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Cross-layer design in the Internet of Things (IoT) issues and possible solutions

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 Cross-layer design in the Internet of Things (IoT)
issues and possible solutions
Nader Ibrahim
101245931
Data Science, Electronics Department
Carleton University
Ottawa, Canada
Naderibrahim3@Cmail.Carleton.ca

Abstract — The Internet of Things (IoT) has become a
vital part of our daily lives, with billions of interconnected
devices exchanging data to automate tasks and improve
efficiency. The Internet is no longer about people, media
and content but includes enterprises' assets and objects as
intelligent entities exchanging information, interacting with
people, supporting business processes, and creating
knowledge. However, IoT applications have many
challenges. Some of the IoT challenges are the high volume
of data generated by the system, which is considered Big
Data; the power management of IoT devices is also
considered a challenge. The complexity of the system and
the heterogeneity creates a challenge for the
interoperability between technologies and standards.
Cross-layer design in the Internet of Things (IoT)
context refers to integrating and optimizing communication
protocols and network architectures across different layers
of the IoT stack. This approach seeks to improve the overall
performance and efficiency of IoT systems by allowing
different layers of the system to work together in a more
coordinated and intelligent way.
This paper discusses the issues and challenges facing
cross-layer design in the IoT system, including IoT devices'
heterogeneity, the IoT network's dynamic nature, security
and privacy concerns. The paper also proposes possible
solutions to overcome these challenges, including adaptive
cross-layer design, context awareness, and trust
management. These solutions can enhance the IoT system's
reliability, scalability, and security, improving performance
and user experience.
opportunities, improving operations' efficiency, and enhancing
individuals' quality of life. [2]
The Internet of Things is dated back to the end of the
1980s; David Nichols and his team at MIT invented the first
IoT device in 1989, and after John Romkey and Simon
Hackett created the Internet Toaster in 1991, where they were
able to control the toaster through the Internet by turning it on
and off [3]
The evolution of IoT started with the beginning of the
web; before that, it was the Pre-Internet, which was Human to
Human communication; after, the Internet of Content was
introduced, which included E-mail, entertainment,..etc. Next
was the Internet of Service, where WEB 2.0 was introduced,
handling E-Productivity, E-Commerce, …etc. Following was
the Internet of People, where Social media started growing
exponentially: Facebook, Skype, Youtube …etc. Currently,
we are in the Internet of Things era where communication is
between Machine to Machine and Machine to Business; in the
Future, the next step will be to let things become intelligent,
and this currently is on the rise with the introduction of AI and
ML [4]

