by the persistent emission of green-
house gases (GHGs) that exacerbate climate change, agriculture is regarded as both a
source and sink of atmospheric GHGs. Agriculture (crop production, land use, forest,
and livestock) accounts for about 18% of global GHG emissions, with livestock and rice
cultivation contributing about 6% and 1%, respectively [1,2].
Rice (Orzya sativa L.) is a major source of energy, consumed as a staple food by more
than half of the world’s population, especially in Asia [3]. Rice varieties are categorized
based on their amylose content, ranging from 0% to >24%, and low amylose rice offers high
viscosity and swelling properties, while high amylose rice has a high non-digestible starch
content [4,5] Differences in amylose content result in variation in the granular structure,
physicochemical properties, and product quality [6].
The amylose content of rice is an important factor that impacts its cooking, processing,
and eating qualities [7] Amylose content is controlled by various genes, and granule-bound
starch synthase (GBSS) encoded by the waxy (wx) gene plays a critical role in amylose
synthesis in plants [8,9]. In semi-waxy rice, the amylose content usually ranges from 6–15%,
and genes such as wx-mq, du1 and du12 have been identified to affect amylose content
(Figure S1) [10–12]. Functional alleles wxa and wxb are mainly found in Oryza sativa ssp.
indica and Oryza sativa ssp. japonica, respectively [13,14]. Additionally, the simultaneous
insertion of BGSS1 and SBE3 can increase amylose content up to 40%, as well as the content
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 2 of 15

of resistant starch, a type of undigested starch [15]. With the advancement of molecular
breeding technologies, genetic markers can now be used to more efficiently select desirable
traits in breeding programs.
In the Republic of Korea, per capita domestic rice consumption has decreased by 20.1%
over the last 10 years, driven by factors such as the Westernization of the diet and an increase
in dual-income couples. To promote rice consumption, researchers are studying products
such as rice cookies, rice noodles, rice beverages, and ready-to-eat rice [16–18]. Developing
rice varieties suitable for processing is also a focus of research [19], but processed rice
consumption accounts for only 6% of domestic production [20]. Therefore, there is a need
for industrialization and research on processed rice food products to adapt to changing
social and economic conditions, such as an aging population and consumer diversification
(Tables S1–S3).
Ice cream is a popular frozen dessert enjoyed by people of all ages and sexes world-
wide [21]. It is made by blending milk, fat, sweeteners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, and other
additives [22]. The texture and palatability of ice cream are also impacted by factors such
as additives, formulations, and processing methods [23]. Frozen products such as ice cream
offer the opportunity to add nutritional or functional value due to low storage temperature
and ingredient stabilization, making them an attractive option to deliver additional benefits
beyond basic nutrition [24]. There is a growing trend toward research focused on creating
healthy and high-value ice cream for consumers [25–27]. For years, dairy products have
been the major component in the ice cream making process, while cereal products, such
rice grains, have not received the desired attention, yet they have interesting nutraceutical
properties and health benefits for many people worldwide [28]. Researchers are exploring
the possibility of substituting or reducing the use of dairy products in ice cream making for
several reasons, including fat content, flavor, and environmental aspects [29]. While there
is ample research on creating low-fat, low-calorie ice cream products by adding health-
promoting ingredients, limited research has been conducted on rice-based ice cream [30,31].
This study aimed at assessing rice varieties having differential physiochemical proper-
ties and quality characteristics for rice-based ice cream making, considering that rice offers
good nutraceutical properties and is widely cultivated globally. Therefore, a group of rice
varieties with different amylose contents, widely cultivated in the Republic of Korea, was
used. The results identified rice cultivars with desirable physiochemical properties that can
be used as sources of raw material for rice-based ice cream making.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties used in the experiments were Baegokchal [32],
Miho [33], Saeilmi [34], Saemimyeon [19], and Dodamssal [35], with five different amylose
contents. Among these varieties, Baegokchal, Miho, Sailmi, and Dodamssal are indeed
japonica types, whereas Saemimyeon is a tongil-type rice [36]. The rice varieties used
were representatively cultivated in South Korea, with samples certified by the Rural De-
velopment Administration for manufacturing. All of the rice grains used were cultivated
in the experimental field (altitude: 11 m 35◦ 290 31.400 N, 128◦ 440 31.400 E), located in the
Rural Development Administration (Miryang, Republic of Korea) in 2020. Dried rough rice
samples were husked using an impeller husker (FC2K, Yamamoto, Yamagata, Japan) until
their weight was 90% that of the starting brown rice sample. Then, milling was performed
using a blade mill (Korea Powder System Co., Ltd., Incheon, Republic of Korea) with a
built-in 180 mesh standard sieve. Rice flour was stored in a 4 ◦ C refrigerator until use.
Skim milk powder (Lactokorea Co., Cheongyang, Republic of Korea), butter (Anchor Food
Professionals Co., Ltd., Fremantle, Australia), white sugar (CJ Cheiljedang Co., Ltd., Seoul,
Republic of Korea), locust bean gum (ES Food Cor., Gunpo, Republic of Korea), and mono-
and diglycerides rich in unsaturated fat (ES Food Cor., Gunpo, Republic of Korea) were
purchased from local markets.
 Skim milk powder (Lactokorea Co., Cheongyang, Republic of Korea), butter (Anchor Food
Professionals Co., Ltd., Fremantle, Australia), white sugar (CJ Cheiljedang Co., Ltd., Seoul,
Republic of Korea), locust bean gum (ES Food Cor., Gunpo, Republic of Korea), and
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 mono- and diglycerides rich in unsaturated fat (ES Food Cor., Gunpo, Republic of Korea)3 of 15
were purchased from local markets.

2.2.Ice
2.2. IceCream
CreamManufacturing
Manufacturing
Themanufacturing
The manufacturingprocess processof ofrice
riceice
icecream
creamisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure1.1.Rice
Riceflours
flourswith
with
fivedifferent
five differentamylose
amylosecontents
contents(Baegokchal,
(Baegokchal,Miho,
Miho,Saeilmi,
Saeilmi,Saemimyeon,
Saemimyeon,and andDodamssal)
Dodamssal)
comprised10%
comprised 10%of ofthe
theingredients
ingredientsby byweight,
weight, while
while skim
skim milk
milk powder
powder comprised
comprised 4.5%,4.5%,
sugar10%,
sugar 10%,glycerin
glycerinesters
estersof offatty
fattyacids
acids0.3%,
0.3%,locust
locustbean
beangumgum0.3%,
0.3%,and
andwater
water65%.
65%.First,
First,
theseingredients
these ingredientswerewereweighed
weighedto toprepare
prepareananice
icecream
creammix mixwith
withaaweight
weightof of600
600g.g.Then,
Then,
all
allingredients
ingredientswere weremixed
mixedatat3000
3000rpmrpmfor
for55min
minusing
usingaahomogenizer
homogenizer(AM-9,
(AM-9,Nihonseiki
Nihonseiki
Kashima
Kashima Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Thereafter, butter (adding 10% to the weight) wasadded
Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Thereafter, butter (adding 10% to the weight) was added
to
tothe
the ice
ice cream
cream mix. The ice
mix. The ice cream
creammix mixwas
wasgelatinized
gelatinizedand andpasteurized
pasteurizedatat8585 °C◦ C
forfor
30
30 min,
min, and
and thenhomogenized
then homogenizedatat6000 6000rpm
rpmforfor55 min.
min. TheThe ice
ice cream mix waswas placed
placed in inaa
glass ◦ C for 20 h, and then was churned in an ice cream maker (DWI-5200,
glassbottle,
bottle,aged
agedatat44 °C for 20 h, and then was churned in an ice cream maker (DWI-5200,
Macdous,
Macdous, Bucheon, Republic Republicof ofKorea)
Korea)operated
operated in in
thethe strong
strong modemode for 20–30
for 20–30 min tomin to
man-
manufacture rice ice cream. The ice cream was placed in a plastic container
ufacture rice ice cream. The ice cream was placed in a plastic container and hardened in a and hardened
in a freezer at − ◦ C for 24 h. This manufacturing process was repeated three times for
18for
freezer at −18 °C 24 h. This manufacturing process was repeated three times for each
each rice variety
rice variety and and
usedused in subsequent
in subsequent experiments.
experiments.

