Science G9 Ext Educator-14.1.2020 Web

GRADE Extended Programme
9
Educator's
SCIENCE
Book
i
Professor Vassen Naëck - Head, Curriculum Implementation, Textbook Development and Evaluation
SCIENCE PANEL
MAURITIUS INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

Mohun Cyparsade - Coordinator, Associate Professor, MIE
Dr Ravhee Bholah - Associate Professor, MIE
Dr Fawzia Narod - Associate Professor, MIE
Mehendra Katwaroo - Educator
Meenakshi Devi Ramdany - Educator
Veer Ramloghun - Educator
Reunurani Beeharry - Educator
Dominique Bahadoor - Educator
Rubina Hosany - Educator
Design
Vedita Jokhun - Graphic Designer
Bhamini Goorriah - Graphic Designer
© Mauritius Institute of Education (2020)

ISBN: 978-99949-53-60-8
Acknowledgements
The Science textbook panel wishes to thank:
- Dr A. Rumjaun (Associate Professor), V. Narrainsawmy (Lecturer), S. Atchia (Lecturer), K. Moheeput (Lecturer),
R. Milazar Azie (Educator) for their constructive feedback and suggestions.
- Rajendra Korlapu-Bungaree (Senior Lecturer, MIE) for proofreading.
- Prakash Roopun (Senior Laboratory Technician, MIE) for technical support.
- Aschil Poorun (Laboratory Technician, MIE) for technical support.
Consent from copyright owners has been sought. However, we extend our apologies to those we might have overlooked.
All materials should be used strictly for educational purposes.
ii
FOREWORD
This textbook is designed for Year 3 of the Extended Programme (EP). It is based on
the Nine Year Continuous Basic Education (NYCBE) curriculum for Grades 7, 8 and 9
which is accessible through the MIE’s website, www.mie.ac.mu.
The textbook builds upon the competencies acquired in the first two years of the
Extended Programme. The content and pedagogical approaches are adapted to the
cognitive level and profile of the students, while also paving the way for them to
acquire essential skills and knowledge to move to the next level. The fact that the
material is contextualised will certainly make it highly appealing to the learners.
The writing of the textbooks involved several key contributors, namely academics
from the MIE and educators from Mauritius and Rodrigues, as well as other
stakeholders. It took into account feedback obtained during community-of-practice
sessions to ensure relevance and adequacy. This was a highly innovative approach
which promoted a valuable partnership with EP educators during and for the
development of educational resources. We are especially appreciative of the insight
brought by educators whose suggestions emanated from long-standing experience
and practice in the field.
The development of textbooks has been a very challenging exercise for the writers
and the MIE. We had to ensure that the learning experiences of our students are
enriched through approaches which appeal to them, without compromising on
quality. I would, therefore, wish to thank all the writers and contributors who have
produced content of high standard, thereby ensuring that the objectives of the
National Curriculum Framework are skilfully translated through the textbooks.
Every endeavour involves several dedicated, hardworking and able staff whose
contribution needs to be acknowledged. Professor Vassen Naëck, Head Curriculum
Implementation and Textbook Development and Evaluation provided guidance
with respect to the objectives of the NCF, while ascertaining that the instructional
designs are appropriate for the age group targeted. I also acknowledge the efforts
of the graphic designers who put in much hard work to maintain the quality of the
MIE publications. My thanks also go to the support staff who ensured that everyone
receives the necessary support and work environment which is conducive to a
creative endeavour.
I am equally thankful to the Ministry of Education, Human Resources, Tertiary

Education and Scientific Research for actively engaging the MIE in the development
of the textbooks for the reform project.
I wish enriching and enjoyable experiences to all users of the new set of Grade 9
textbooks.
Dr O Nath Varma
Director
Mauritius Institute of Education
iii
PREFACE
This book has been designed for students in the Grade 9 of the
Extended Programme. It is in line with the Nine Year Continuous Basic Education
Programme. Students who have gone through the Foundation year, have been
able to follow the SSR programme followed by the Grade 7 and Grade 8 science
books. The aim of the Grade 9 science programme is to reinforce what was
learnt at the Foundation and Grade 8 levels, and to prepare students to embark
on the Grade 9+ programme in the following year.
This curriculum material includes clear and colourful illustrations

to facilitate the learning of concepts and make them more interesting for
pupils. Even the language is kept to a reasonable level of understanding while
ensuring that extended stream learners also get opportunities to grasp some
new terminologies in science, and recall those learnt at the Foundation and
Grade 8 levels. The book includes, as much as possible, references to aspects of
our everyday life. Students are expected to learn the concepts stipulated by the
Teaching-Learning Syllabus in a conducive learning environment. This includes
provision for ample group interactions for meaningful learning to take place.
Care is also taken to ensure that the fun and play based activities motivate
learners to continue to participate in the teaching – learning process. This book
covers the following strands:
• Models and System,
• Diversity,
• Interactions, and
• Energy.
It is expected that educators provide ample opportunities to learners