Keywords—Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data,

Heterogeneity, Interoperability, Cross-Layer, Protocol Stack,
Reliability, Scalability, Security
I. INTRODUCTION Figure 1 Evolution of IOT [4]
The Internet of Things (IoT) consists of a network of
interconnected devices, vehicles, and other items directly IoT devices can be found in various applications, including
connected to sensors, software, and connectivity, enabling smart homes, healthcare, transportation, agriculture, and
them to collect and exchange information [1]. The IoT can industrial automation.
revolutionize how we live and work, creating new business
 In a smart home, for instance, IoT devices such as
thermostats, lights, and security systems can be managed
remotely using a smartphone or voice commands [5].
In healthcare, IoT devices such as wearables can monitor
vital signs in real-time and provide feedback to healthcare
professionals, leading to more accurate, rapid diagnoses and
personalized treatment plans [6].
IoT sensors can monitor soil moisture levels and weather
conditions in agriculture to optimize irrigation and fertilization,
leading to higher crop yields and lower water usage [7]. As
shown in Figure 2 below, the farming condition is monitored
with sensors and devices (IoT), and all the data gathered is
transferred to the application through the Internet cloud for
decision-making and optimization.
Figure 2 IoT application for monitoring farming conditions in a
greenhouse [8]
The IoT also transforms how businesses operate, enabling
them to collect and analyze data from multiple sources to gain
insights into customer behaviour, optimize operations, and
develop new products and services. For instance, IoT devices
such as beacons in the retail industry can track store customer
behavior and provide personalized recommendations and
promotions based on their preferences [9].
The IoT market size was valued at 4 B USD in 2021 and is
expected to be around 8.5 billion USD by 2030, where the
manufacturing application business segment will reach 2.9 B
USD by 2030 [10].
Figure 3 IoT Market Size 2021 to 2030 [10]
Despite the many opportunities the IoT presents, several
challenges must be addressed.
One of the critical challenges is security, as IoT devices are
vulnerable to cyberattacks that can compromise sensitive data
and lead to system failures. Many IoT devices are also
designed with limited security features, making them easy
targets for hackers [11].
Another challenge is interoperability, as IoT devices often
use different communication protocols and data formats,
making it difficult to exchange data and collaborate across
other platforms. This resulted in the development new
standards and protocols, such as MQTT and CoAP, to enable
interoperability between IoT devices and platforms [12].
Scalability is another challenge in the IoT, where it is
projected that the number of IoT-connected devices to grow
exponentially in the coming years. This requires new data
processing and storage approaches, such as edge computing
and distributed computing, to deal with the enormous amounts
of data generated by IoT devices [13].
Cross-layer network design has gained much attention in
recent years due to its potential to optimize the performance of
communication networks.
In a traditional communication network, each layer of the
communication protocol stack operates independently, and the
interactions between layers are limited. However, in a cross-
layer design, the layers of the communication protocol stack
are interconnected, and the interactions between layers are used
to optimize the network performance [14].
The goal of cross-layer design is to improve the
performance of communication networks by exploiting the
interdependence between different layers of the
communication protocol stack [14].
This approach will significantly improve the network
performance, such as increased throughput, reduced delay, and
improved energy efficiency. Cross-layer design is essential in
wireless communication networks, where the resources are
limited, and the transmission conditions are variable [15].
Various transmission conditions, such as channel fading,
interference, and noise, characterize wireless communication
networks. These conditions can significantly affect the
network's performance, reducing throughput, increased delay,
and higher energy consumption. Cross-layer design is essential
in wireless communication networks, as it can help to
overcome these challenges and improve network performance
[15].
Cross-layer design in wireless networks involves
integrating information from multiple layers of the
communication protocol stack to optimize network
performance. For instance, in a traditional communication
network, the physical layer is responsible for transmitting data,
and the data link layer is accountable for error correction and
flow control. However, in a cross-layer design, the physical
layer can provide feedback to the data link layer on the channel
conditions, which can adjust the transmission power and the
modulation scheme. This can lead to improved energy
efficiency and reduced delay [16].
 design in IoT. Next, we will discuss the challenges covered in
previous papers and research fields in the paper. Finally, we
will highlight the potential solutions.
The main challenges for cross-link design in IoT that will be
handled in this paper are as follows:
• Complexity
• Standardization
• Security
• Resource Constraints
• QoS (Quality of Service)
• Scalability

