Job Creation Strategies: A

Taxonomy and Literature Review

Office of Private Capital and
Microenterprise (PCM)

May 2016
Contents

Purpose of the Study 3

Methodology 4

Taxonomy of Job Creation Strategies 5

Detailed Summaries by Category 7

Summary of Results 14

Potential Interventions for PCM 15

Appendix 19

2
Purpose of the Study
This brief analysis aims to identify effective strategies for job creation in emerging
markets by…

1 Conducting a brief review of the literature on job creation

• What literature is available on job creation strategies?
• What types of strategies have been reviewed in the literature?

2 Developing a taxonomy of job creation strategies

• What are the different options for strategies that have been used to create jobs (both directly and indirectly)?
• When and where have these strategies been employed in emerging markets?

3 Reporting on what works (and what doesn’t)

• What degree of evidence exists for these job creation strategies?
• What contextual factors or initial conditions are likely to improve or impede each strategy’s success?

4 Providing initial thoughts on USAID’s (and PCM’s) potential role

• Where can USAID make an impact in the job creation space?
• What should the Office of Private Capital and Microenterprise consider when deciding how to get involved?

3
Methodology
Over the course of the two week project, we reviewed more than 35 sources and
conducted 10 interviews to inform our findings
Literature Reviewed Interviews Conducted

• We surveyed a variety of publications to • We also had conversations with a number of

understand the literature on job creation, individuals with expertise in the field of job
including journal articles and reports from creation
donors and other organizations
• A complete bibliography is included in the Interviewees
appendix. Illustrative sources include:
Lawrence Camp
Don Sillers
William Baldridge
Agnes Dasewicz
Rolf Anderson
Jeanne Downing
Rachel Blum
Ken Lanza
Kristin O’Planick
Steve Silcox

4
Taxonomy of Job Creation Strategies
The literature suggests that strategies to create jobs can be broken into four major
categories

Matching Labor
Supply and
Demand

Workforce
Demand for
Development
Labor
(Supply of Labor)
Enabling
Environment

Categorizing the Interventions

Interventions aiming to promote labor-demand within an economy through

Demand for Labor
enterprise development, finance, and direct hiring programs

Workforce Development Interventions seeking to establish a stronger base of qualified labor within an
(Supply of Labor) economy

Matching Labor Supply Interventions that decrease labor market frictions to facilitate the hiring of
and Demand employable talent

Interventions that produce favorable conditions so firms can create jobs and
Enabling Environment
prospective workers can find good employment
5
Taxonomy of Job Creation Strategies
These four categories can be further broken down into more detailed interventions

6
Category 1: Demand-Driven Strategies (1/2)
Interventions aiming to promote labor-demand within an economy
New Firm Formation
• USAID’s Zimbabwe: Works
program evaluated several
Evidence strategies for developing an
Highlights entrepreneurial ecosystem;
Found that the most effective
for job creation was
opportunity identification and
business planning
consultation
• The least effective was
vocational technical training
and entrepreneurial skills
training
Moderate
Effectiveness • Limited evidence that training
Based on alone is effective
Literature • Broader evidence that
Reviewed comprehensive
entrepreneurial ecosystem
support is effective
7 Limited Evidence in Lit. Moderate Evidence in
Reviewed Lit. Reviewed
Demand for Labor
Enterprise Capacity Building
Managerial Support
• An RCT of a Mexican program
that provided consulting to
businesses for one year
yielded no increase in profits or
sales in the year following the
program; however, three years
later businesses that received
consulting had on average 44%
more employees and 55%
higher wages
• A Tunisian program that
provided problem-solving
assistance to 100 enterprises
resulted in 3,694 jobs
Significant
• Selected programs indicate
strong long-term results
• Additional systematic
studies are needed to
confirm these impacts
Significant Evidence in
Lit. Reviewed
Access to Markets
• A Peruvian program that linked
enterprises with markets
helped create more than 80,000
jobs (at a cost of $516 per job)
• An RCT of an Egyptian program
matching SMEs with buyers
found firms with export
opportunities reported 15-25%
higher profits
• An exporting firm is almost 1.5
times more likely than a non-
exporting firm to have high
employment growth (based on
survey of 4,200 firms)
Significant
• Fairly robust evidence that
linkages to export markets
promotes enterprise growth and
employment
• More rigorous studies needed
to confirm these impacts
Category 1: Demand-Driven Strategies (2/2)
Interventions aiming to promote labor-demand within an economy
Wage Subsidies
• In Mexico, a wage subsidy
for employers who agreed
not to lay off workers led to
a 5-13% increase in
Evidence
employment
Highlights
• A systematic review of
active labor market
programs in Latin America
found that wage subsidies
are effective in the first
12-24 months but that
these effects diminish in the
long term
Moderate
Effectiveness • Subsidies are effective in
Based on the medium term, but
Literature sustained positive
Reviewed employment effects in the
long run are questionable
8 Limited Evidence in Lit. Moderate Evidence in
Reviewed Lit. Reviewed
Demand for Labor
Cash for Work
• A USAID program in Haiti after
the earthquake that hired people
to remove rubble generated
60,505 jobs
• The National Rural Employment
Guarantee Program in India has
mixed results – some studies
indicate it raised incomes by
5% but crowds out self-
employment and other work;
others find few significant
impacts
• A randomized control trial in
Sierra Leone found that a cash
for work program increased
monthly incomes by 26%
Limited
• Programs increase
short-term employment
but no studies have
been done on medium
or long-term impacts
Significant Evidence in
Lit. Reviewed
Enterprise Finance
• A review of access to finance
programs for 50,000 firms across
70 countries found that firms
with access to a loan exhibit
between 1 and 3 percent
greater employment growth
• The introduction of credit
bureaus increases employment
by 5 percent
• An analysis of 39,000 firms
across 98 countries
demonstrated that access to
external investment funds
yielded 4.2% higher
employment growth
Significant
• Evidence is strong for
employment growth in the
short and medium term
• Additional studies are
needed to assess long-term
effects
Category 2: Supply-Driven Strategies
Supply of Labor
Interventions aiming to promote effective supply of qualified labor within an economy