through indoor and outdoor activities to explore, ask questions, investigate,
communicate, record their findings and do some critical thinking on the issues
raised during discussions. Educators are also required to ensure that they build
up on what the learner already knows, thus guaranteeing their progression in
the learning path.
Along with the main activities presented in the textbook, educators

need to address the various sections, such as ‘Did you know?’, ‘Find out’,
‘Dictionary corner’ and ‘What I have learnt’. All these undertakings should
be learner-centred. In the ‘Did you know’ section some additional brief
information related to the topic under focus is given to learners. The ‘Find out’
section aims to reinforce the learning process of the students by keeping them
engaged at a higher level, by inviting them to find out information related to
the concepts learnt. The ‘Dictionary corner’ is used to explain some difficult
science terminologies. In the ‘What I have learnt’ section, a summary of main
points raised is displayed. Learners may also find it interesting to summarise
the concepts learnt, through a visual such as a concept summary.
iv
In some of the units, project work is assigned to students. Through
project-based learning learners will develop additional skills such as searching
for information, selecting appropriate information, communication skills,
collaboration, managing deadlines and so on. The questions proposed at the
end of the chapters are graded and vary in terms of difficulty level. Educators
are also required to innovate in designing questions for assessments and for
class works. There are multiple choice questions and fill-in-the-blank type of
questions to check learners understanding of concepts. These questions are
needed to stretch the cognitive process of the children and engage them
in group discussions in order to reach an answer. The book also comprises
questions involving matching, true/false statements and drawing of items.
Educators have the choice to either set all the questions given at the end of the
unit; otherwise, they can set relevant questions as the unit progresses. We hope
that learners have a fruitful and fun based learning experience at the Grade 9
level.
Science panel
v
Table of
Contents
UNIT 1
Models and System
Pg 1-108
1.1 The atmosphere and

Environment around us 1-40
1.2 Light 41-58
1.3 Blood Circulatory System 59-92 UNIT 2
Diversity
1.4 Language of Chemistry 93-108
Pg 109-216
2.1 Measurement of Physical

Quantities 109-130
2.2 Mixtures and Separation
Techniques 131-161
2.3 Light 162-169
UNIT 3 2.4 Motion 170-185
Interactions
2.5 Biodiversity 186-216
Pg 217-236
UNIT 4
3.1 Language of Chemistry 217-236 Energy
Pg 237-262
4.1 Our atmosphere and the

environment 237-238
4.2 Energy, Heat and Temperature 239-262
vi
Models and System 1
1.1 The Atmosphere and Environment around us
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Explain photosynthesis as a process of transforming light energy into chemical energy
• Explain the different steps in the carbon cycle
• Discuss the importance of photosynthesis and respiration in maintaining the composition of
air
• Recognise that the absorption of heat by greenhouse gases is responsible for global warming
• Identify carbon dioxide and methane as greenhouse gases
• Recall some causes of global warming and relate it to climate change
• Identify carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, CFCs and smoke as air pollutants
• State the sources and effects of the listed air pollutants
• Explain the causes and harmful effects of acid rain and global warming
• Discuss measures to prevent air pollution
• Explain the causes and effects of water pollution
• Discuss measures to prevent water pollution
• Show understanding of eutrophication and its harmful effects
Introduction
In Grade 8, you have learnt about the environment and its importance. In this section, you
will learn more about how plants play an important role in maintaining the composition of air
constant. You will also learn about measures to keep the environment clean.
1
1.1 The Atmosphere And Environment Around Us
ACTIVITY 1 – Recalling the process of photosynthesis
Instructions
1. Figure 1 illustrates the process of photosynthesis.

2. Observe Figure 1 carefully.
3. Discuss in groups to complete the sentences in the exercise.
produced Glucose
in leaves produced
Light
Carbon Chlorophyll
dioxide
Roots Water
Oxygen
Figure 1 : The process of photosynthesis
Fill in the blank spaces by choosing the correct answer from the given list.
roots , food , sunlight , photosynthesis , chemical , chlorophyll , oxygen , energy,
carbon dioxide , sugar , leaves , glucose
1. The plant takes in from the atmosphere.
2. Plants absorb water through their and transport it to their leaves.
3. The green matter present in leaves is known as .
4. Chlorophyll traps energy from .
5. In the presence of sunlight, plants convert water and carbon dioxide into
and .
2
The Atmosphere And Environment Around Us Unit
1.1
1
6. The sugar produced during photosynthesis is called .
7. Thus, photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their in the