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicprocess
processflow
flowdiagram
diagramofofice
icecream
creampreparation.
preparation.
2.3. Characteristics of Processed Rice
2.3.1. Amylose Content
Rice amylose content was determined using the methods of Juliano [7], according to
solubilization and color development. Rice flour (0.1 g), ethanol (1 mL), and 1 N sodium
hydroxide (9 mL) were added and incubated for 20 min at 90 ◦ C, and the mixture was
increased to a volume of 100 mL using distilled water. An aliquot of 5 mL was mixed with
1 N acetic acid (1 mL) and iodine solution (I2 in 2% KI, 2 mL), the volume was increased to
100 mL with distilled water, and the mixture was incubated for 20 min at 30 ◦ C. Absorbance
was measured at 620 nm using an ultraviolet-visible spectrometer (UV-2700, Shimadzu Co.,
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 4 of 15

Kyoto, Japan). The absorbance at 620 nm and the amylose concentrations were adjusted
with a standard curve based on potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) starch [37].

2.3.2. Crude Protein Content

Rice crude protein content was determined using near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy
(XM-1100 series, FOSS NIR Systems INC., Laurel, MD, USA). Rice flours (0.6 g) were added
to the micro insert ring bound to the mini sample cup, the air gap in the sample was
removed using the sample cup disposable back, and NIR spectroscopy was performed
using visible and near-infrared wavelengths (400–2500 nm) under ambient temperature
conditions (25 ◦ C). The software ISI scan (version 4.5.0, InfraSoft International, Port Matilda,
PA, USA) was used for the calculation of crude protein (R2 = 0.982) [38].

2.3.3. Pasting Properties

Rice moisture content was measured using a moisture meter (MS-70, AND, Tokyo,
Japan), and pasting properties were analyzed using a rapid viscosity analyzer (RVA 4500,
Perten Instruments, Häqersten, Sweden). Rice flour (3.0 g, 12% moisture content) was
added to an aluminum container for rapid viscosity analysis and 25 mL of distilled water
was added. The samples were incubated at 50 ◦ C for 1 min, then heated to 95 ◦ C for
3.45 min, maintained at 95 ◦ C for 2.7 min, cooled to 50 ◦ C for 3.91 min, and maintained
at 50 ◦ C for 1.24 min. The parameters recorded were initial pasting temperature, peak
viscosity (P), trough viscosity (T), final viscosity (F), breakdown viscosity (P − T), and
setback viscosity (F − T) [39].

2.4. Physicochemical Properties of Rice Ice Cream

2.4.1. Total Solids, Total Sugars, pH, Viscosity, and Hardness
Total solids, total sugars, pH, viscosity, and hardness of the rice ice creams were
measured. The total solids were determined by measuring the moisture content using
the air oven method. Rice ice cream (3 g) was transferred to a pre-weighed flat bottom
aluminum dish, which was moved to a hot air oven set to 105 ◦ C for 5 h. Dried rice ice
cream was then placed in desiccators containing silica gel as a desiccant. After 30 min, the
dish was weighed. Total solids were calculated by employing the following formula.

Total solid (%) = (W3 − W1 )/(W2 − W1 ) × 100

W1 : Weight of empty dish

W2 : Weight of empty dish and rice ice cream
W3 : Weight of empty dish and dried rice ice cream
Total sugars were measured using a hand refractometer (Master-α, ATAGO Co.,
Tokyo, Japan), and pH was measured using a pH meter (Orion 3 Star, Thermo Electron Co.,
Waltham, MA, USA).
The viscosity of rice ice cream was measured using a viscometer (DV1M, Brook Field
Engineering, MA, USA) with a spindle (LV-04/64) after aging at 4 ◦ C [40]. All measurements
were recorded after 1 min at 20 rpm and reported as the apparent viscosity.
Hardness was measured using a rheometer (Compac-100II, SunScientific Co., Tokyo,
Japan) after hardening the rice ice cream in a cube frame (24 mm × 24 mm × 24 mm) and
aging it for 5 min at ambient temperature (25 ◦ C) [26]. The hardness analysis of the ice
cream samples was conducted using a rheometer with a 50 mm stainless steel cylinder
probe. The speed was 30.0 mm min−1 , the distance was 3.0 mm, and the cell load was
19.6133 N (Newton). The hardness was the peak value of the first compression.

2.4.2. Overrun and Drip-Through Rate

Overrun is the increase in the volume of ice cream that occurs due to the incorporation
of air during batch freezing. The method of measuring overrun involves separately weigh-
ing the ice cream mix and frozen ice cream in an affixed volume container (approximately
175 mL), then calculating the percentage increase in volume using the formula described by
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 5 of 15

Akbari, Eskandari, Niakosari, and Bedeltavana [41]. The overrun measurement was carried
out in triplicate for every other sample throughout the ice cream production process.

Overrun (%) = (W1 − W2 )/W2 × 100

W1 : Weight of ice cream mix

W2 : Weight of ice cream
The rate at which ice cream melted through a mesh screen at room temperature was
measured using the procedures specified by Bolliger et al. [42]. At ambient temperature
(25 ◦ C), 90 g of rice ice cream was quickly cut from the center of each sample and placed
on the center of a metal screen (6 mm pore size mesh) resting above a beaker on a scale.
The weight of the melted rice ice cream that had dripped through the screen was recorded
every 10 min for 120 min. The weight of the dripped through portion (grams) was plotted
against time (min). The slope of the linear portion of the curve was used to determine the
drip-through rate (g/min). For each batch, the drip-through rate was recorded for every
other sample throughout the ice cream production. The drip-through rate measurement
was carried out in triplicate.

2.4.3. Color
Color was measured using a colorimeter (CR-400, Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan). The
parameters evaluated from the CIELAB system were lightness (L*), red/green (a*), and
yellow/blue (b*). Rice ice cream was added to the measurement cell (50 × 15 mm), so that
there was no empty space, and then hardened, and each sample was measured 10 times.

2.5. Sensory Evaluation

The ice creams were stored at −18 ◦ C for over 24 h after production and remained at
ambient temperature (25 ◦ C ± 1 ◦ C) for 5 min before sensory analysis [43]. A 25 g serving
of ice cream was assessed by thirty panelists, previously trained in descriptive analysis
methods [44], who performed a sensory evaluation using a modified method described
by Chung, et al. [45]. The panelists were composed of graduate students or academics in
the Food Science and Technology Department at Kyungpook National University (KNU).
The sensory evaluation was conducted in an independent and controlled environment
at room temperature. The panelists were instructed to rinse their mouths with distilled
water between each sample to reduce any carryover effects. To prevent any bias, the order
of presentation of the samples was randomized. The panelists evaluated the samples
for color and appearance, taste, texture, chewy texture, aroma, rice flavor, and overall
acceptance on a scale ranging from 1 (extremely weak or dislike) to 7 (extremely strong
or like). All panelists signed an informed consent form before participating in the study.
Sensory evaluation approval for the sensory study was obtained from the Institutional
Review Board (IRB) at Kyungpook National University (IRB No. KNU-2021-0154).

