Nuclear Power Plants

Lecture 10
 Nuclear Power Plants
Introduction

With the acute shortage of other sources of energy, namely fossil-based fuels and hydel source, the use of
nuclear energy has become an inevitable option for both developed and developing countries.

The amount of heat generated by burning 1 kg of nuclear fuel is equivalent to the energy generated by burning
3000 tonnes of coal or 1600 tonnes of oil.

The most important advantage of nuclear energy is that it has no combustion by-products and under safe
working conditions contributes no pollutant to air.

Site selection for producing nuclear energy is completely independent of geographical area and it requires no
fuel transportation networks and large storage facilities.

However, nuclear wastes from a power plant are more hazardous and face severe disposing problems
 Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear Fission
It is a process of splitting up of nucleus of fissionable material like uranium into two or more fragments
with release of enormous amount of energy. Heavy nuclei split into two smaller parts in order to
become more stable. This results in decrease in mass and consequent exothermic energy and emission
of neutrons. Two to three neutrons are emitted per nucleus, which are known as fission neutrons.

The fission neutrons are very fast and can be made to fission other nuclei, thus setting up a chain
reaction.

=
 Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear Fission

▪ The nucleus of U235 is bombarded with high energy neutrons

▪ About 2.5 neutrons are released. 1 neutron is used to sustain the chain reaction. 0.9 neutrons are absorbed by
U238 and becomes Pu239. The remaining 0.6 neutrons escape from the reactor.
▪ The neutrons produced move at a very high velocity of 1.5 x 10 7 m/sec and cause fission of other nucleus of
U235. Thus fission process and release of neutrons take place continuously throughout the remaining material.
▪ A large amount of energy (200 Million electron volts, MeV) is produced.

Kr-92 nucleus

U-235 nucleus
Moderators are provided to slow down the high velocities
Ba-141 nucleus of neutrons and not to absorb them.
 Nuclear Power Plants
Chain Reaction

➢Uranium exists as an isotope in the form of U235 which is unstable.

➢When the nucleus of an atom of Uranium is split, the neutrons
released hit other atoms and split them in turn. More energy is
released each time another atom splits. This is called a chain
reaction.

Neutrons released in fission trigger the fissions of other nuclei

 Uncontrolled Chain Reaction

the rate of fission

The chain reaction is
increases rapidly
not slowed down

energy is released
very quickly
 Controlling Chain Reaction

In Nuclear Power Plants, operators can control the chain reaction. Long rods are inserted among
the fuel assemblies. These "control rods" are made to absorb neutrons, so the neutrons can no
longer hit atoms and make them split. To speed up the chain reaction, plant operators withdraw
the control rods, either partially or fully. To slow it, they insert the control rods.

Fuel
Assemblies

Control rods

Withdraw control rods, Insert control rods,

reaction increases reaction decreases
 Requirement for self-sustaining reaction

▪ Heavy nuclei must be such that they can be fissioned by neutrons of an energy. Such substances are
called fissile materials/species.
▪ Due to collisions with various nuclei, initial high kinetic energy of fission neutron decreases. Thus, for a
sustained reaction, even neutrons with lower energy should be capable of causing fission.
▪ All fissile substances or species should have long half-lives so that rate of decay is not fast.
▪ They should be either available freely in moderate quantities or can be easily produced from available
materials.

1. U233, U235, Pu239 are fissionable by all energy neutrons

2. U238, Th232 and Pu240, are fissionable high-energy neutrons

Only U235 is available in nature as fissionable fuel.

 Nuclear Power Plants
Fuel assemblies Decommissioning of
reactor

Enrichment of Reactor
UF6 Fuel fabrication
(conversion of enriched UF6 to UO
to UO2 and fabrication of fuel
Temporary storage of spent fuel
assemblies)
assemblies underwater or in
Conversion of Uranium-235 as UF6 dry casks
U3O8 Plutonium-239 as PuO2
to UF6 Spent fuel
reprocessing

Low-level radiation with

long half-life

Geologic disposal of
moderate- and high-
level radioactive
wastes
 Nuclear Power Plants
Elements of Nuclear Reactor

Core: Here the nuclear fission process takes place.

