WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS

Quarter 2, Week 5-7

The Roles of DNA, Genes, Alleles, and Chromosomes in Inheritance

Learning Competencies
• Analyze the vital role of DNA, RNA, and proteins in the transmission of hereditary traits
• Explain how mutation in DNA affects an individual

Vocabulary

• Alleles: Forms of genes responsible for controlling the same trait; different versions of the same gene.
• Amino Acid: Compound with an amino group (–NH2) on one end and a carboxyl group (–COOH) on
the other end; the monomer for polypeptides and proteins.
• Anticodons: Complementary sequence of three nucleotide bases on tRNA that codes for a specific
amino acid.
• Base-Pairing Rule: The observed pairings of nitrogenous bases when strands of DNA, RNA, or both,
pair with each other. In DNA: cytosine–guanine, and adenine–thymine; thymine is replaced by uracil in
RNA.
• Chromatin: Substance made up of DNA and proteins.
• Codons: Sequence of three nucleotide bases on mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.
• Complementary Nucleotides: Nucleotides that pair with one another when strands of DNA, RNA, or
both, pair with one another.
• DNA: A double-stranded nucleic acid that contains the genetic information for cell growth, division, and
function.
• Dominant Allele: An allele that is always expressed when it is present in an individual.
• Epistasis: The interaction between the genes at two or more loci, so that the phenotype differs from
what would be expected if the loci were expressed independently.
• Gene: The fundamental, physical, and functional unit of heredity.
• Genetics: The study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits.
• Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism.
• Hemoglobin: A protein-based component of red blood cells which is primarily responsible for carrying
from the lungs to the tissues of the body.
• Heredity: The passing of genetic factors from parent to offspring.
• Heterozygous: Having dissimilar alleles that code for the same gene or trait.
• Homozygous: Having two identical alleles that code for the same trait.
• Incomplete Dominance: Traits in which the heterozygote shows a different phenotype from the
homozygous dominant phenotype.
• Locus: The location of a gene, or sequence of genes, on a chromosome; plural: loci.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA): Single-stranded molecule of RNA that contains the instructions for protein
synthesis.
• Mutation: A change in the genetic material that results from an error in replication of DNA. Mutations
can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
• Nitrogenous Bases: Nitrogen-containing compounds that are components of DNA and RNA. There
are four nitrogenous bases in DNA: cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine (replaced by uracil in
RNA).
• Nucleotide: The basic building block of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. An organic compound
made up of nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group.
• Phenotype: The physical characteristics of an organism.
• Polygenic: Traits in which several genes contribute to the overall phenotype.
 • Polypeptide: Any organic macromolecule made up of amino acids. Contains carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen.
• Protein: An organic molecule made of one or more polypeptides that performs a specific function.
• Punnett Square: Probability diagram illustrating the possible offspring of a mating.
• Recessive: Having dissimilar alleles that code for the same gene or trait.
• Recessive Allele: An allele that is only expressed when the dominant allele for a trait is not present.
• Replication: Process by which a cell copies its DNA.
• Ribosomal RNA (Ribosome): A spherical molecule made up of a protein and rRNA; the site of protein
synthesis.
• RNA Polymerase: RNA enzyme that synthesizes RNA from the DNA sequence in the nucleus.
• Sickle-Cell Anemia: An autosomal recessive genetic disorder in which some of the red blood cells
take on an abnormal shape.
• Trait: A specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another.
• Transcription: The process that encodes mRNA with a complimentary sequence of nucleotides from
the DNA.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA): Single-stranded molecule of RNA that transfers a specific amino acid to the
ribosome and mRNA during protein synthesis.
• Translation: The process that reads the instructions from mRNA and produces an amino acid
sequence.
• Triplet: Sequence of three nucleotide bases on DNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

What is DNA?
It's a history book - a narrative of the journey of our species through time.
It's a shop manual, with an incredibly detailed blueprint for building every human cell.
And it's a transformative textbook of medicine, with insights that will give health care providers immense new
powers to treat, prevent and cure disease."
- Francis Collins
What Does DNA Look Like?

(See photo on the right)

How much DNA is in one cell?

Genome = 46 chromosomes
Genome = approx. 3 billion base pairs
One base pair is 0.00000000034 meters

DNA sequence in any two people is 99.9%

identical –only 0.1% is unique!
 What makes one cell different from another?

DNA = “the life

instructions of the
cell”

Gene = segment of
DNA that tells the
cell how to make a
certain protein.

Allele = one of two

or more different
versions of a gene

The Human Genome Project Goals

• To sequence (i.e. determine the exact order of nucleotides (A,T,G,C) for ALL of the DNA in a human
cell
• To determine which sections of DNA represent individual genes (protein-coding units).
Effects of Mutations
The majority of mutations have neither negative nor positive effects on the organism in which they
occur. These mutations are called neutral mutations. Examples include silent point mutations. They are neutral
because they do not change the amino acids in the proteins they encode.

Many other mutations have no effect on the organism because they are repaired before protein
synthesis occurs. Cells have multiple repair mechanisms to fix mutations in DNA. If a cell’s DNA is
permanently damaged and cannot be repaired, the cell is likely to be prevented from dividing.
Beneficial Mutations
Some mutations have a positive effect on the organism in which they occur. They are called beneficial
mutations. They lead to new versions of proteins that help organisms adapt to changes in their environment.
Beneficial mutations are essential for evolution to occur. They increase an organism’s chances of surviving or
reproducing, so they are likely to become more common over time. There are several well-known examples of
beneficial mutations. Here are just two:

Mutations in many bacteria that allow them to survive in the presence of antibiotic drugs. The mutations
lead to antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria.
A unique mutation is found in people in a small town in Italy. The mutation protects them from developing
atherosclerosis, which is the dangerous buildup of fatty materials in blood vessels. The individual in which the
mutation first appeared has even been identified.
Harmful Mutations
Imagine making a random change in a complicated machine such as a car engine. The chance that the
random change would improve the functioning of the car is very small. The change is far more likely to result in
a car that does not run well or perhaps does not run at all. By the same token, any random change in a gene's
DNA is likely to result in a protein that does not function normally or may not function at all. Such mutations are
likely to be harmful. Harmful mutations may cause genetic disorders or cancer.

A genetic disorder is a disease caused by a mutation in one or a few genes. A human example is cystic
fibrosis. A mutation in a single gene causes the body to produce thick, sticky mucus that clogs the lungs and
blocks ducts in digestive organs.
Cancer is a disease in which cells grow out of control and form abnormal masses of cells. It is generally
caused by mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle. Because of the mutations, cells with damaged DNA
are allowed to divide without limits. Cancer genes can be inherited.
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-biology-flexbook-2.0/section/4.10/primary/lesson/mutation-effects-bio/