form of glucose.
8. The form of energy present in the glucose produced during photosynthesis process is
energy.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• During photosynthesis, the chlorophyll present in leaves traps energy from the sunlight.
• Sunlight energy is used to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose
(food).
• The glucose contains chemical energy.
• During photosynthesis, sunlight energy is converted into chemical energy.
Photosynthesis forms part of the carbon cycle. In the next activity, you will learn about the
carbon cycle.
ACTIVITY 2 – Describing the carbon cycle
Instructions
1. Figure 2 illustrates the carbon cycle.
2. Carefully study Figure 2 and read the text given on page 4.
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide
Factory and
Vehicles
emissions
Photosynthesis
Plant
respiration
Animal respiration
Figure 2: The carbon cycle
3
Carbon is an element present in all living organisms (plants and animals). It is also present in
air, rocks and soil. When fossil fuels are burnt, carbon returns into the atmosphere in the form
carbon dioxide.
Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air during photosynthesis. Animals eating plants take
in the carbon present in the plant. Both animals and plants release carbon dioxide through
respiration.
These three processes, namely burning, photosynthesis and respiration, form part of the carbon
cycle.
3. Figure 3 represents the carbon cycle. Write down the processes occurring in the carbon
cycle in the boxes.
Carbon dioxide
in atmosphere
Figure 3
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The three processes involved in the carbon cycle are:
• Photosynthesis
• Respiration
• Burning
4
1.1
1
ACTIVITY 3 – Importance of photosynthesis and respiration in

maintaining the composition of air constant
Instructions
1. Two friends, Robin and Irfan, are enjoying a nature walk. They are talking about
photosynthesis and respiration.
2. Study their statements

During photosynthesis,
1. 2. plants produce oxygen. The oxygen is
All living things use oxygen released in air.
for respiration. Why does the amount
of oxygen in air remain constant
(about 20%)?
Robin Irfan
3.
During respiration, living
things produce carbon dioxide. 4.
Carbon dioxide is taken by
What happens to the carbon dioxide plants for producing their food by
released in the air? photosynthesis.
So both photosynthesis
Robin 5.
and respiration help in maintaining
the composition of air constant.
Irfan
Robin
5
3. Discuss with your friends to answer the questions below.
(a) What gas do plants take in during photosynthesis?
(b) Where do plants obtain that gas?
(c) What gas do plants release during photosynthesis?
(d) Is this gas important for living things? Why?
(e) What gas do living things produce during respiration and release into the air?
4. Tick in the correct column to identify whether each of the following statements is True or
False.
Statement True False

Respiration occurs only in animals
Photosynthesis process takes place in the absence of
sunlight
Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in
the presence of sunlight
Both animals and plants release oxygen in the air
Both respiration and photosynthesis help to maintain
the composition of air constant
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide remains constant in air because of respiration
and photosynthesis.
• In the presence of sunlight, plants take in carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis.
• During photosynthesis, plants produce oxygen, which is released in the air.
• Oxygen is used by all living things for respiration.
• During respiration, living things produce carbon dioxide which is released in the air.
• Both photosynthesis and respiration are important processes which help to maintain
the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide constant in air.
6
1.1
1
ACTIVITY 4 – Recognizing that absorption of heat by greenhouse

gases is responsible for global warming
Instructions:
1. Read the text below
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are gases which trap heat energy from the sun and keep the
Earth’s surface warm. This warm temperature allows the survival of living things. These
GHGs are also known as heat trapping gases. Carbon dioxide and methane are examples
of GHGs. Many human activities release excessive amounts of GHGs in the atmosphere.
This causes an increase in the Earth’s temperature. Global warming is the increase in
Earth’s temperature caused by increased amounts of GHGs in the atmosphere.
Complete the exercise by choosing from the given list of words
atmosphere global warming greenhouse gases warm carbon dioxide
(a) Gases which trap heat in the atmosphere are known as .
(b) They help to keep our planet .
(c) is an example of a greenhouse gas.
(d) Greenhouse gases are found in the .

(e) is caused by an increase in the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
7
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• There are some gases in the atmosphere which trap heat energy from the sun. They are
called greenhouse gases (GHGs). They keep the Earth’s surface warm for the survival of
living things. However, an excess of these gases brings along an increase in the Earth’s
temperature. This is known as global warming. In the next activity, we will learn more
about the greenhouse gases.
ACTIVITY 5 – Identifying greenhouse gases and their sources
Instructions
1. Different human activities are shown in Table 1.

2. Observe each picture shown in Table 1.
3. Discuss with your teacher to identify the greenhouse gas which is released during each
activity.
4. Write your answer in Table 1.
Table 1: Sources of greenhouse gases
Activity Description Greenhouse gas released
Production of electricity in
power stations
Burning of garbage
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1.1
1
Livestock farming
Using motor vehicles
Decaying of organic waste in

landfills
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Some human activities result in the release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Two
common greenhouse gases are methane and carbon dioxide. These gases are released
through the following activities:
• Burning of fuels in power stations and motor vehicles release carbon dioxide.
• Burning garbages causes the release of carbon dioxide.
• Decaying of organic wastes (garbage) causes the release of methane.
• Animal breeding and farming release methane.
9
Deforestation also causes an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. When trees are
cut down , the amount of carbon dioxide increases in air. There are fewer trees, thus less carbon
dioxide is taken by plants for photosynthesis.
The activities shown in Table 1 release increased amounts of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. This causes global warming which is an increase of the Earth’s temperature.
Global warming leads to changes in our climate. This is called climate change.
Activity 6 will help you learn about the effects of climate change.
ACTIVITY 6 – Finding out the effects of climate change
Instructions
1. The figures below illustrate some effects of climate change.