Moderator: This reduces the speed of fast moving
neutrons. Most moderators are graphite, water or
heavy water.
➢ Fuel Rods
o Contain the fissionable material
• Also contain a built-in neutron source as
initiator
• Usually Be-9 is used; alpha particles cause
neutron release
o Eventually are “spent” and must be removed
• Handling and long-term storage is the biggest
safety/environmental problem with nuclear
fission. Hasn’t been solved to everyone’s
satisfaction.
o Material: uranium oxide (usually “enriched”
with U235 isotope)
 Nuclear Power Plants
Elements of Nuclear Reactor
➢ Control Rods
o Absorb all the neutrons
• Cadmium, silver, indium rods are used
o Used to control power output
• Or for emergency shutdown

Coolant: They carry the intense heat generated.

The coolant should have high specific heat, high
conductivity, good chemical stability, good pumping
characteristics and low neutron-absorption cross section.
Coolant can be either liquid or gaseous. Water is used as a
coolant, some reactors use liquid sodium as a coolant.
Radiation shield: (thermal shielding) prevents the passage
of radiation to the outside of the reactor. to protect the
people from radiations.
 Nuclear Power Plants
Working Principle

❖A nuclear power plant works in a similar way as a thermal power plant. The difference between the two is in the fuel they
use to heat the water in the boiler(steam generator).
❖Inside a nuclear power station, energy is released by nuclear fission in the core of the reactor.
 Types of Reactors

▪ Boiling water reactors produce steam at top of the core area

▪ Pressurized water reactors keep water from boiling

▪ Light Water Reactors (LWR) use H2O

▪ Heavy Water Reactors (HWR) use D2O or Deuterium oxide

▪ Canadian CANDU (Canadian deuterium oxide) reactor

▪ Mixed oxide (MOX) reactors contain both plutonium and uranium oxides (make from old warheads)

▪ Breeder reactors produce additional radioactive fuel that may be used in conventional reactors
(recyclable?)

▪ Fusion Reactors (based upon Hydrogen) 2H2 into Helium, 1He4

 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)

▪ The water is circulated through the reactor where it converts to water steam mixture.
▪ The steam gets collected above the steam separator.
▪ This steam is expanded in the turbine which turns the turbine shaft.
▪ The expanded steam coming out of the turbine is condensed and is pumped back as feed water by
the feed water pump into the reactor core.
▪ Also the down coming recirculation water from the steam separator is fed back to the reactor core.
 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)
1. Reactor core creates heat
2. Steam-water mixture is produced when very pure water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the core
absorbing heat
3. The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters the two stages of moisture separation where
water droplets are removed before the steam is allowed to enter the steam line
4. Steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces
electricity.
 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)

• Boiling water reactors have part of the water as steam around the fuel
• The water acts as a moderator to slow the neutrons to fission the uranium, while the steam is less dense and
doesn’t moderate well
• If overheating occurs, the steam pushes the water level lower, slows the reaction and is protects the reactor
 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)
Advantages

▪ The reactor vessel is much lighter compared to a PWR as pressure inside the reactor vessel is considerably
smaller than the PWR. This means cost of pressure vessel is less.
▪ The reactor does not require steam generator, pressurizer circulating pump and connecting piping. This
reduces the plant cost further.
▪ Since boiling is allowed inside the reactor, the metal surface temperature is lower than PWR.
▪ Thermal efficiency of this reactor plant is considerably higher than PWR plant.
▪ BWR is more stable than PWR and much stable than any other type of reactor. It is also called as self-
controlled reactor.
 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)
Disadvantages

▪ Light shielding of turbine and piping is necessary. Steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive.
▪ The size of the vessel will be considerably less compared to PWR.
▪ The possibility of ‘burn out’ of fuel is more in this reactor than PWR as boiling of water on the surface of
fuel is allowed.
▪ If it is not properly designed, the BWR might have negative power demand coefficient; when more power is
demanded from reactor it may produce less.
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

▪ Heat is produced in the reactor due to nuclear fission and there is a chain reaction.
▪ The heat generated in the reactor is carried away by the coolant (pressurized-water or heavy water) circulating in
the primary loop.
▪ Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in a secondary loop
producing steam

▪ The purpose of the pressure equalizer is to maintain a

constant pressure of 14 MN/m2. This enables water to carry
more heat from the reactor.
▪ The purpose of the coolant pump is to pump coolant water
under pressure into the reactor core.
▪ The steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing
it to turn the generator, which produces electricity
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

✓The steam generator is a heat exchanger where the heat from the
coolant is transferred on to the water that circulates through the steam
generator. As the water passes through the steam generator, it gets
Steam
converted into steam.
✓The steam produced in the steam generator is sent to the turbine. The
turbine blades rotate.
✓The turbine shaft is coupled to a generator and electricity is produced.
✓After the steam performing the work on the turbine blades by
expansion, it comes out of the turbine as wet steam. This is converted
back into water by circulating

✓The feed pump pumps back the condensed water into the steam
generator.
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

• Water is under high pressure so it can’t flash into steam

• The reaction is modified entirely by the control rods
They control the rate of reaction by moving in and out of the reactor.
•Move in: rate of reaction
•Move out: rate of reaction
•All are moved in: the reactor is shut down
They are made of boron or cadmium that can absorb neutrons.