2.6. Statistical Analysis

Values are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3), and color measurement
carried out 10 times. The results were evaluated by the analysis of variance and Duncan’s
multiple range test (p < 0.05) using SAS (version 9.4, Cary, NC, USA). Correlation analysis
was used to determine relationships among variables. The correlation between rice (amy-
lose and crude protein, pasting properties) and rice ice cream (total solids, total sugars,
pH, viscosity, hardness, overrun, drip-through rate, and color), using physicochemical
properties, was determined using the Pearson correlation coefficient.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characteristics of Processed Rice
The amylose content, crude protein, and pasting properties of rice are presented in
Table 1. Amylose and crude protein content are critical factors that influence not only
the taste and cooking, but also the physical properties of rice [46]. The average amylose
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 6 of 15

content of Korean rice varieties is 19.99%, and the average protein content is 7.23% [47].
The rice amylose content used for rice ice cream production ranged from 5.89% to 40.39%,
and the amylose content was ranked from lowest to highest for the Baegokchal (5.89%),
Miho (12.40%), Saeilmi (17.40%), Saemimyeon (25.78%), and Dodamssal (40.39%) varieties
(p < 0.05).

Table 1. Amylose, crude protein, and pasting properties of processed rice.

Pasting Properties
Variety Amylose Crude
Content (%) Protein (%) Initial Pasting Trough Vis. Breakdown Setback Vis.
Peak Vis. (cP) Final Vis. (cP)
Temp. (◦ C) (cP) vis. (cP) (cP)
Baegokchal 5.89 ± 0.04 e1 6.71 ± 0.02 b 67.15 ± 0.52 e 163.42 ± 1.80 d 64.08 ± 0.44 e 82.50 ± 0.80 e 99.33 ± 1.72 c 18.41 ± 0.55 e
Miho 12.40 ± 0.21 d 6.69 ± 0.05 b 69.12 ± 0.06 d 295.42 ± 6.41 c 100.25 ± 2.72 d 150.50 ± 3.29 d 195.16 ± 4.19 b 50.25 ± 2.08 d
Saeilmi 17.40 ± 0.37 c 6.44 ± 0.06 c 73.47 ± 0.56 c 374.89 ± 2.05 b 169.56 ± 5.10 b 277.86 ± 7.02 b 205.33 ± 3.36 a 108.30 ± 1.93 b
Saemimyeon 25.78 ± 0.85 b 6.86 ± 0.07 a 80.28 ± 0.03 b 403.11 ± 3.72 a 204.89 ± 2.68 a 386.41 ± 1.89 a 198.22 ± 1.87 b 181.53 ± 1.28 a
Dodamssal 40.39 ± 0.22 a 6.90 ± 0.05 a 84.12 ± 0.45 a 147.03 ± 0.67 e 114.14 ± 0.84 c 181.75 ± 2.63 c 32.89 ± 1.21 d 67.61 ± 3.01 c
cP, centipoise; vis, viscosity; temp, temperature. Amylose content (%) is reported on an ‘as is’ basis. Crude protein
(%) is reported on an ‘as is’ basis. 1 Mean ± standard deviation (n = 3) within each column followed by different
letters is significantly different (p < 0.05).

Rice grains contain a substantial amount of storage protein that can be classified as
either prolamin, glutelin, albumin, or globulin [48]. Additionally, rice endosperm proteins,
which constitute the majority of rice grain proteins, are mostly insoluble in water due to
the high molecular weight of the rice glutelin profile [49]. The crude protein content of
rice ranged from 6.44% to 6.90%, in the following order: Saeilmi (6.44%), Miho (6.69%),
Baegokchal (6.71%), Saemimyeon (6.86%), and Dodamssal (6.90%). In a study by Park
et al. [50], the crude protein content of domestically grown rice varieties Baegokchal, Ilmi,
Mimyeon, and Dodamssal ranged from 5.66% to 7.17%, which is similar to the findings of
this study.
The initial pasting temperature of rice ranged from 67.15 ◦ C to 84.14 ◦ C, the peak
viscosity from 147.03 to 403.11 cP, the trough viscosity from 64.08 to 204.89 cP, the final
viscosity from 82.50 to 386.41 cP, the breakdown viscosity from 99.33 to 205.33 cP, and
the setback viscosity from 18.41 to 181.53 cP. As the amylose content increased, the initial
pasting temperature, peak viscosity, trough viscosity, final viscosity, and setback viscosity
of Baegokchal, Miho, Saeilmi, and Saemimyeon (but not Dodamssal) showed a positive
relationship. According to research, such as that of Hasjim, et al. [51], it has been reported
that the particle size and grinding method of rice flour can affect the pasting properties.
Therefore, in this experiment, to reduce the variables that could affect the rice physico-
chemical properties and ice cream properties, each rice variety was ground in the same
way and only samples that passed through 180 mesh (about particle size; <80 µm) were
used for analysis and production [52]. A study by Suzuki et al. [53] found that the initial
pasting temperature, trough viscosity, final viscosity, and setback viscosity are positively
correlated with amylose content in the degree of polymerization of Japonica glutinous rice.
Moreover, in the study by Balet et al. [54], amylose content significantly correlated with
nearly all the pasting properties, except for peak viscosity, which was found to be greatly
influenced by the environment. Specifically, the initial gelatinization temperature increased
with increasing amylose content. This is because the starch particles of high amylose
varieties are more densely packed than those of low amylose varieties, which increases
resistance to swelling during gelatinization [55,56]. This is due to interactions between long
chains or large crystal structures [57]. Among the pasting properties of Saemimyeon, peak
viscosity (403.11 cP), trough viscosity (204.89 cP), final viscosity (386.41 cP), and setback
viscosity (181.53 cP) were the highest among the varieties (p < 0.05). Saeilmi showed the
highest breakdown viscosity, followed by Saemimyeon, Miho, Baegokchal, and Dodamssal
(p < 0.05). These results clearly distinguish the rice characteristics and act as an impor-
tant variable in the quality characteristics of rice ice cream manufactured using rice with
different amylose contents.
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 7 of 15

3.2. Physicochemical Properties of Processed Rice Ice Cream

The physicochemical properties of rice ice cream, including total solids, total sugars,
pH, viscosity, hardness, overrun, and drip-through rate, are shown in Table 2. The rice
ice cream had a total solids content ranging from 33.06% to 33.65%, a total sugars content
of 19.00 to 26.33 ◦ Bx, pH values of 6.66 to 6.81, viscosity ranging from 2170 to 25,030 cP,
hardness ranging from 4.27 to 49.55 Ncm−2 , overrun ranging from 17.95% to 46.99%, and
drip-through rate ranging from 0.75 to 0.98 g/min.

Table 2. Physicochemical properties of ice cream.