2. Observe each figure carefully.
3. Discuss with your teacher to write down the effect of climate change under each figure.
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1.1
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Climate change is a result of global warming. The effects of climate change are:
• Severe droughts
• Bleaching of corals due to an increase in the temperature of the oceans
• Stronger and more violent cyclones
• Flash floods and torrential rains
• Rise in sea level
• Erosion of the coastal regions
Air Pollution
Clean air is essential for all living things. However, many human activities cause the release
of smoke, dust and harmful gases in the air. This causes air pollution. The harmful substances
present in air are called air pollutants.
Activity 7 will help you identify some air pollutants, their sources and their harmful effects.
ACTIVITY 7 – Identifying air pollutants, their sources and their

harmful effects
Instructions
1. Table 2 gives a list of air pollutants, their sources and effects.

2. Study Table 2.
3. Find out or draw relevant pictures showing sources of air pollutants and their effects.
4. Work in groups of 3 to prepare a poster to show the sources of air pollutants and their
effects. Present your poster to the class.
11
Table 2: Air pollutants
Air Pollutant Sources Effects

• Produced when fuels are Carbon monoxide affects the
Carbon monoxide burnt in limited supply of transport of oxygen by blood
oxygen. and can cause death.
• Released from exhausts of Oxides of nitrogen cause
Oxides of nitrogen motor vehicles respiratory problems and
acid rain.
• Released during volcanic Sulfur dioxide causes
Sulfur dioxide activities. respiratory problems and
• Produced when coal is acid rain.
burnt in power stations
CFCs are present in aerosol CFCs destroy the ozone layer
Chlorofluorocarbons sprays and refrigerants. which protects the earth
(CFCs) They are also used as from the sun’s harmful UV
solvents. rays.
Smokes are released from: Smoke can cause respiratory
• Factory chimneys problems and affect the eyes.
Smoke • Exhaust of motor vehicles
• Power stations
• Forest fires
• Burning of wastes
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Many human activities cause air pollution by releasing harmful substances in the air.
• These harmful substances are called air pollutants.
• The air pollutants have harmful effects on living things and on the environment.
Two harmful effects of air pollution are acid rain and global warming.
In the next activity, you will learn more about acid rain
ACTIVITY 8 – Investigating the causes and harmful effects of acid

rain
Instructions
1. Figure 4 illustrates the causes and effects of acid rain.

2. Study Figure 4 carefully.
12
1.1
1
The gases mix with moisture in the air to

form sulfuric acid and nitric acid. They
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides eventually fall to the earth as acid rain.
are released into the air. These gases
are blown along by the wind.
Fossil fuel such as coal and oil

are burned in factories, homes,
cars and power stations.
Acid rain damages crops, trees,

fish life, building and even human
health.
Figure 4: Causes and harmful effects of acid rain
3. Fill in the blanks below with the correct word using Figure 4.
(a) Two examples of fossil fuels are and .
(b) Gases such as and

are released by factories and vehicles when they burn fossil fuels.
(c) Sulfur dioxide reacts with the droplets of water in clouds to form acid .
(d) Nitrogen dioxide reacts with the droplets of water in clouds to form
acid.
(e) The rain from these clouds then falls as acids and this is known as
.
(f ) Acid rain causes damage to crops, trees, animals and buildings. Acid rain also causes
harm to aquatic and plants.
(g) Acid rain is a result of air .
In the above activities, you have learnt that pure (unpolluted) air is important for the survival of
all living things. You have also learnt that air pollution has many harmful effects.
In the next section, you will learn about measures that can be taken to prevent air pollution.
13
ACTIVITY 9 – Discussing measures to prevent air pollution
Instructions
1. The pictures below illustrate causes of air pollution in our daily life.
2. Discuss with your friends what measures can be taken to prevent air pollution in each case.
3. Write your answer under each picture.
(a)
(b)
(c)
14
1.1
1
(d)
(e)
(f )
(g)
15
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Different activities such as construction, agriculture, transport and burning of wastes