Two separate water systems are used to avoid radioactive substances

to reach the turbine.
 Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR)
Advantages

▪ Due to high negative temperature coefficient, a PWR is safe and stable in operation and regulation.
▪ Control rods need not be used for load change except only during start-up and slow down reactions.
▪ It has a positive power demand coefficient (due to negative temperature coefficient) and responds greatly to
more power demand.
▪ Uses enriched fuel making the reactor more compact in size.
▪ It provides complete freedom to inspect and maintain the turbine, feed heaters and condensers during
operation.
▪ Water, which is used as a coolant, moderator and reflector is cheap in first cost and available in plenty.
▪ It reduces the fuel cost by extracting more energy per unit weight of fuel.
▪ A PWR is ideally suited to the utilization of fuel designed for higher burn-ups.
 Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR)
Disadvantages

▪ High primary circuit pressure requires a strong pressure vessel with subsequent high capital cost.
▪ Due to low pressure in the secondary circuit (60–70 bar), thermodynamic efficiency is lower (20 %).
▪ Reprocessing of fuel is difficult as it suffers radiation damage.
▪ Presence of high temperature, high-pressure water and corrosion is severe. This means use of stainless steel
for vessel and cladding, which further adds to plant cost.
▪ When γ-radiations pass through the pressure vessel, it results in uneven heating, which induces thermal
stresses on the vessel.
 Light Water Reactor (LWR)

• Ordinary, but pure, deionized (noncorrosive) water is used as a fuel core coolant

• Some reactors have used liquid sodium metal as a “coolant” with a heat exchanger

• The coolant flows around the fuel elements and carries off the heat

• Heat exchangers prevent leakage of the radioactive water into the steam turbines

• The primary side water remains in liquid state due to high pressure

• If the water area vents and goes dry, the core can melt if the reaction isn’t stopped in time (the “China
Syndrome)
 CANDU Reactor

• The Canadian heavy water (Deuterium oxide, DO2) reactor can use unrefined uranium U238 as fuel

• Canada, Argentina, and Pakistan use this reactor type

• This avoids the expense of uranium enhancement, but Deuterium oxide must be separated from ordinary
water

• Deuterium occurs about once in 6500 molecules of water

 CANDU Reactor

Advantages
(i) The fuel need not be enriched.
(ii) No control rods are required; therefore, control is much easier than other types of reactors.
(iii) Fuel tubes are designed to withstand high pressure, therefore cost of the vessel is less.
(iv) Moderator will be kept at low temperature, which increases its effectiveness to slow down neutrons.
(v) This type of reactor has low fuel consumption and higher multiplication factor.
(vi) Time required for site construction will be less compared to PWR and BWR.

Disadvantages
(i) Loss of heavy water is high.
(ii) Leakage is a major problem as there are two mechanically sealed closure per fuel channel.
(iii) Compared to PWR and BWR power density is considerably low; therefore, the reactor size is extremely
large.
(iv) Very high standard of design, manufacture, inspection and maintenance are required.
 Pebble-bed; Breeder Reactor

If the reactor produces more fissionable material than it consumes, it is called a breeder reactor.

• Pebble-bed reactors use fuel (carbon/ceramic pellets sized like a billiard ball

• The balls can be pushed through pipes into the reactor on top and removed at the bottom, thus no
shutdowns are required; refueling is continuous

• Breeder reactors produce more fissile fuel than they consume

• The US (under Pres. Carter’s administration) presently prohibits breeder reactors because of potential
weapons that could be made

• Without breeder reactors, uranium ore may be depleted in ~50 - 80 years

 Fusion Reactor

• Hydrogen can be fused into Helium yielding more energy than was required to create the fusion

• The Shiva machine has 20 lasers that simultaneously strike a small plastic shell containing Deuterium oxide
to create fusion