Total Solids Total Sugars Hardness Drip-Through

Variety pH Viscosity (cP) Overrun (%)
(%) (◦ Bx) (Ncm−2 ) Rate (g/min)
Baegokchal 33.65 ± 0.07 a1 26.33 ± 0.58 a 6.81 ± 0.01 a 25,030 ± 1813 a 4.27 ± 2.37 c 46.99 ± 3.17 a -
Miho 33.14 ± 0.02 b 25.67 ± 0.58 b 6.77 ± 0.01 b 17,920 ± 1763 b 27.87 ± 4.30 b 27.77 ± 1.80 c 0.89 ± 0.03 ab
Saeilmi 33.06 ± 0.01 c 25.00 ± 0.00 c 6.73 ± 0.01 c 17,180 ± 711 b 27.22 ± 0.61 b 20.19 ± 2.26 d 0.98 ± 0.01 a
Saemimyeon 33.10 ± 0.01 bc 19.00 ± 0.00 d 6.66 ± 0.01 d 4030 ± 142 c 49.88 ± 9.52 a 17.95 ± 1.83 d 0.75 ± 0.17 b
Dodamssal 33.07 ± 0.03 c 19.00 ± 0.00 d 6.67 ± 0.01 d 2170 ± 154 c 23.54 ± 0.61 b 32.06 ± 1.11 b 0.98 ± 0.00 a
Total solids (%) are reported on an ‘as is’ basis. 1 Mean ± standard deviation (n = 3) within each column followed
by different letters is significantly different (p < 0.05).

Erkaya, et al. [58] found that the total solids content of ice cream increases with the
amount of raw materials used, making it an indicator of the raw materials. Therefore, by
analyzing the range of total solids in our study, it can be confirmed that the ice cream was
prepared using the same manufacturing process.
The total sugar content decreased as the amylose content increased (p < 0.05). This
correlation can be attributed to the varying total sugars content produced during the
gelatinization of each type of rice at 85 for 30 min. Varavinit et al. [59] found a positive
correlation between amylose content and the initial pasting temperature of pasting prop-
erties. Additionally, a higher initial temperature was shown to result in a more difficult
gelatinization progression under identical temperature conditions [60]. Therefore, the
variation in total sugar content observed in our study demonstrated this difference in
gelatinization progress.
Among the raw material grains for rice ice cream production, when prepared us-
ing Baegokchal glutinous rice, total solids content was 33.65%, total sugars content was
26.33 ◦ Bx, pH was 6.81, and viscosity was 25,030 cP, which was the highest among the rice
ice creams. The higher the amylose content, the lower the total solids, total sugars, pH,
and viscosity (p < 0.05). The hardness of the rice ice cream was highest when prepared
using Saemimyeon (49.55 Ncm−2 ), but the hardness of the rice ice cream prepared using
Baegokchal was 4.27 Ncm−2 , a difference of 11-fold, depending on the type of rice used.
However, the Baegokchal overrun value was 46.99%, which was more than double that
of Saemimyeon (17.95%). As such, hardness is affected by overrun, as well as rheological
properties of the mixture [61], and hardness and overrun are inversely proportional to
the current results. The overrun of ice cream is the percentage increase in volume that
occurs when air is incorporated into the mix during freezing. Moreover, the overrun varies
from 30% to 100%, in the case of general ice cream, whereas gelato ice cream, which is
known worldwide for its sticky properties, is known to have little or no overrun [62]. Ice
cream with a high overrun has a light taste and flavor and uses fewer ingredients, whereas
ice cream with a low overrun has a relatively rich taste and flavor and contains more
ingredients, so it is also called premium ice cream [63]. The drip-through rate was highest
when using Dodamssal and Saeilmi, at 0.98 g/min, and decreased in the order of Miho
(0.89 g/min) and Saemimyeon (0.75 g/min) (p < 0.05). Baegokchal did not pass through the
mesh until the 120 min mark, when all other samples were melted and were clustered on
the top of the mesh (Figure 2). This is thought to be due to the high content of solids added
to the ice cream, as well as its high viscosity, helping the ice cream maintain its shape while
it slowly melts [64].
FoodsFoods 12, 1518
2023,2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17 8 of 15

Figure 2. Photo of ice cream during the meltdown test.

Figure 2. Photo of ice cream during the meltdown test.
The color values of rice ice cream are shown in Figure 3. Color value is an important
The color values of rice ice cream are shown in Figure 3. Color value is an important
quality characteristic that affects consumer preference, as it determines the appearance
quality characteristic that affects consumer preference, as it determines the appearance
qualityofofice
quality icecream
cream [65].
[65]. These
These colors
colors are usually
are usually preferred
preferred becausebecause
they arethey are reminiscent of
reminiscent
the traditional appearance of rice and the flavor and aroma of rice ice cream. Moreover, the
whiter the raw processed grain rice, the higher its value in the market [66]. The L* value,
which indicates brightness, ranged from 112.87 to 115.95, with rice ice cream prepared
using Baegokchal and Miho with low amylose content having high L* values of 115.95 and
115.37, respectively. Therefore, Baegokchal and Miho are anticipated to have the highest
preference value for ice cream, based on color. However, the L* value of rice ice cream
using Saemimyeon, a high amylose rice, was the lowest at 112.87 (p < 0.05). According
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 9 of 15

to Lamberts et al. [67], the brightness value is between 85–100, depending on the milling
degree and rice variety, and the homogenized rice powder scatters light in the visible
spectrum region, thus showing a high brightness value overall. In addition, rice with a
high amylose content is less water-absorbent, resulting in harder and brighter rice grains,
whereas rice with a low amylose content is more water-absorbent, resulting in softer and
Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
more transparent rice grains [68]. For this reason, there may be a difference in L* values
when using rice with different amylose contents.

Figure 3.3.Color
Figure Colorvalue of ice
value of cream mademade
ice cream with processed rice. Means
with processed rice.with different
Means withletters aboveletters
different a above a bar
bar are significantly different at p < 0.05.
are significantly different at p < 0.05.
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 10 of 15

The degree of redness (a* value), representing red to green, was weakly green, with
a negative value ranging from −4.01 to −3.33 for all of the rice ice creams. The rice ice
cream prepared using Baegokchal had the highest a* value of −3.33, while the lowest was
the ice cream made with Saemimyeon at −4.01 (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the b* value,
which ranged from yellow to blue, was yellow, with a positive value ranging from 16.40 to
20.29 for all of the rice ice creams. Saemimyeon had the highest b* value of 20.29, whereas
Baegokchal had the lowest at 16.40 (p < 0.05). Based on these results, the L* and a* values
decreased, while the b* value increased as the amylose content of the processed rice used
for the production of rice ice cream increased.