Skill Development1
Investments in Education
Technical and Vocational Ed Soft Skills Development

• Little rigorous evidence
exists surrounding the impact
Evidence of either enrollment or
Highlights curriculum development
programs on job creation, as
these interventions do not lend
themselves to experimental
design
• Across OECD countries, 74%
of people with upper-
secondary education are
employed, vs. just 56% for
those without upper
secondary education
• Randomized evaluations of TVET • Programs have been successful
programs report some positive
results for women (but seldom
for men) and rarely pass the
cost-benefit analysis test
• An analysis of 44 studies on
training in Latin America found few
short term positive effects
although in some cases effects
improved in the long run
• Five TVET World Bank projects
demonstrated improved
employment outcomes but
without trend and comparison
group data
at deterring crime, violence and
other “antisocial” behaviors but
there is no evidence that they
affect employment outcomes
• A World Bank program in Jordan
that provided soft skills training for
women yielded no impact on
employment outcomes
• An analysis of a life skills training
program for 10,000 individuals in
the Dominican Republic yielded
no impact on employment
outcomes

Moderate Moderate Limited

Effectiveness • The returns to education are
well-documented
Based on
• However, more evidence is
Literature
needed regarding curriculum
Reviewed
development programs;
especially STEM programs
9 Limited Evidence in Lit. Moderate Evidence in
Reviewed Lit. Reviewed
• Limited evidence that TVET has • Little to no evidence indicating
significantly positive impacts that soft skills training alone
• Some evidence that programs spur improves employment
indirect job creation by signaling a outcomes
favorable investment climate to
external stakeholders
Significant Evidence in 1: For a more detailed discussion of skill
Lit. Reviewed development, please see the Appendix
Category 3: Matching Labor Supply and Demand
Matching Labor Supply and Demand
Interventions aimed at decreasing labor market frictions to facilitate the hiring of employable talent

Transparency of Labor Skill Certification and

Job Search Assistance
Information and Statistics Credentialing

• Does not lend itself to • A comprehensive NBER • Limited evidence of success or

Evidence randomization or
Highlights counterfactual analysis;
limited evidence of success
or failure
• However, accessible labor
market information, enabled
by the internet boom or
otherwise, will lead to social
benefits with the right
institutional oversight
literature review of job creation
strategies found that job
search assistance programs
have large short-term
impacts, but those impacts
fade relative to the impacts of
private sector interventions
and intensive training
programs
• However, they tend to be
relatively cost effective,
leading to low cost per job
failure due to lack of
experimental or quasi-
experimental evaluations
• However, poor schooling in
development contexts leads to
skill gaps – skills certification
programs could provide a
more transparent method for
employers to differentiate
among potential employees