• Immense amounts of energy fire the 20 lasers simultaneously to cause a negligible amount of fusion
energy

• Remember EROEI, where a high amount of energy must come out

compared to what went in for the conversion to be useful, but this
is the reverse so far
 New Fission/Fusion Reactor

Compact Fusion Neutron Source

“A new fusion-fission hybrid pairs nuclear fission reactors with a
fusion reactor neutron source to eliminate virtually all of their waste
and produce clean power, even with older fission reactor designs.
Reactor Safety Design

Containment Vessel
1.5-inch thick steel

Shield Building Wall

3 foot thick reinforced concrete

Dry Well Wall

5 foot thick reinforced concrete

Bio Shield
4 foot thick leaded concrete with
1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and out

Reactor Vessel
4 to 8 inches thick steel

Reactor Fuel

Weir Wall
1.5 foot thick concrete
 Nuclear Waste

• They are highly radioactive

• Many of them have very
Low level radioactive waste
long half-lives.
▪ Cooling water pipes, radiation suits, etc.
Radioactive waste must be stored ▪ Stored in storage facilities
carefully.
▪ Radioactivity will fall to a safe level after
10 to 50 years.

High level radioactive waste

• used nuclear fuel
• highly radioactive
• embedded in concrete and stored deep
underground for several thousand years
 Nuclear Power Plants

Advantages Disadvantages
▪ Less space requirement ▪ High initial and maintenance costs
▪ Consumes very small quantity of fuel ▪ Not suitable for varying load conditions
▪ Fuel transportation cost is less
▪ Radioactive wastes should be disposed off carefully
▪ Large fuel storage facility is not required
▪ Requires well trained operators
▪ Reliable in operation
▪ Not affected by changes in weather conditions

• The Nuclear power plants work best at constant power

• These plants are excellent for baseload power supply
• Power output from these plants is in the range of 40 to 2000 MW
• Current designs of reactors are for 600 to1200 MW capacity
• More than 450 licensed plants operating in 31 countries
• Produce about 10% of global electrical energy
Nuclear Power Plants
Global Status - 2019
 Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear Power in Pakistan
 Pakistan has a small nuclear power
programme, with 1355 MWe capacity
operating and 2300 MWe under
construction.
 Pakistan's nuclear weapons capabilities
have arisen independently of its civil
nuclear fuel cycle, using indigenous
uranium.
 Because Pakistan is outside the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty, due to its
weapons programme, it is largely excluded
from trade in nuclear plant or materials,
which hinders its development of civil
nuclear energy. However, China is positive
about nuclear cooperation with Pakistan,
and a 2018 International Atomic Energy
Agency programme further supports civil
nuclear power.
 Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear Power in Pakistan
 Nuclear Power Plants
Reactors operating in Pakistan
 Nuclear Power Plants
Reactors under construction in Pakistan
 Nuclear Power Plants
Uranium Formations in Pakistan
More than 1000 sites are available, only following FOUR are mined:
1. Chinji Formations
2. Nagri Formations
3. Dhok Pathan Formations
4. Soan Formations

Chinji Formation: it comprises of Maroon Reddish brown color that is basically composed of Shale and Sand
Stone horizon and their thickness ranges from 1160m – 1400m
Nagri Formations: It comprises of massive Sand Stone and somehow Shale as rare in thin patches, it is mostly
in dark color and its thickness is 1050m - 2075m
Dhok Pathan Formations: This formation is formed due to the cycling of deposition of Shale and Sand Stone
and its thickness is 950m – 1200m
Soan Formation: It is composed of Sand Stone, silt stone, Shale horizon and Conglomerates and its thickness
41
in 300m – 500m
 Nuclear Power Plants
Uranium Fuel Cycle
NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE divided into two parts:-
 FRONT-END - includes MINING of Uranium Ore, EXTRACTION, CONVERSION to "Hex",
ENRICHMENT, and FUEL FABRICATION.
 BACK-END - includes TRANSPORTATION of SPENT FUEL, STORAGE, REPROCESSING,
and DISPOSAL.

NOTE:
1. Transportation of Fabricated Fuel elements has negligible cost as little or no screening is
necessary.
2. Special Provisions are needed for transport of spent fuel for both cycles.
3. For both ONCE-THROUGH and REPROCESSING CYCLES, the FRONT-END is
identical. The differences are only evident at the BACK- END.
 Nuclear Power Plants
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Thanks