3.3. Correlation between Processed Rice and Rice Ice Cream Quality Characteristics
The relationship between the processed rice (amylose content, crude protein content,
and pasting properties) and the physicochemical properties of rice ice cream (total solids,
total sugars, pH, viscosity, hardness, overrun, drip-through rate, and color value) are
shown in Figure 4. The total solids content of rice ice cream showed a high negative
correlation with rice trough viscosity (r = −0.683, p < 0.01). The total sugars content,
pH, and viscosity of the rice ice cream showed the highest negative correlation with
initial pasting temperature at −0.956, −0.947, and −0.963, respectively, while the amylose
content also showed a high negative correlation with these variables at −0.897, −0.877, and
−0.932, respectively. Rice ice cream hardness showed the highest correlation with setback
viscosity (r = 0.894), whereas overrun showed a negative correlation with trough viscosity
(r = −0.895). The setback value is an indicator of the retrogradation of rice starch, which
occurs in the third stage of the series of RVA tests. Retrogradation refers to the process in
which starch molecules break the initial gelation and reform a gel network by interacting
with water molecules [69]. This process changes the molecular structure of the starch and
affects the hardness and texture of the final product. According to Yoenyongbuddhagal
and Noomhorm [70], the setback value in the pasting properties results of rice flour highly
correlated with the hardness of the processed product. Therefore, a higher setback value in
rice flour indicates that retrogradation has increased in the flour after processing, which
may lead to a harder and tougher texture in the final product.
When analyzing the correlation between the color value of rice ice cream and rice
physicochemical properties, the lightness value (L*) of rice ice cream showed the highest
negative correlation with final viscosity (r = −0.834, p < 0.001), and also showed a high
negative correlation with setback viscosity (r = −0.827) and trough viscosity (r = −0.824).
The redness value (a*) showed the highest negative correlation with setback viscosity
(r = −0.851, p < 0.001), and also showed a high negative correlation with final viscosity
(r = −0.823). The yellowness value (b*) showed the highest positive correlation with final
viscosity (r = 0.904, p < 0.001), while trough viscosity and setback viscosity showed a very
high positive correlation (r = 0.902, p < 0.001). Setback and final viscosity are closely related
to the amylose content [71]. According to the results of Ahmed et al. [72], if the setback and
final viscosity are high, a significant amount of retrogradation has occurred, resulting in a
firm and stable gel. Thus, it can be concluded that starch retrogradation has worked well in
this case. It has been reported that as the density and stiffness of the rice structure increase,
the color index decreases [73,74].
Thus, the total sugars, pH, viscosity, and drip-through rate among the quality character-
istics of rice ice cream were affected by the amylose content and initial pasting temperature,
while the color value was affected by rice final viscosity and setback viscosity.
 starch molecules break the initial gelation and reform a gel network by interacting with
water molecules [69]. This process changes the molecular structure of the starch and af-
fects the hardness and texture of the final product. According to Yoenyongbuddhagal and
Noomhorm [70], the setback value in the pasting properties results of rice flour highly
correlated with the hardness of the processed product. Therefore, a higher setback value
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 11 of 15
in rice flour indicates that retrogradation has increased in the flour after processing, which
may lead to a harder and tougher texture in the final product.

Figure 4. Correlation
Correlation coefficients
coefficients heat
heat map
map between
between physicochemical
physicochemicalproperties
propertiesofofice
icecream
creamand
and
of processed
characteristics of processedrice.
rice.Yellow
Yellowindicates
indicatesaapositive
positiveassociation,
association,and
andblue
blueindicates
indicates a nega-
a negative
tive association.
association.

3.4. Sensory Evaluation the

When analyzing of Rice Ice Creambetween the color value of rice ice cream and rice
correlation
physicochemical properties, the
The sensory evaluation results lightness
of ricevalue (L*) ofare
ice cream ricepresented
ice creaminshowed
Table 3.the highest
The study
negative correlation with final viscosity (r = −0.834, p < 0.001), and also showed
evaluated several attributes, including color, appearance, taste, texture, chewy texture, a high
negativerice
aroma, correlation with
flavor, and setback
overall viscosityThe
preference. (r =color
−0.827)
andand trough viscosity
appearance (r = −0.824).
ratings ranged from
Theto
5.3 redness value (a*)ashowed
5.7, indicating moderate the to
highest negative correlation
high preference among the with setback Similarly,
samples. viscosity (rthe=
−0.851, scores
aroma p < 0.001), andfrom
ranged also4.6
showed
to 5.2,aindicating
high negative correlation
a generally withevaluation
positive final viscosity
of the(rice
=
−0.823). The
cream’s yellowness value (b*) showed the highest positive correlation with final vis-
smell.
cosity (r = 0.904, p < 0.001), while trough viscosity and setback viscosity showed a very
Table 3. Sensory scores on a 7-point numeric scale for ice cream made with processed rice.

Color and Chewy Overall

Variety Taste Texture Aroma Rice Flavor
Appearance Texture Acceptance
Baegokchal 5.7 ± 0.7 a1 3.7 ± 1.2 a 4.8 ± 1.2 ab 6.2 ± 1.1 a 5.2 ± 1.3 a 5.3 ± 1.1 a 4.1 ± 1.8 a
Miho 5.7 ± 1.1 a 4.6 ± 1.3 a 5.5 ± 0.8 a 5.0 ± 0.0 b 5.1 ± 1.6 a 3.7 ± 1.4 b 5.1 ± 0.6 a
Saeilmi 5.5 ± 1.3 a 4.6 ± 1.5 a 5.4 ± 1.1 a 4.7 ± 0.9 b 4.8 ± 1.7 a 4.0 ± 1.2 ab 5.1 ± 1.3 a
Saemimyeon 5.6 ± 1.1 a 4.7 ± 1.4 a 4.8 ± 1.3 ab 3.2 ± 1.4 c 4.7 ± 1.6 a 4.8 ± 1.5 ab 4.9 ± 1.7 a
Dodamssal 5.3 ± 1.3 a 4.4 ± 1.3 a 3.9 ± 1.8 b 2.5 ± 1.1 c 4.6 ± 1.8 a 4.7 ± 1.8 ab 4.5 ± 1.6 a
F-value 0.21 0.91 2.46 9.68 ***2 0.25 2.03 0.64
Sensory scores were assessed on a 7-point scale, where 1 = extremely weak or dislike, and 7 = extremely strong or
like. 1 Mean ± standard deviation (n = 3) within each column followed by different letters is significantly different
(p < 0.05). 2 *** significant at p < 0.001.

However, the samples exhibited notable differences in terms of texture, chewy texture,
and rice flavor (p < 0.05). Among the samples, Miho and Saeilmi scored the highest in terms
of texture preference (5.5 and 5.4, respectively), while Dodamssal received the lowest score
(3.9). The chewy texture was also evaluated, and the results indicated that Baegokchal
scored the highest (6.2), followed by Miho, Saeilmi, Saemimyeon, and Dodamssal, with
significant differences between the samples (F-value = 9.68). These findings emphasize the
importance of texture in determining the overall acceptance of rice ice cream.
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 12 of 15

The overall preference scores ranged from 4.1 to 5.1, indicating that the participants
generally liked the rice ice cream samples. Interestingly, there was little difference in
color preference among the rice varieties (F-value = 0.21), indicating that the choice of
rice did not significantly affect the color of the ice cream. A higher F-value indicates
a higher proportion of the variance explained by the model, which suggests that the
corresponding factor has a significant overall effect. Thus, the F-values for texture and
chewy texture were high, indicating that these attributes had a more important impact
on the overall evaluation. In fact, previous research has shown that texture is the most
important factor influencing consumer preferences when choosing ice cream, followed by
taste and aroma [75]. Therefore, if the chewy texture of rice ice cream is too strong or weak,
it can affect the overall acceptance, even if the aroma and rice flavor are good.
In conclusion, based on the sensory evaluation results, it is suggested that texture may
be considered a more important attribute for determining the overall acceptance of rice ice
cream. Therefore, the processing quality characteristics of rice ice cream should be carefully
considered and adjusted based on the rice variety to meet consumer needs and preferences.