release harmful substances in the air.
• This causes air pollution.
• Air pollution has many harmful effects.
• Therefore, we must take some measures to prevent air pollution.
• The following measures can be taken to prevent air pollution:
- We should avoid burning wastes.
- Filters should be placed in factory chimneys so that harmful substances are not
released in the air.
- Water must be sprayed around crushing plants.
- People must service and maintain their vehicles in good condition so that the
vehicles do not release harmful gases.
- We should avoid burning fossil fuels to produce electricity. We must use clean
sources of energy such as wind energy and solar energy.
Just like air can be polluted, release of harmful substances in water bodies such as rivers and
lakes can cause water pollution. In the next activity, you will learn about water pollution.
ACTIVITY 10 – Explaining the causes and effects of water pollution
Water is essential for all living things on Earth. However, when water is polluted, it is not safe
for use. Polluted water can have many harmful effects. In this section, you will learn about the
causes and effects of water pollution.
Instructions
1. The pictures on pages 17 and 18 illustrate some causes of water pollution.
2. Carefully observe each picture.
3. Cut each of them and glue them in their correct place in the boxes on pages 21 to 27.
4. Write a few words on the effects of such water pollution on the lines provided.
16
1.1
1
17
18
1.1
1
19
20
1.1
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Marine dumping
Effects of marine dumping
21
Release of industrial wastes in water bodies
Effects of industrial wastes
22
1.1
1
Release of sewerage in water bodies
Effects of sewerage
23
Washing clothes in rivers
Effects of washing clothes in rivers
24
1.1
1
Oil spillage in the sea
Effects of oil spillage in the sea
25
Agricultural activities
Effects of agricultural activities
26
1.1
1
Plastic dumping
Effects of plastic dumping
27
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The release of wastes and harmful substances in water bodies (lakes, oceans, rivers,
underground water) is called water pollution. Human activities are the main causes of
water pollution. The following activities cause water pollution:
• Release of sewage in water bodies.

• Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture.
• Industries dumping untreated wastes in water bodies.
• Oil spillage from ships.
• Throwing wastes and garbages on the beaches and riverside and in water bodies.
• Throwing plastic wastes on the beaches, riverside and water bodies.
Water pollution is harmful to humans, animals and plants.

The effects of water pollution are:
• It causes diseases which affect our health.

• It can lead to death of aquatic animals and plants.
• It can destroy ecosystems
• It can cause bad smell which causes discomfort.
When farmers excessively use fertilizers in agriculture, eutrophication occurs and this causes
harm to aquatic life. Activity 11 will help you learn about eutrophication.
ACTIVITY 11 – Understanding eutrophication and its harmful

effects
Instructions
1. Figure 5 illustrates the different steps during eutrophication.
2. Study Figure 5 carefully.
28
1.1
1
Blocked
Fertilizers
sunlight
Runoff
Fish suffocate and die
Leaching
Algae
Plants die as they do not get sunlight
Figure 5: What happens during eutrophication
3) The different steps occurring in eutrophication are given below in incorrect order.
Use Figure 5 and rearrange the steps in the correct order to explain eutrophication.
29
Write your answer below:
• WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

Algae covering the surface of water due to eutrophication
• Eutrophication occurs when farmers use excessive amounts of fertilizers.
• The excess fertilizers flow into rivers, lakes and other water bodies.
• The excess nutrients feed algae and can cause rapid growth of algae in water.
• The algae cover the surface of water, preventing sunlight from reaching other aquatic
plants. The latter die and decompose. This decreases the amount of oxygen in water.
• Fish and other aquatic animals die as they do not get oxygen.
ACTIVITY 12 – Discussing measures that can be taken to prevent

water pollution
Instructions
1. Read the statements given in Table 3.
2. Discuss each of the statements with your friend.
3. Tick the measures which will help to reduce water pollution in Table 3. Justify your answer.
4. Write down your answer in Table 3.
30
1.1
1
Table 3
Statement Tick Justification

Reduce use of pesticides and fertilizers
Dead animals can be thrown in rivers
Reduce use of plastic objects
Paints, varnishes and used motor oil should
not be thrown in rivers
Industries should treat their waste water
before releasing them in the environment
Toxic wastes must be thrown in lakes, not in
rivers
Use fewer chemicals for house cleaning
Throw all plastic wastes in a special waste
bin for plastic
Litter and waste should not be thrown on
the beaches and riverside.
Water pollution is harmful.

The following measures must be taken to prevent water pollution:
• Use fewer chemical products at home.
• Farmers must reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers
• We must not throw garbages and litter on the beaches, river side and in water bodies.
• We must reduce the use of plastic.
• Industries must treat their waste water before releasing it in the environment.
31
Summary of unit
• During photosynthesis, light energy is transformed into chemical energy.
• The carbon cycle involves three processes, namely burning (combustion),
photosynthesis and respiration.
• Photosynthesis and respiration are important for maintaining the composition of air
constant.
• Excess of GHGs in the atmosphere causes global warming.
• Methane and carbon dioxide are greenhouse gases.
• Global warming brings along changes in climate.
• Air pollution occurs when harmful substances (called air pollutants) are released in the
air.
• Examples of air pollutants are carbon monoxide, CFCs, sulfur dioxide, oxides of
nitrogen and smoke.
• Air pollutants cause health problems and global warming.
• Acid rain is caused by sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. It causes harm to crops,
buildings, animals and plants.
• Human activities are the main causes of air and water pollution.
• We must take necessary measures to prevent air and water pollution.
• Eutrophication is a form of water pollution which leads to death of aquatic life. It is
caused when excessive amounts of fertilizers are used.
32
Concept Summary • 1.1 • The Atmosphere and Environment around us
Carbon dioxide in air

taken by
release
release
Vehicles and industries
Plants Animals
in
during
by
by
Burning of fuels
Photosynthesis
Respiration
releases
taken during
Oxygen in air
The Atmosphere And Environment Around Us
1
1.1
Unit
33
34
Concept Summary
1.1
• 1.1 • The Atmosphere and Environment around us
Air Pollution
is the release of
Air pollutants are harmful substances