Limited Moderate Limited

Effectiveness • An unlikely direct policy lever • These programs are • Tends to be an indirect lever
Based on for job creation but a critical moderately effective, • However, useful as an
Literature background component of • Their effectiveness is interventional complement for
Reviewed good labor policy improved when combined clearer facilitation of
• More rigorous evaluation with training and other communications between labor
necessary support services demand and supply
10 Limited Evidence in Lit. Moderate Evidence in Significant Evidence in
Reviewed Lit. Reviewed Lit. Reviewed
Category 4: Enabling Environment (1/3)
Interventions that produce favorable conditions for job seekers – and job-creating firms – to thrive
Infrastructure
Road construction, port improvement,
power initiatives, broadband access
• Create employment through
direct and indirect channels –
Evidence
e.g. access to previously
Highlights
inaccessible markets
• An IFC literature review found
that infrastructure projects tend
to have positive employment
effects, but effects may be
heterogeneous across sectors
as some sectors are exposed to
international competition
Significant
• Effects tend to be strong, but
Effectiveness
longer-term
Based on • Infrastructure projects (i.e. road
Literature construction, broadband) are
Reviewed critical to fostering competitive,
growing industries
11 Limited Evidence in Lit. Moderate Evidence in
Reviewed Lit. Reviewed
Enabling Environment
Regulatory and Business Policy
Labor Policy and Regulation
• The 2013 World Development
Report found “estimated effects [of
labor policy] prove to be relatively
modest in most cases… labor
policies and institutions are
neither the major obstacle nor
the magic bullet creating good
jobs for development”
• The Institute for the Study of Labor
found “regulations that unduly
restrict the flexibility of
employment... Harm entrepreneurs
with high-growth expectations
more than they do mature firms.”
Limited
• Overly stringent labor policy
can be restrictive
• However, addressing this
issue is insufficient for job
creation on its own
Significant Evidence in
Lit. Reviewed
Business Formation Policy
• A study of the impact of a “one-
stop-shop” for business
formation in Mexico found that
employment in eligible
industries increased by 2.8%
• However, a study on a similar
program in Portugal found that
firms created after the reform
were 4.4% more likely to fail in
their first two years compared to
comparable firms before the
reform
Limited
• Low regulatory barriers
surrounding business formation
seem to have modest, positive
impacts on job growth at the
cost of some business failure
Category 4: Enabling Environment (2/3)
Enabling Environment
Interventions that produce favorable conditions for job seekers – and job-creating firms – to thrive

Investment Climate Support

Social Safety Nets
Investment Promotion Export Facilitation

• Foreign Direct Investment has
Evidence been shown to produce high
Highlights quality jobs (e.g. higher wages
than indigenous firms); and
priority sectors (e.g. those
targeted by governments for
investment promotion)
experience a 68% increase in
employment
• A comprehensive review of
investment promotion programs
calculated a cost-per-job-created
of $78
• For every $1 spent by EPA’s,
exports increase by $40;
which, as noted in the “Access
to Markets” bucket, tends to
positively impact employment
• Export facilitation efforts can be
disruptive or diluted when
carried out in environments in
which firms in exposed sectors
are not ready to compete in
international markets or
infrastructure is insufficient
• Studies in Zambia and Mexico
have shown that the poor use
cash transfers productively,
ranging from investing in their
own entrepreneurial start-ups
to hiring laborers to cultivate
land around their homes
• Given that the poor often have a
“portfolio of work” rather than
formal employment, cash
transfers have been extremely
productive in improving those
portfolios through investment

Significant Moderate Significant

Effectiveness • Strong evidence that investment • Some evidence of increases • Cash transfers are a particularly
Based on promotion programs are highly firm productivity and size useful intervention in ultra-poor
Literature effective and cost effective • However, this policy lever is contexts
Reviewed • However, they are context less direct than connecting • However, their impact is less
dependent and require careful individual firms to markets direct on formal than informal
planning employment
12 Limited Evidence in Lit. Moderate Evidence in Significant Evidence in
Reviewed Lit. Reviewed Lit. Reviewed
Category 4: Enabling Environment (3/3)
Enabling Environment
Interventions that produce favorable conditions for job seekers – and job-creating firms – to thrive

Industry and Cluster

Coordination

• A $129.8 million World Bank

Evidence growth-poles project to create
Highlights tourism and mining poles in
Madagascar led to the
creation of more than 13,000
jobs
• The $20 million USAID Kosovo
Cluster and Business Support
project directly created over
5,000 new jobs – at $3,723 per
job – across three clusters, and
increased labor productivity
16.6% among targeted
enterprises