4. Conclusions
In this study, rice ice cream was produced by incorporating processed rice with
different amylose contents and comparing the resulting quality characteristics. The physico-
chemical properties of ice cream, including overrun and drip-through rate, were measured
and compared among the different rice varieties. Significant differences were observed
in the pH, total sugars content, and total solids of the ice cream with different amylose
contents. The correlation between the physicochemical properties of rice and ice cream
was shown, based on the different properties of rice ice cream. The correlation between
the quality properties of rice and rice ice cream showed that the setback and final viscosity
were highly correlated with hardness and color value. By utilizing the relationship between
rice varieties and processing quality characteristics, this data can be used for the production
of rice ice cream that meets consumer needs.
This preliminary investigation provides some useful information regarding the suit-
ability of employing rice varieties with different amylose contents as alternative raw
materials in ice cream making with regard to the nutraceutical, nutritional, and physio-
chemical properties. This may help promote rice processing and create a new market for
rice production.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/foods12071518/s1, Figure S1: Distribution of amylose content of
rice varieties; Table S1: Molecular genetics and general amylose content of processed rice; Table S2:
Proximate composition of processed rice; Table S3: Mineral content of processed rice.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.-D.M. and J.-W.K.; methodology, K.-D.M., J.-W.K. and
G.-U.S.; validation, K.-D.M., J.-W.K., J.-Y.L., D.-S.P. and J.-H.C.; formal analysis and investigation,
G.-U.S., J.-Y.K., J.-S.K. and S.-U.J.; resources, J.-Y.L., D.-S.P. and J.-H.C.; data curation, G.-U.S., N.-R.K.
and S.-B.L.; writing—original draft preparation, G.-U.S.; writing—review and editing, J.-Y.L., D.-S.P.
and N.-R.K.; visualization, K.-D.M. and J.-W.K.; supervision and project administration, K.-D.M. and
J.-W.K.; funding acquisition, J.-Y.L. and J.-W.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science and
Technology Development (Project No. PJ016030012023) of the Rural Development Administration,
Republic of Korea.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in the article or supple-
mentary material.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 13 of 15

References
1. Paul, J.C.J.N. Methane’s sinks and sources. Nature 1991, 350, 380–381.
2. Reay, D.; Smith, P.; Van Amstel, A. Methane sources and the global methane budget. In Methane and Climate Change; Earthscan
Ltd.: Washington, DC, USA, 2010; pp. 1–13.
3. Charoenthaikij, P.; Chaovanalikit, A.; Uan-On, T.; Waimaleongora-ek, P. Quality of different rice cultivars and factors influencing
consumer willingness-to-purchase rice. Int. J. Food Sci. 2021, 56, 2452–2461. [CrossRef]
4. Bergman, C.J.; Delgado, J.T.; McClung, A.M.; Fjellstrom, R.G. An improved method for using a microsatellite in the rice waxy
gene to determine amylose class. Cereal Chem. 2001, 78, 257–260. [CrossRef]
5. Jeong, J.M.; Jeung, J.U.; Lee, S.B.; Kim, M.K.; Kim, B.K.; Sohn, J.K. Physicochemical properties of rice endosperm with different
amylose contents. Korean J. Crop Sci. 2013, 58, 274–282. [CrossRef]
6. Van Hung, P.; Maeda, T.; Morita, N. Waxy and high-amylose wheat starches and flours—Characteristics, functionality and
application. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2006, 17, 448–456. [CrossRef]
7. Juliano, B.O. A simplified assay for milled-rice amylose. Cereal Sci. Today 1971, 12, 334–360.
8. Preiss, J. Biology and molecular biology of starch synthesis and its regulation. Oxford Sur. Plant Mol. Cell. Biol. 1991, 7, 59–114.
9. Smith, A.M.; Denyer, K.; Martin, C. The synthesis of the starch granule. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 1997, 48, 67–87. [CrossRef]
10. Sato, H.; Suzuki, Y.; Sakai, M.; Imbe, T. Molecular characterization of Wx-mq, a novel mutant gene for low-amylose content in
endosperm of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Breed. Sci. 2002, 52, 131–135. [CrossRef]
11. Zeng, D.; Yan, M.; Wang, Y.; Liu, X.; Qian, Q.; Li, J. Du1, encoding a novel Prp1 protein, regulates starch biosynthesis through
affecting the splicing of Wxb pre-mRNAs in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Plant Mol. Biol. 2007, 65, 501–509. [CrossRef]
12. Kiswara, G.; Lee, J.-H.; Hur, Y.-J.; Cho, J.-H.; Lee, J.-Y.; Kim, S.-Y.; Sohn, Y.-B.; Song, Y.-C.; Nam, M.-H.; Yun, B.-W. Genetic analysis
and molecular mapping of low amylose gene du12(t) in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Theor. Appl. Genet. 2014, 127, 51–57. [CrossRef]
13. Sano, Y. Differential regulation of waxy gene expression in rice endosperm. Theor. Appl. Genet. 1984, 68, 467–473. [CrossRef]
14. Wang, Z.Y.; Zheng, F.Q.; Shen, G.Z.; Gao, J.P.; Snustad, D.P.; Li, M.G.; Zhang, J.L.; Hong, M.M. The amylose content in rice
endosperm is related to the post-transcriptional regulation of the waxy gene. Plant J. 1995, 7, 613–622. [CrossRef]
15. Adeva, C.C.; Lee, H.-S.; Kim, S.-H.; Jeon, Y.-A.; Shim, K.-C.; Luong, N.H.; Kang, J.-W.; Kim, C.-S.; Cho, J.-H.; Ahn, S.-N. Two
complementary genes, SBE3 and GBSS1 contribute to high amylose content in japonica cultivar Dodamssal. Plant Breed. Biotech.
2020, 8, 354–367. [CrossRef]
16. Shin, D.S.; Choi, Y.J.; Sim, E.Y.; Oh, S.K.; Kim, S.J.; Lee, S.K.; Woo, K.S.; Kim, H.J.; Park, H.Y. Comparison of the hydration,
gelatinization and saccharification properties of processing type rice for beverage development. Korean J. Food Nutr. 2016, 29,
618–627. [CrossRef]
17. Jo, Y.J.; Chun, A.R.; Sim, E.Y.; Park, H.Y.; Kwak, J.E.; Kim, M.J.; Lee, C.K. Effect of kneading and fermentation conditions on the
quality of gluten-free rice bread. Korean J. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 52, 510–515.
18. Sim, E.Y.; Lee, J.Y.; Cho, J.H.; Yoon, M.R.; Kwak, J.E.; Kim, N.G.; Jeon, Y.H.; Lee, C.K.; Lee, J.S.; Hong, H.C. Quality characteristics
of porridge made from different korean rice varieties including high yield tongil-type rice. Korean J. Food Preserv. 2018, 25, 651–658.
[CrossRef]
19. Cho, J.H.; Lee, J.H.; Park, N.B.; Son, Y.B.; Oh, S.H.; Han, S.I.; Song, Y.C.; Seo, W.D.; Park, D.S.; Nam, M.H.; et al. ‘Saemimyeon’, a
tongil-type medium-late maturing rice variety with high amylose content used for rice noodle preparation. Korean J. Breed. Sci.
2018, 50, 522–528. [CrossRef]
20. Rhee, S.J.; Lee, J.E.; Kim, M.R. Sensory characteristics of commercial rice cookies and snacks in market. Korean J. Food Preserv.
2013, 20, 348–355. [CrossRef]
21. Goff, H.D. Colloidal aspects of ice cream—A review. Int. Dairy J. 1997, 7, 363–373. [CrossRef]
22. dos Santos Cruxen, C.E.; Jessica Fernanda, H.; Giovana Paula, Z.; Ângela Maria, F.; Cesar Valmor, R.; Fabio Clasen, C. Probiotic
butiá (Butia odorata) ice cream: Development, characterization, stability of bioactive compounds, and viability of Bifidobacterium
lactis during storage. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 75, 379–385. [CrossRef]
23. Bahramparvar, M.; Mazaheri Tehrani, M. Application and functions of stabilizers in ice cream. Food Rev. Int. 2011, 27, 389–407.
[CrossRef]
24. Goraya, R.K.; Bajwa, U. Enhancing the functional properties and nutritional quality of ice cream with processed amla (Indian
gooseberry). J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 52, 7861–7871. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Utpott, M.; Ramos de Araujo, R.; Galarza Vargas, C.; Nunes Paiva, A.R.; Tischer, B.; de Oliveira Rios, A.; Hickmann Flôres, S.
Characterization and application of red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) peel powder as a fat replacer in ice cream. J. Food Process.
Preserv. 2020, 44, e14420. [CrossRef]
26. Ghaderi, S.; Mazaheri Tehrani, M.; Hesarinejad, M.A. Qualitative analysis of the structural, thermal and rheological properties of
a plant ice cream based on soy and sesame milks. Food Sci. Nutr. 2021, 9, 1289–1298. [CrossRef]
27. Liu, Y.; Liu, A.; Liu, L.; Kan, Z.; Wang, W. The relationship between water-holding capacities of soybean–whey mixed protein and
ice crystal size for ice cream. J. Food Process Eng. 2021, 44, e13723. [CrossRef]
28. Zheng, Y.; Gao, N.; Wu, J.; Yin, B. Chapter 11—Rice Bran Protein: Extraction, Nutraceutical Properties, and Potential Applications.
In Rice Bran and Rice Bran Oil; Cheong, L.-Z., Xu, X., Eds.; AOCS Press: Urbana, IL, USA, 2019; pp. 271–293.
29. Fiol, C.; Prado, D.; Romero, C.; Laburu, N.; Mora, M.; Alava, J.I. Introduction of a new family of ice creams. Int. J. Gastron. Food
Sci. 2017, 7, 5–10. [CrossRef]
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 14 of 15