III. IOT ARCHITECTURE

The IoT architecture refers to the overall structure of the
Internet of Things (IoT) system, including its various layers,
components, and communication protocols. Showing how they
relate and interact with each other.
Figure 4 Cross-Layer Design It provides a framework for designing and deploying IoT
systems, enabling the integration of physical devices, sensors,
Cross-layer design can also be used to optimize the and software applications into a cohesive system that can
network routing. In a traditional communication network, the collect, process, and analyze data [20].
routing decisions are based on the network topology, and the There is no agreed-on reference architecture at this point,
network layer is responsible for determining the best path for and it was proven how complicated it is to create a reference
data transmission. However, in a cross-layer design, the routing architecture despite many standardization efforts [21].
decisions can be based on the transmission conditions, such as The IoT system is characterized by its vertical fragmentation
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the interference level. This for all possible applications, each of which relies on multiple
can lead to more efficient routing and improved network and different variables and design specifications.
performance [17]. Figure 5 shows the most common IoT Architectures used
Despite cross-layer design's many opportunities, several [22].
challenges must be addressed. One of the critical challenges is
the complexity of cross-layer design, as it involves integrating
information from multiple layers of the communication
protocol stack. This can lead to increased computational
complexity and overhead, impacting the network performance
[18].
More standardization is considered a primary challenge in
cross-layer design, as there currently needs to be standardized
interfaces between different layers of the communication
protocol stack [18].
Developing interoperable cross-layer design solutions with
different network architectures and protocols is challenging.
Despite these challenges, cross-layer design presents many
opportunities for improving the performance of communication
networks. By exploiting the interdependence between different
layers of the communication protocol stack, cross-layer design Figure 5 Common IoT architectures [22]
can significantly improve network performance, such as
increased throughput, reduced delay, and improved energy A. Three-layer IoT Architectures
efficiency [19]. The three-layer IoT architecture is a simplified version of
the IoT architecture consisting of three layers: the perception,
II. OBJECTIVE network, and application layers [23].
Cross-layer design in the Internet of Things (IoT) involves
the interaction between different layers of the IoT architecture
to optimize performance and efficiency. However, there are
several issues related to cross-layer design in IoT.
This paper will start with an overview of the IoT
architecture, discuss the different IoT networks and Cross-layer
 The Interface layer consists of applications that consume
services the service layer provides. These applications may
provide insights, analytics, or control actions relying on the
data collected from the IoT network [25].
This architecture promotes interoperability and
flexibility by enabling diverse devices and systems to
communicate with each other using standard interfaces. It also
enables the creation of new services and applications that can
leverage the data collected from the IoT network. This
Architecture promotes horizontal fragmentation for the IoT
system [25].

Figure 6 Three-Layer IoT Architectures [23]

Perception Layer: The perception layer, also called the

resource layer, mainly aims to collect data from the physical
environment using sensors and other data collection devices.
This layer includes various sensors such as temperature,
humidity, motion, and light sensors, among others. The
perception layer also includes actuators that enable devices to
respond to the collected data and RFID tags utilized widely in
the food industry [24].
Network Layer: The network layer connects the data from
the perception layer to the application layer. It embraces
various communication technologies such as Wi-Fi, Figure 7 SoA IoT Architecture [26]
Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc. The network layer also includes
gateways as mediators between the perception and application C. Midelware Biased Architectures
layers, where The gateways perform data filtering, IoT (Internet of Things) middleware-based architectures
aggregation, and compression before transmitting data to the refer to a design approach that utilizes middleware software to
application layer [24]. facilitate communication and data exchange between devices
Application Layer: It is responsible for developing and and systems in an IoT ecosystem [27].
deploying applications that enable users to interact with the Middleware acts as a transitional layer between the device
IoT system. It includes various applications such as data and application layers, providing services and APIs
analytics, predictive maintenance, and remote monitoring. The (Application Programming Interfaces) that enable devices and
applications enable users to monitor and control devices applications to interact [27].
remotely, automate various processes, and make informed
decisions based on the collected data.
B. Service Oriented Based Architecture (SoA)
SoA (Service-oriented architecture) is a design approach
that uses loosely coupled services to enable communication
and data exchange between various devices and systems in an
IoT system [25].
In this architecture, each device or system in the IoT
network is considered as a service provider or service
Figure 8 Service-based IoT Middleware [27]
consumer. The services provided by each device or system are
exposed through standardized interfaces that other devices or There are various types of middleware-based IoT
systems can consume [25]. architectures, including:
The SoA-based IoT architecture is composed of three Message-Oriented Middleware (MOM) Architecture: This
layers: architecture uses a messaging system to transmit data between
The device layer consists of the sensor devices that collect devices and applications. Devices send messages to a central
data from the environment and interact with other devices in message broker, which then forwards them to the appropriate
the network [25]. application based on predefined rules [28].
The service layer, which provides a set of services that are Publish/Subscribe Middleware Architecture: This
exposed through standardized interfaces. Other devices or architecture enables devices to publish data to a central broker,
systems can use these services in the network [25].
which then forwards it to all the applications that have
subscribed to that particular data stream [29].
Remote Procedure Call (RPC) Middleware Architecture:
This architecture allows devices to call remote procedures
hosted on other devices or servers, enabling them to exchange
data and perform various functions [30].
Data-Centric Middleware Architecture: This architecture
focuses on managing data in an IoT ecosystem, providing
features such as data filtering, aggregation, and storage [31].
IV. IOT NETWORKS
Multi-hop networks are a common type of IoT network
where devices communicate with each other via intermediate
nodes rather than directly with a central hub. There are several
different types of IoT multi-hop networks, each with unique
features and benefits. As following are some of the most
common Multi-hop networks in IoT: Figure 10 MANET architecture
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN): WSNs are multi-hop
Wireless Mesh Networks (WMN): WMNs are a type of
networks commonly used for monitoring and control
multi-hop network where devices communicate with one
applications. They consist of small, battery-powered sensors
another via intermediate nodes that form a mesh network.
that communicate wirelessly with one another to collect and
WMNs are commonly used in municipal and public Wi-Fi
transmit data. WSNs can be used in various settings, such as
networks and smart city applications [35].
agriculture, environmental monitoring, and industrial
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANET): VANETs are a
automation [32].
type of multi-hop network where vehicles communicate to
improve safety and efficiency on the road [36]. They are
commonly used in intelligent transportation systems, such as
collision avoidance and traffic management [37].