High
Effectiveness • Evidence is generally very strong
Based on • Techniques for analyzing the
Literature indirect impact on jobs (outside
Reviewed of targeted clients/sectors) are
necessary for more
comprehensive M&E
13 Limited Evidence in Lit. Moderate Evidence in Significant Evidence in
Reviewed Lit. Reviewed Lit. Reviewed
Summary of Findings

14
NOTE: Findings are derived only from the literature reviewed and interviews conducted during this two week project; other sources may indicate
somewhat different findings.
Potential Interventions for
PCM
Potential Interventions for PCM (1/2)
There are at least four job creation strategies that are supported in the literature
reviewed and that might be deployable by PCM
1 2
Enterprise Capacity Building
Description:
• Connecting experts with high-potential MSMEs
to tackle these enterprises most pressing business
challenges. These experts may offer specific
technical support or general business
management advice.
• Fostering the creation of market linkages
enabling local MSMEs to sell their goods and
services in international markets. This support can
be direct (e.g. facilitating connections between
international buyers and local sellers) or
indirect (e.g. supporting the creation of policy that
enables those connections).
Illustrative Interventions for PCM:
• Encourage the private sector to support local
incubators and accelerators that fund
entrepreneurs and MSMEs with comprehensive,
high-potential business plans
• Provide financial and strategic support to
consultancies that explicitly target high-potential
MSMEs
16
Enterprise Finance
Description:
• Providing catalytic support to firms to enable
growth that results in increased employment. May
include loans, grants, technical assistance, or
equity investments
• Supporting local venture capital funds that make
targeted investments in firms based on deep
understanding of local conditions and market
needs
Illustrative Interventions for PCM:
• Establish an investment vehicle that provides
targeted support to firms exhibiting high growth
potential with defined expansion strategies
• Provide grants and loans to local banks in
order to facilitate access to finance for local
entrepreneurs and MSMEs
• Work with local financial institutions to establish a
stronger, more sustainable ecosystem for
enterprise finance
Potential Interventions for PCM (2/2)
There are at least four job creation strategies that are supported in the literature
reviewed and that might be deployable by PCM
3 4
Investment Promotion
Description:
• Working with public sector entities – including
national banks, investment promotion agencies,
and finance ministries – to foster the creation of
more favorable investment climates
• Connecting interested external third parties
(banks, impact investment agencies, high net
worth individuals, etc.) with promising
investment projects in host countries. These
linkages can either be direct (e.g. connecting
investors with project/firm leadership) or indirect
(e.g. hosting conferences to advertise and attract
investment for projects and firms)
Illustrative Interventions for PCM:
• Partner with national, regional, or local
Investment Promotion Agencies (IPAs) to attract
external investment and facilitate public-private
partnerships.
• Partner with governments and the privates
sector to host investment conferences to drum
up support for their projects and incentivize foreign
17
investment.
Infrastructure
Description:
• Investing directly in infrastructure projects in
developing countries. Note that “infrastructure”
includes a number of components; most notably
roads, water delivery systems (both for
consumption and irrigation), electrification, and
internet/digital access.
• Fostering interest in infrastructure projects by
raising awareness of the linkages – both direct
and indirect – between these projects and
employment. Working with interested parties to
transform that interest into targeted investment.
Illustrative Interventions for PCM:
• Catalyze investment in road construction by
providing technical assistance, convening
support, and transaction advisory services to
promote access to markets for rural MSMEs
• Leveraging creative techniques such as pay-for-
performance to catalyze investment in otherwise
risky and resource intensive projects, such as
broadband and electrification
Additional Considerations
There are several additional factors to consider when selecting job creation
strategies and designing related interventions

1 Interventions should be customized based on specific industries and geographies:

• Identify industries that are labor intensive and prioritize those with high-growth potential
Identify priority • Consider targeting similar industries across geographies to pilot and then scale
geographies and particular interventions based on what works
industries
• Understand the economic and political conditions in various geographies that will
increase the likelihood of a particular intervention’s success

2
The primary variables affecting success of particular interventions in the literature are1:
Tailor approaches 1) Formality of National and Regional Economies
to the local 2) Initial Levels of Human Capital
economic context 3) Industrial and Competitive Landscape

3
Certain interventions work well together, either because they naturally complement one
Select
another or because they address two sides of a similar problem.
interventions that
work well together For instance: Labor demand-driven interventions, such as enterprise capacity building,
enable firms to grow and hire the skilled laborers being produced by the formal education
to increase impact
system and TVET programs

18 1: For more details on these conditions, please refer to the Appendix.