Air in
examples are
Carbon
monoxide
Sulfur Oxides
Smoke dioxide of nitrogen
Chlorofluorocarbons
CFCs
cause
Acid Rain
Concept Summary • 1.1 • The Atmosphere and Environment around us
Water Pollution is the release of harmful substances
is caused by in Water bodies
on Beaches
Oil Spills Industrial wastes Waste and garbages Sewage Use of excess fertilizers
on Riversides
causes
Eutrophication
1
1.1
Unit
35
WORK OUT
1. Fill in the blanks by choosing from the list of the given words
sulfur dioxide eutrophication respiration algae

chemical pollutants water pollution
(a) Photosynthesis converts light energy to ___________________ energy in plants.
(b) Acid rain is caused by __________________ __________________.
(c) CFCs and smoke are considered as air _________________.
(d) _______________ _______________is the release of harmful substances in water

bodies.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
(e) When too much fertilizer flows into aquatic habitats, ___________________ occurs.
2. Match the sentences in column A to those in column B to complete the correct statements
A B
Photosynthesis process takes place • • brings along climatic changes
Greenhouse gases • • to prevent air pollution
We must adopt good practices • • produce sulfur dioxide in great amount
Global warming • • destroy the ozone layer
Volcanic activities • • in the presence of sunlight
CFCs • • keep the Earth’s surface warm
36
1.1
1
3. State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’
During burning, oxygen is formed
A rise in the ocean temperature causes coral

bleaching
Acid rain does not affect crops
Water pollution is not caused by human activities
Eutrophication creates dead zones in aquatic

habitats
To prevent eutrophication, we must use less

fertilizers

4. (a) Write down two measures that will prevent water pollution.
(b) Name two air pollutants.
(c) Name two processes which help in maintaining the composition of air constant.
5. (a) Name two gases which cause acid rain.
(b) What are the harmful effects of acid rain?
37
(c) Give two measures to prevent acid rain.
6. The figure below illustrates the processes in the carbon cycle. Carefully observe the figure
and answer the questions below:
Carbon dioxide
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Combustion
(a) Which processes release carbon dioxide in the air?
(b) Which process causes a decrease in the amount of carbon dioxide in the air?
(c) Which process is not carried out by animals?
(d) What will happen to the amount of carbon dioxide if we cut down many trees? Explain
your answer.
38
1.1
1
7. Use the clues given below to complete the crossword.

1
R
2
A
3
a
4 5
6
i 7
a i
8
a l t
10
n s i
Across Down
3. A greenhouse gas 1. process by which plants use food and

6. Caused by excess GHGs oxygen to produce energy
8. Contamination of water bodies 2. excess nutrient feeding algae
10. Burning of fossil fuels 4. excess fertilizer flowing in water bodies
5. composed of three processes
7. they bring along global warming and
health problems
9. rain that damages crops
39
8. Use the figure below to write down seven sentences to explain what happens during
eutrophication.
40
Unit
1
1.2 Light
Learning Outcomes
• Investigate the importance of light for vision

• Describe a simple experiment to show that light travels in straight lines
• Describe the reflection of light
• State the laws of reflection
• Use ray diagrams to demonstrate reflection
• Describe the refraction of light
• Investigate refraction of light from daily life examples
• Use ray diagrams to illustrate refraction
Introduction
In Grade 8, you have learnt about energy and light as a form of energy.
In this unit, you will learn more about light.
41
1.2 Light
ACTIVITY 1 – Investigating how light enables us to see
Materials needed:
A shoe box, an eraser, a nail to make the holes
Instructions
1. Make three holes, A, B and C in the shoe box as shown in Figure 1.
hole C
box
B
A
eraser
Figure 1
2. Place the eraser inside the box and close it.
3. Peep inside the box through the hole C. Do you see the eraser? Write your observation.
4. Now block both holes A and B with your hands. Peep again through the hole C. Do you see
the eraser? Write your observation.
5. Remove both hands and peep again through the hole C. Do you see the eraser? Write your
observation.
6. What do you conclude?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• This activity shows that we can see an object only in the presence of light. When there
is no light, we are not able to see anything.
42
Light Unit
1.2
1
ACTIVITY 2 – Investigating how light travels
Materials needed:
Three identical cardboard squares fixed on stands with holes at the centre.
Source of light (lit candle or torch fixed on a stand)
Procedure
1. Place the three cardboards A, B and C so that the three holes are in a straight line as in
Figure 2.
Light travels in a straight line
Figure 2
2. Place the lit candle behind card A.
3. View the flame through card C.