30. El-Said, M.M.; El-Messery, T.M.; Salama, H.H. Functional properties and in vitro bio-accessibility attributes of light ice cream
incorporated with purple rice bran. Int. J. Dairy Sci. 2021, 16, 1–10. [CrossRef]
31. Lee, M.H.; Lee, M.K.; Ryu, S.I.; Kim, B.H.; Kim, Y.J.; Jeon, J.E.; Lee, S.H. Quality characteristics of ice creams added with fermented
black rice bran powder. Culi. Sci. Hosp. Res. 2018, 24, 55–61.
32. Song, Y.C.; Cho, J.H.; Lee, J.H.; Kwak, D.Y.; Park, N.B.; Yeo, U.S.; Kim, C.S.; Jeon, M.G.; Lee, J.Y.; Lee, G.H.; et al. A glutinous rice
variety with multiple disease resistance ‘Baegokchal’. Korean J. Breed. Sci. 2013, 45, 31–37. [CrossRef]
33. Oh, Y.J.; Park, T.I.; Park, H.H.; Han, O.K.; Song, T.H.; Park, J.C.; Kim, Y.K.; Park, J.H.; Kang, H.J.; Kang, C.S.; et al. Growth
characteristics and forage productivity of new forage barley variety, ‘Miho’. J. Korean Grassl. Forage Sci. 2016, 36, 370–375.
[CrossRef]
34. Jeong, B.G.; Choi, K.S.; Chun, J.Y. Physicochemical properties of Saeilmi (Oryza sativa Linne) germinated with different steeping
and germination time. Korean J. Food Preserv. 2018, 25, 311–320. [CrossRef]
35. Cho, J.H.; Song, Y.C.; Lee, J.H.; Lee, J.Y.; Son, Y.B.; Oh, S.H.; Han, S.I.; Kim, C.S.; Chung, K.H.; Park, D.S.; et al. ‘Dodamssal
(Milyang261)’, Functional rice as a resistant starch with a high amylose content. Korean J. Breed. Sci. 2019, 51, 515–522. [CrossRef]
36. Kim, B.; Kim, D.-G.; Lee, G.; Seo, J.; Choi, I.-Y.; Choi, B.-S.; Yang, T.-J.; Kim, K.S.; Lee, J.; Chin, J.H.; et al. Defining the genome
structure of ‘Tongil’ rice, an important cultivar in the Korean “Green Revolution”. Rice 2014, 7, 22. [CrossRef]
37. Lee, H.-S.; Choi, Y.-M.; Lee, Y.-Y.; Ma, K.-H.; Gwag, J.-G.; Lee, J.R.; Yoon, Y.-T.; Cho, Y.-G.; Lee, S.-Y. Selecting high amylose rice
germplasm combined with NIR spectroscopy at the RDA genebank conserved. Plant Breed. Biotech. 2014, 2, 380–385. [CrossRef]
38. Oh, S.J.; Lee, M.C.; Choi, Y.M.; Lee, S.K.; Oh, M.W.; Ali, A.; Chae, B.S.; Hyun, D.Y. Development of near-infrared reflectance
spectroscopy (NIRS) model for amylose and crude protein contents analysis in rice germplasm. Korean J. Plant Res. 2017, 30,
38–49. [CrossRef]
39. Wang, S.; Li, C.; Copeland, L.; Niu, Q.; Wang, S. Starch Retrogradation: A Comprehensive Review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.
2015, 14, 568–585. [CrossRef]
40. Voronin, G.L.; Roberts, R.; Felix, T.L.; Coupland, J.N.; Harte, F.M. Effect of high-pressure-jet processing on the physiochemical
properties of low-fat ice cream mix. J. Dairy Sci. 2020, 103, 6003–6014. [CrossRef]
41. Akbari, M.; Eskandari, M.H.; Niakosari, M.; Bedeltavana, A. The effect of inulin on the physicochemical properties and sensory
attributes of low-fat ice cream. Int. Dairy J. 2016, 57, 52–55. [CrossRef]
42. Bolliger, S.; Goff, H.; Tharp, B. Correlation between colloidal properties of ice cream mix and ice cream. Int. Dairy J. 2000, 10,
303–309. [CrossRef]
43. Vital, A.C.P.; Santos, N.W.; Matumoto-Pintro, P.T.; da Silva Scapim, M.R.; Madrona, G.S. Ice cream supplemented with grape juice
residue as a source of antioxidants. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 2018, 71, 183–189. [CrossRef]
44. Cho, J.S.; Lee, H.J.; Park, J.H.; Sung, J.H.; Choi, J.Y.; Moon, K.D. Image analysis to evaluate the browning degree of banana (Musa
spp.) peel. Food Chem. 2016, 194, 1028–1033. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Chung, H.S.; Kim, D.H.; Youn, K.S.; Lee, J.B.; Moon, K.D. Optimization of roasting conditions according to antioxidant activity
and sensory quality of coffee brews. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2013, 22, 23–29. [CrossRef]
46. Son, J.R.; Kim, J.H.; Lee, J.I.; Youn, Y.H.; Kim, J.K.; Hwang, H.G.; Moon, H.P. Trend and further research of rice quality evaluation.
Korean J. Crop Sci. 2002, 47, 33–54.
47. Oh, S.; Chae, B.; Lee, M.C.; Choi, Y.M.; Lee, S.; Ko, H.C.; Rauf, M.; Hyun, D.Y. Statistical treatment on amylose and protein
contents in rice variety germplasm based on the data obtained from analysis of near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS).
Korean J. Plant Res. 2018, 31, 498–514.
48. Zhang, W.; Bi, J.; Chen, L.; Zheng, L.; Ji, S.; Xia, Y.; Xie, K.; Zhao, Z.; Wang, Y.; Liu, L.; et al. QTL mapping for crude protein and
protein fraction contents in rice (Oryza sativa L.). J. Cereal Sci. 2008, 48, 539–547. [CrossRef]
49. Nisov, A.; Ercili-Cura, D.; Nordlund, E. Limited hydrolysis of rice endosperm protein for improved techno-functional properties.
Food Chem. 2020, 302, 125274. [CrossRef]
50. Park, J.; Oh, S.K.; Chung, H.J.; Park, H.J. Structural and physicochemical properties of native starches and non-digestible starch
residues from Korean rice cultivars with different amylose contents. Food Hydrocoll. 2020, 102, 105544. [CrossRef]
51. Hasjim, J.; Li, E.; Dhital, S. Milling of rice grains: Effects of starch/flour structures on gelatinization and pasting properties.
Carbohydr. Polym. 2013, 92, 682–690. [CrossRef]
52. Kim, J.M.; Shin, M.S. Effects of particle size distributions of rice flour on the quality of gluten-free rice cupcakes. LWT-Food Sci.
Technol. 2014, 59, 526–532. [CrossRef]
53. Suzuki, K.; Nakamura, S.; Satoh, H.; Ohtsubo, K. Relationship between chain-length distributions of waxy rice amylopectins and
physical properties of rice grains. J. Appl. Glycosci. 2006, 53, 227–232. [CrossRef]
54. Balet, S.; Guelpa, A.; Fox, G.; Manley, M. Rapid visco analyser (RVA) as a tool for measuring starch-related physiochemical
properties in cereals: A Review. Food Anal. Methods 2019, 12, 2344–2360. [CrossRef]
55. Huang, J.; Shang, Z.; Man, J.; Liu, Q.; Zhu, C.; Wei, C. Comparison of molecular structures and functional properties of
high-amylose starches from rice transgenic line and commercial maize. Food Hydrocoll. 2015, 46, 172–179. [CrossRef]
56. Kong, X.; Zhu, P.; Sui, Z.; Bao, J. Physicochemical properties of starches from diverse rice cultivars varying in apparent amylose
content and gelatinisation temperature combinations. Food Chem. 2015, 172, 433–440. [CrossRef]
Foods 2023, 12, 1518 15 of 15