Appendix
A Note on Workforce Development
The literature on skill development programs does not generally indicate that they
are a direct lever for short-term formal job creation – but they are a critical
backbone of a productive economy

It is clear that a global skills shortage is However, firms face other critical constraints to
limiting employment growth growth, making education and skill development
necessary – but not sufficient – for job creation

The World Bank’s Enterprise Surveys found that

Firms worldwide consistently cite the inability to find
SMEs – which employ the bulk of the workforces of
qualified workers as an obstacle to growth; for
developing countries – rank access to finance and
instance, 61% of Indian employers report a talent
power as substantially more inhibitive to growth
shortage when looking for new employees.
than skills shortages.

This implies a two-sided challenge:

1) Raising skill levels through education and training: Evidence of the ability of technical and vocational education and
training (TVET) to fill medium- or high-skill jobs – where gaps occur – is limited, making it difficult to function as a direct lever for
job creation. However, improving cognitive and technical skills – both through comprehensive education reforms and an
increased emphasis on STEM learning – are likely to be effective for eventually filling these jobs and closing skill gaps
2) Creating jobs that fit the skills of existing labor force participants: If existing low- and medium-skilled workers are unlikely
to reach the levels necessary to substantially close skill gaps in the short run, then labor demand-driven interventions that
“improve the performance of job-creating sectors” (such as enterprise capacity building) – enable firms that hire low- or medium-
skilled workers produced by TVET programs to grow

This is a further indication that an informed, context-driven, diverse portfolio of interventions – featuring input
from all stakeholders – often has the greatest impact

20
Contextual Factors Affecting Job Creation Strategies
A variety of challenges and initial conditions influence the success – and cost
effectiveness – of job creation strategies
Illustrative Factor Description
Formality of National Up to half of economic activity
and Regional in developing economies
Economies corresponds to informal firms
Initial Level of Human Low levels of human capital can
Capital be restrictive to the
development – or fulfillment– of
high quality jobs; almost half of
businesses worldwide expect
talent shortages to negatively
affect their business
Industrial and One-size-fits-all approaches to
Competitive job creation are not effective;
Landscape they must consider competitive
strengths and weaknesses of
the context in question, as well as
its role in the broader economy
21
Comments
Formality affects the design of programs: Interventions may be
targeted at the informal sector, informal sector, or both.
Projects should also factor formality into their objectives: Is the
objective creating formal sector employment, or improving
productivity – and thus incomes – of the informal sector?
This question is not so simple as “Is the workforce skilled or not?”
Programs should also consider:
What skills exist in the economy to be leveraged?
How are those skills distributed among key groups (the
marginalized, youths, across genders, etc.)?
What skills need to be developed based on regional, national,
and global demand?
Which components (primary, secondary, university) of the
formal education system are weak, and which are strong?
The landscape consists of several components, all of which are
critical to the success or failure of job creation programs:
Firm Maturity: How established are existing industry leaders?
Firm Size: To what degree is self-employment key to the economy?
Sectoral Diversity, Strengths, and Weaknesses: What sectors
are productive and why?
A Note on Measurement and Attribution of Job Creation
Directly attributing job creation to interventions can be difficult, and interventions
should take this into account in program design and M&E
The Challenge
Defining jobs
1 It can be difficult to determine what exactly constitutes a “job”: For instance, if an intervention creates no formal,
contracted jobs – but leads to a greater number of hours worked in the informal sector – did it “create jobs?” If so, how many?

Measuring jobs
Job creation programs can have any number of indirect effects: A program connecting manufacturers to international
2 buyers may create jobs not only at the manufacturing firm, but also firms upstream in the supply chain.
These can be even more ambiguous. Consider: should evaluations attempt to capture induced jobs (e.g. those created as
a result of new employees increasing their expenditures)?

Attributing jobs
It can be extremely difficult to establish causality between an intervention and jobs created, especially for interventions
striving for ecosystem development or the development of an enabling environment.
3
Some can be evaluated using randomized, counterfactual-based analysis (e.g. access to finance, skills training), while others
require more advanced econometric techniques (e.g. labor policy reform); in any case, establishing direct causality can be
difficult and resource intensive.