Can you see the light?
4. Move one of the cardboards sideways so that the three holes are no longer in a straight line.
Try viewing the flame once more.
Can you see the flame?
5. Replace the card so that the three holes are again in a straight line. Can you see the flame
again?
6. What do you conclude from this activity about how light travels?
43
1.2 Light
Try the same activity using a flexible hose or paper tube as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• We are able to see the flame only when the three holes and the flame are in a straight
line. So, light travels in a straight line.
A Ray of Light
Since light travels in a straight line, it is represented by a straight line with an arrow.
A ray of light
Beam of Light
Figure 4: Beams of light

A beam of light can be seen across the clouds or from a torch, as shown in Figure 4.
Draw straight lines to represent the three beams shown in Figure 4.
These lines that you have drawn are called beams of light.
44
Light Unit
1.2
1
A beam is a set of rays of light. We can observe it from the sun, a car headlights at night, a lit
torch and even laser.
There are three types of beams (Figure 5). These are:
1. Parallel beam
2. Diverging beam (or divergent beam)
3. Converging beam (or convergent beam)
Parallel beam Divergent beam Convergent beam

Figure 5
In a parallel beam, all the rays are parallel to each other. A laser beam is a parallel beam.
In a converging beam, the rays meet at a point.
In a diverging beam, the rays move further away from each other. A torch normally produces a
diverging beam of light.
Some examples of beams are given.
Parallel beam of light Converging beam of Diverging beam of light

from a laser light from a lens from a torch
Reflection of Light
While getting ready for school, we look at ourselves in the mirror, like the boy is doing in the
picture.
We can see ourselves in the mirror. This happens because light is reflected from the mirror.
In the following activities, we will learn about reflection of light.
45
1.2 Light
ACTIVITY 3 – Investigating reflection of light
Instructions
1. Observe the reflection of a ray of light from a plane (flat) mirror, in Figure 6.
Incident ray
Reflected ray
Normal
point of incidence
Plane (flat) mirror

Figure 6
When a ray of light strikes a mirror, it bounces off the mirror. This bouncing-off from the
mirror is known as reflection.
2. Discuss in your groups and fill in the blanks.
(a) The ray which strikes the mirror is called the ray.
(b) The ray which bounces off the mirror is the ray.
(c) The point at which the ray strikes the mirror is called the
of incidence.
(d) The is a perpendicular line drawn at the point of incidence

on the mirror. It is at right angles (90o) to the surface.
(e) The angle of incidence i, is the angle between the ray and
the normal.
(f ) The angle of reflection r, is the angle between the ray

and the normal.
ACTIVITY 4 – Investigating the laws of reflection
Materials needed:
An A4 sheet of paper, a mirror, a source of laser light, blu-tack, protractor
Procedure
1. Draw a line on a sheet of A4 size paper.
2. Place a mirror on the line and fix it vertically with Blu-tack or something similar.
46
Light Unit
1.2
1
3. Direct a laser light onto the mirror. The light will be reflected as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7
4. Using a pencil, put two dots on the incident ray and two dots on the reflected ray.
5. Then remove the laser and the mirror.
6. Draw the incident and reflected rays.
7. Draw a normal at the point of incidence. The diagram appears as in Figure 6.
8. Measure the angle of incidence (i) and the angle of reflection (r). Record these values.
i = r=
9. Compare the two values and then write your observation.
Alternately, two triangular sheets of paper may be used to compare the two angles, i and r.
These angles are found to be the same.
• When light hits a surface, it is reflected.

• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This is known as the law of
reflection.
DID YOU KNOW…
There is another law of reflection which that states that: the incident ray, the reflected ray
and the normal, all lie on one plane.
47
1.2 Light
ACTIVITY 5a – Observing the properties of an image formed by a

plane mirror
Materials needed:
A large mirror, a graph sheet
Procedure
1. Draw a big letter E on the graph sheet and place it in front of the mirror as shown in
Figure 8.
Figure 8
2. View the image formed in the mirror. Count the number of squares and locate the image.
Can we touch the image formed?
3. Remove the mirror and draw the image of the letter E.
4. Write your observations.
5. Compare the size of the object and the image.
6. Compare the distance of the object and of the image from the mirror.
This activity leads us to the properties of an image formed on a plane mirror. These are:
• The object and image are of the same size.

• The distance of the object and the image from the mirror are equal.
• We have also noticed that we cannot touch the image formed. It is thus called a virtual
image. This also means that the image cannot be projected onto a screen.
48
Light Unit
1.2
1
ACTIVITY 5b – Recognising other properties of images formed by a

plane mirror
Materials needed:
A large mirror or glass pane
Instructions
1. Stand in front of the large mirror as shown in Figure 9.