57. Matveev, Y.I.; van Soest, J.J.G.; Nieman, C.; Wasserman, L.A.; Protserov, V.A.; Ezernitskaja, M.; Yuryev, V.P. The relationship
between thermodynamic and structural properties of low and high amylose maize starches. Carbohydr. Polym. 2001, 44, 151–160.
[CrossRef]
58. Erkaya, T.; Dağdemir, E.; Şengül, M. Influence of Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.) addition on the chemical and sensory
characteristics and mineral concentrations of ice cream. Food Res. Int. 2012, 45, 331–335. [CrossRef]
59. Varavinit, S.; Shobsngob, S.; Varanyanond, W.; Chinachoti, P.; Naivikul, O. Effect of amylose content on gelatinization, retrograda-
tion and pasting properties of flours from different cultivars of Thai rice. Starch-Stärke 2003, 55, 410–415. [CrossRef]
60. Park, I.-M.; Ibáñez, A.M.; Zhong, F.; Shoemaker, C.F. Gelatinization and pasting properties of waxy and non-waxy rice starches.
Starch-Stärke 2007, 59, 388–396. [CrossRef]
61. Biasutti, M.; Venir, E.; Marino, M.; Maifreni, M.; Innocente, N. Effects of high pressure homogenisation of ice cream mix on the
physical and structural properties of ice cream. Int. Dairy J. 2013, 32, 40–45. [CrossRef]
62. Thompson, K.R.; Chambers, D.H.; Chambers IV, E. Sensory characteristics of ice cream produced in the U.S.A and Italy. J. Sens.
Stud. 2009, 24, 396–414. [CrossRef]
63. Goff, H.D.; Hartel, R.W. Ice Cream, 7th ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2013.
64. Arbuckle, W.S. Ice Cream Service Handbook; AVI Publishing Co.: Westport, CT, USA, 1976.
65. Meneses, R.; Silva, M.; Monteiro, M.; Rocha-Leão, M.; Conte-Junior, C. Effect of dairy by-products as milk replacers on quality
attributes of ice cream. J. Dairy Sci. 2020, 103, 10022–10035. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Kim, H.; Kim, O.-W.; Kwak, H.S.; Kim, S.S.; Lee, H.-J. Prediction model of rice eating quality using physicochemical properties
and sensory quality evaluation. J. Sens. Stud. 2017, 32, e12273. [CrossRef]
67. Lamberts, L.; De Bie, E.; Vandeputte, G.E.; Veraverbeke, W.S.; Derycke, V.; De Man, W.; Delcour, J.A. Effect of milling on colour
and nutritional properties of rice. Food Chem. 2007, 100, 1496–1503. [CrossRef]
68. Shen, Y.; Zhang, N.; Xu, Y.; Huang, J.; Yuan, M.a.; Wu, D.; Shu, X. Physicochemical properties of hydroxypropylated and
cross-linked rice starches differential in amylose content. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 128, 775–781. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Luo, S.; Zhou, B.; Cheng, L.; Huang, J.; Zou, P.; Zeng, Y.; Huang, S.; Chen, T.; Liu, C.; Wu, J. Pre-fermentation of rice flour for
improving the cooking quality of extruded instant rice. Food Chem. 2022, 386, 132757. [CrossRef]
70. Yoenyongbuddhagal, S.; Noomhorm, A. Effect of physicochemical properties of high-amylose Thai rice flours on vermicelli
quality. Cereal Chem. 2002, 79, 481–485. [CrossRef]
71. Chung, H.J.; Liu, Q.; Lee, L.; Wei, D. Relationship between the structure, physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of
rice starches with different amylose contents. Food Hydrocoll. 2011, 25, 968–975. [CrossRef]
72. Ahmed, J.; Al-Jassar, S.; Thomas, L. A comparison in rheological, thermal, and structural properties between Indian Basmati and
Egyptian Giza rice flour dispersions as influenced by particle size. Food Hydrocoll. 2015, 48, 72–83. [CrossRef]
73. Li, F.; Guan, X.; Li, C. Effects of degree of milling on the starch digestibility of cooked rice during (in vitro) small intestine
digestion. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021, 188, 774–782. [CrossRef]
74. Kraithong, S.; Lee, S.; Rawdkuen, S. Physicochemical and functional properties of Thai organic rice flour. J. Cereal Sci. 2018, 79,
259–266. [CrossRef]
75. Balthazar, C.F.; Silva, H.L.A.; Celeguini, R.M.S.; Santos, R.; Pastore, G.M.; Junior, C.A.C.; Freitas, M.Q.; Nogueira, L.C.; Silva,
M.C.; Cruz, A.G. Effect of galactooligosaccharide addition on the physical, optical, and sensory acceptance of vanilla ice cream.
Int. J. Dairy Sci. 2015, 98, 4266–4272. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.