The Implication
Rigorous but Practical M&E:
It is important to invest in evaluation methodologies in order to learn what works, where it works, and why for job creation…
With the understanding that, in many cases, it is difficult to establishing certain, unambiguous causality.
To address this barrier, stakeholders should incorporate rigorous, iterative M&E techniques – while remaining open to
new and untraditional methods (e.g. surveying industry leaders to gauge the quality of the hiring environment).

22
Literature Reviewed (1/3)
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Entrepreneurship Programs, July 2015 Available at SSRN
2. CEPR and University of Oxford, Does FDI Bring Good Jobs to Host Countries? Background paper for the World Development
Report 2013, Javorcik, Beata, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTNWDR2013/Resources/8258024-1320950747192/8260293-
1320956712276/8261091-1348683883703/WDR2013_bp_Does_FDI_Bring_Good_Jobs.pdf
3. CEPR, Prometheus Unbound? The modest benefits of entry deregulation in Portugal, CEPR, September 2014,
http://voxeu.org/article/prometheus-unbound-modest-benefits-entry-deregulation-Portugal
4. Economic Policy Research Institute, Social Cash Transfers and Employment: A note on empirical linkages in developing countries,
Samson, Michael, 2009; https://www.oecd.org/dac/povertyreduction/43280537.pdf
5. ILO, A review of the effectiveness of Active Labour Market Programmes with a focus on Latin America and the Caribbean, March
2016, http://www.ilo.org/global/research/publications/WCMS_459117/lang--en/index.htm
6. Innovation for Poverty Action, Small and Medium Enterprise Program, November 2015, http://www.poverty-
action.org/sites/default/files/publications/SME%20Two%20pager%20Nov%202015%20final.pdf
7. Innovations for Poverty Action, The Impact of Exporting: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Egypt, Innovations for
Poverty Action, http://www.poverty-action.org/study/impact-exporting-evidence-randomized-experiment-Egypt
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Jobs? A Systematic Review of the Evidence for Low and Middle Income Countries, May 2014, http://ftp.iza.org/dp8193.pdf
9. Institute for the Study of Labor, How Productive Are Productive Safety Nets? Evidence from Public Works in Sierra Leone, 2013
10. Institute for the Study of Labor, Life Skills, Employability and Training for Disadvantaged Youth: Evidence from a Randomized
Evaluation Design, June 2012, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---
ed_emp/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_237080.pdf
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Marion, June 2012; http://www.ictsd.org/bridges-news/bridges-africa/news/job-creation-through-trade-challenges-for-african-
countries
12. International Finance Corporation, Meta-Evaluation on Job Creation Effects of Private Sector Interventions, September 2012,
www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/d741f580434405d2aee4ee384c61d9f7/jobs_meta-
evaluation_sept.+4th+big+_final.pdf?MOD=AJPERES
13. International Finance Corporation, The Scope for an Impact of Infrastructure Investments on Jobs in Developing Countries; IFC
Economics Notes, Note 4; April 2012; http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/32da92804db7555c8482a4ab7d7326c0/INR+Note+4+-
+The+Impact+of+Infrastructure+on+Jobs.pdf?MOD=AJPERES

23
Literature Reviewed (2/3)
14. International Institute of Labor, How Labor Market Institutions Affect Job Creation and Productivity Growth,
http://wol.iza.org/articles/how-labor-market-institutions-affect-job-creation-and-productivity-growth/long
15. Journal of Economic Perspectives, Informality and Development, Volume 28, Number 3, 2014;
http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/shleifer/files/informality_may27_abstract.pdf
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e7a74f68fb85/2013_Talent_Shortage_Survey_Results_US_high+res.pdf?MOD=AJPERES
17. McKinsey Global Institute, The World at Work: Jobs, Pay, and Skills for 3.5 Billion People, June 2012
18. NBER, Autor, David; Wiring the Labor Market, October 2000, www.nber.org/papers/w7959.pdf
19. NBER, What Works? A Meta Analysis of Recent Active Labor Market Program Evaluations, July 2015;
papers.nber.org/tmp/38986-w21431.pdf
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ilibrary.org/docserver/download/9611051ec016.pdf?expires=1462475720&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=FA52408261D4358
AFFCC17B0BA644876
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September 2010, https://oig.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/audit-reports/1-521-10-009-p.pdf
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November 2015
23. USAID, Final Evaluation of Kosovo Cluster and Business Support (KCBS), June 2008, pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pdact191.pdf
24. USAID, Final Performance Evaluation for the Zimbabwe: Works Programme, October 2014;
http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pa00k8gs.pdf
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