Figure 9 Wireless Sensor Network Example [33]

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET): MANETs are
multi-hop networks where mobile devices can move freely.
They do not rely on a fixed infrastructure but instead use peer-
to-peer communication to establish connections between
devices. MANETs are commonly used in military and
emergency response applications and mobile sensor networks
[34].
Figure 11 Vehicular Ad hoc Network Example [37]
Each multi-hop network type has advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice of network type will depend on
the specific application and requirements.
V. CROSS-LAYER DESIGN IN IOT NETWORKS
Cross-layer design in IoT networks refers to designing and
optimizing different network layers in a coordinated and
collaborative manner rather than treating each layer
independently. This approach can improve IoT networks'
performance, reliability, and efficiency [38].
In IoT networks, different network stack layers, such as the
physical, MAC, network, transport, and application layers, are
designed and optimized independently. However, the cross-
layer design aims to break down the barriers between these
layers, allowing for more efficient and effective
communication and coordination [39].
 For example, cross-layer design can be used to optimize
resource allocation, routing, and transmission strategies based
on the constraints and limitations of the IoT application and
the underlying network conditions. By taking a holistic view
of the network and considering interactions between different
layers, cross-layer design can help to improve overall network
performance, reduce energy consumption, and enhance the
quality of service provided to IoT devices and applications
[40].
A. Cross-Layer Design in IoT Networks Cognitive networks
Cognitive networks can also benefit from cross-layer design
in IoT networks. Cognitive networks are intelligent networks
that can learn from their environment and adapt to changing
conditions to optimize performance [41].
Figure 12 Cognitive radio spectrum management framework [42]
The following are some ways in which cross-layer design
can be applied to cognitive networks in IoT:
Cognitive radio: Cognitive radio is a technology that allows
devices to use the available spectrum dynamically. By
implementing cross-layer design, cognitive radios can
optimize their spectrum usage, considering the QoS
requirements of different applications [43].
Network optimization: Cross-layer design can optimize
cognitive networks' performance by considering network
parameters such as channel quality, interference levels, and
resource availability. By optimizing these parameters across
multiple layers, cognitive networks can achieve better
performance and higher efficiency [44].
Dynamic spectrum access: Cross-layer design can enable
dynamic spectrum access in cognitive networks, allowing
devices to dynamically access the available spectrum based on
the QoS requirements of different applications. This approach
can help increase cognitive networks' spectrum efficiency and
improve their overall performance [45].
Machine learning: Machine learning can enable cognitive
networks to learn from their environment and adapt to
changing conditions. By implementing cross-layer design,
machine learning algorithms can be applied across multiple
layers to optimize the network's performance [46].
VI. CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS IN CROSS-LAYER
DESIGN IN IOT
Cross-layer design in IoT networks can present several
challenges that must be addressed to achieve its benefits.
Below are some challenges and solutions in cross-layer design
in IoT [47].
A. Complexity
One of the significant challenges in cross-layer design in
IoT networks is complexity. Cross-layer design involves
coordination and interaction between different layers, which
can increase the system's complexity. This can make designing,
implementing, and maintaining challenging [48].
The following are some of the solutions that can be
implemented to address the challenge of complexity in cross-
layer design in IoT:
Modularity: A modular design approach can be adopted,
where each layer is designed and optimized separately and then
integrated into a cohesive system. This approach can help
reduce the system's complexity and make it more manageable
[49].
Layer abstraction: Abstraction techniques can be used to
hide the details of each layer from other layers, reducing the
complexity of interactions between layers. The system's
complexity can be reduced by presenting each layer as a simple
interface with well-defined inputs and outputs [49].
Systematic design: A systematic design approach can be
used to ensure that each layer is designed with the interactions
between other layers in mind. This method can help to
guarantee that the interactions between layers are well-defined
and consistent [49].
Simulation: Simulation can evaluate the system's
performance before implementation. This approach can help
identify potential issues and reduce complexity by testing
different design alternatives [49].
B. Standardization
Standardization is another significant challenge in cross-
layer design in IoT networks. Cross-layer design requires
compatibility between different layers, which can be
challenging, especially when different vendors develop
different layers. The following are some solutions that can be
implemented to address the challenge of standardization in
cross-layer design in IoT [50]:
Standardization bodies: Standardization bodies such as the
IEEE, IETF, and ITU-T can develop standards that provide a
common framework for IoT devices and applications. These
standards can help to ensure compatibility between different
layers, even if different vendors develop them [51].
Protocol interoperability testing: Interoperability testing can
be used to ensure that different layers from different vendors
work seamlessly together. This approach involves testing the
compatibility of different layers with each other to ensure that
they can interoperate without any issues [51].
 Open-source software: It can be used to develop layers that
are compatible with each other. Open-source software is
available to everyone, and developers can work together to
ensure that the different layers they develop are compatible
with each other [51].
Use of existing protocols: Existing protocols, such as
TCP/IP, can be used as a foundation for IoT networks. These
protocols are well-established, widely used, and extensively
tested, making them a reliable foundation for IoT networks
[50].
C. Security
Security is considered the most critical challenge in cross-
layer design in IoT networks. Cross-layer design can create
new security challenges, as attackers can exploit vulnerabilities
in one layer to compromise other system layers. The following
are some solutions that can be implemented to address the
challenge of security in cross-layer design in IoT [52]:
End-to-end encryption: End-to-end encryption can be used
to secure data transmission between IoT devices and
applications. Encryption guarantees that data is only available
to the intended recipient and cannot be intercepted by attackers
[53].
Figure 13 Secured Data Storage and Sharing [53]
Authentication and authorization: Authentication and
authorization can be used to ensure that only authorized users
and devices can access the IoT network. This approach
involves verifying the identity of the user or device before
granting access to the network [54].
Secure boot and firmware updates: Secure boot and
firmware updates can be used to ensure that IoT devices start-
up securely and are running the latest firmware version. This
approach can help to prevent attackers from exploiting
vulnerabilities in outdated firmware versions [55].
Intrusion detection and prevention: These systems can be
used to detect and prevent unauthorized access to the IoT
network. These systems can monitor the network for suspicious
activity and take action to prevent attackers from
compromising the network [56].
D. Resource Constraints
Resource constraints are another significant challenge in
cross-layer design in IoT networks. IoT devices often have
limited processing power, memory, and energy resources,
which can limit the complexity of the cross-layer design. The
following are some solutions that can be implemented to
address the challenge of resource constraints in cross-layer
design in IoT:
Energy-efficient protocols: Energy-efficient protocols can
be used to reduce the energy consumption of IoT devices.
These protocols can optimize energy resource use and
minimize the data transmission required [57].
Distributed processing: Distributed processing can be used
to distribute the processing workload among different layers of
the IoT network. This approach can help reduce individual
devices' processing load and conserve energy resources [58].
Compression techniques: Compression techniques can
reduce the size of data transmitted between different layers of
the IoT network. This approach can help to reduce the amount
of data transmitted, conserving energy resources [58].
Edge computing: Edge computing can perform processing
tasks closer to IoT devices, reducing the amount of data
transmitted to the cloud. This approach can help reduce
individual devices' processing loaded conserve energy
resources [59].
E. QoS (Quality of Service)
Quality of Service (QoS) is another challenge in cross-layer
design in IoT networks. QoS states the ability of the network to
meet specific performance requirements, such as reliability,
availability, and latency [60].
IoT applications often require different levels of QoS,
depending on the nature of the application. The following are
some solutions that can be implemented to address the
challenge of QoS in cross-layer design in IoT [60]:
Traffic prioritization: Traffic prioritization can be used to
prioritize traffic based on the QoS requirements of different
applications. This approach involves assigning different
priorities to different types of traffic to ensure that critical
traffic receives the necessary resources [60].
Network resource allocation: Network resource allocation
can be used to allocate network resources based on the QoS
requirements of different applications. This approach involves
allocating resources such as bandwidth and processing power
to ensure critical applications receive the necessary resources
[60].
Dynamic adaptation: Dynamic adaptation can be used to
adapt the network to changing QoS requirements. This
approach involves monitoring the network and adapting the
network parameters based on the changing QoS requirements
of the applications [60].
Cross-layer optimization: Cross-layer optimization can be
used to optimize the network's performance across multiple
layers. This approach involves optimizing the parameters of
different layers to ensure that the network meets the QoS
requirements of the applications [60].
 F. Scalability
Scalability is another significant challenge in cross-layer
design in IoT networks. IoT networks must handle many
devices, applications, and users while maintaining high
performance. The following are some solutions that can be
implemented to address the challenge of scalability in cross-
layer design in IoT:
Network virtualization: Network virtualization can create
multiple virtual networks on a single physical network. This
approach can help increase the network's capacity and improve
the IoT network's scalability [61].
Distributed processing: Distributed processing can be used
to distribute processing tasks among different nodes in the
network. This approach can help increase the network's
processing capacity and improve the IoT network's scalability
[62].
Edge computing: Edge computing can perform processing
tasks closer to IoT devices, reducing the amount of data
transmitted to the cloud. This approach can help to reduce the
processing load on the cloud and improve the scalability of the
IoT network [60].
Cloud computing: Cloud computing can provide on-
demand computing resources for the IoT network. This
approach can help scale up the network's processing capacity
as the number of devices and applications increases [63].
Figure 14 Internet of Things (IoT) Cloud Computing [64]
VII. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, cross-layer design in IoT networks is critical
for achieving efficient and reliable communication among IoT
devices. However, it presents several challenges, including
complexity, standardization, security, resource constraints,
QoS, and scalability. To address these challenges, various
solutions can be implemented, such as using energy-efficient
protocols, distributed processing, compression techniques,
edge computing, traffic prioritization, network resource
allocation, dynamic adaptation, cross-layer optimization,
network virtualization, distributed processing, edge computing,
and cloud computing. By implementing these solutions, cross-
layer design in IoT networks can be optimized, leading to
better performance, reliability, and scalability and ensuring IoT
networks can operate efficiently and meet the diverse needs of
different IoT applications.
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