Right hand
Left hand
of image
Figure 9
2. Lift your right arm.
3. Observe which arm moves in your image.
4. Write your observation.
• We notice that, when we lift our right arm in front of a mirror, the left arm appears to be
raised in the mirror. This observation is called lateral inversion.
• Lateral inversion can also be observed when watching the surface of still water or any
shiny surface.
49
1.2 Light
The Ambulance
Have you ever noticed the word “ambulance” written in front of an ambulance?
The word is laterally inverted. When a driver in front of the ambulance sees the vehicle behind
him in his mirror, the word appears correctly as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10
Refraction of Light
The diagram shows a spoon kept in water. Although the spoon is straight, it looks bent in the
water.
This phenomenon is due to the refraction of light.
Two examples of refraction of light in nature:
1. Rainbow
The formation of a rainbow is an example of the refraction of light.
50
Light Unit
1.2
1
2. Mirage
The formation of a mirage is also an example of the refraction of light.
What is refraction of light?
Refraction is the bending of a ray of light when it travels from one transparent object to another.
Transparent means a material through which light can pass.
The ray diagram below illustrates the refraction of light.
Normal
Angle of
incidence
Point of
incidence Air
Glass
Angle of
refraction
Figure 11
Other applications of refraction
1. Real and apparent position of a fish in water.
The real position of the fish is at point A.
Due to refraction of light the fish appears to be at point B.
51
1.2 Light
2. Real and apparent depth of a swimming pool.
Air
Water
Apparent
depth
Actual
depth Apparent position
Real position
The real position of the object is at A.
Due to refraction of light, the object appears to be at B. As a result, the pool looks shallower.
So we have to be careful!
ACTIVITY 6 – Investigating refraction of light
Materials needed:
Opaque cup, metal coin, water
Instructions
1. Place a coin in the cup.
2. Place your line of sight such that the coin is not visible.
3. Ask your friend to pour water slowly into the cup. The metal coin should not move due to
the water being poured.
4. Observe what happens. Write your observations.
52
Light Unit
1.2
1
• Initially, the coin is not visible. As water is poured into the cup, the coin becomes visible.
This is because refraction of light occurs.
53
1.2 Light
Summary of unit
• Light rays are represented by using straight lines. A beam is a collection of light rays.
• There are three types of beams, namely parallel beam, converging beam and diverging
beam.
• Light reflects from the surface of a plane mirror and other surfaces.
• The image formed by a flat mirror is of the same size as the object. It is also at the same
distance from the mirror.
• The image formed by a flat mirror is laterally inverted.
• Refraction occurs when light travels in different transparent materials.
• The formation of mirage and of rainbow are due to refraction of light.
54
Concept Summary • 1.2 • Light
LIGHT
Reflection Refraction
Travels in
obeys obeys
straight lines
forms beams
Laws of Law of
reflection refraction
apply to Parallel Diverging

Converging
beam beam
beam
mirror
Real and Formation of Formation of

apparent depth rainbow mirage
Light
1
1.2
Unit
55
1.2 Light
WORK OUT
Multiple Choice Questions

1. The diagram below shows a of light.
A Parallel
B Diverging
C Converging
D Reflected
2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of an image formed by a plane mirror?
A Image and object size are equal

B Image and object distance are equal
C The image is laterally inverted
D Angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal
3. As a ray of light travels from air to water,
A it bends towards the normal.

B it bends away from the normal.
C it goes straight.
D it does not pass through the water.
Structured Questions
1. Choose the correct option
(a) Glass and water allow light to pass through them. These are
materials. (transparent, opaque)
(b) A brick wall does not allow light to pass through. The wall is therefore
(transparent, opaque).
(c) Because of , a swimming pool appears shallower. (reflection, refraction)
56
Light Unit
1.2
1
2. Fill in the blanks using correct words.
(a) A beam is a of light rays. There are three types of beam namely
, and beams.
(b) During reflection, the ray, the ray and the
all lie on one . This is the first law of .
(c) We cannot see round a corner because travels in
lines.
(d) Mirrors are very useful. A dentist uses a dental mirror to examine the
of his patients. A driver uses a mirror to see traffic coming from .

Light travels in air and in water or glass. For this reason, air
is a dense medium. Glass and water on the other hand are
media.
Refraction is the of a ray of light when light travels from air to glass or
water. Refraction occurs because light travels at speeds in different media.
When a ray of travels from air to glass or water, the ray bends
the normal. When the ray travels from glass or water to , the ray bends
from the normal.
57
1.2 Light
4. (a) Draw a straight line shaded on one side to represent a plane mirror.
(b) Draw a dotted line perpendicular to the mirror to represent the normal.
(c) Use a protractor to measure an angle of incidence of 30o.

Draw the incident ray.
(d) Use a protractor to measure an angle of reflection of 30o.

Draw the reflected ray.
(e) Label your diagram fully.
5. Matching exercise.
A B
Reflection occurs • • from air to glass
Light is represented using • • in air and water
Refraction occurs when light travels • • rays and beam
Light travels along • • on a mirror
Light travels at different speeds • • straight lines
58
1.3 Blood Circulatory System
Learning Outcomes
• State that the human circulatory system consists of blood, heart and blood vessels
• List the four main components of blood as: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets
• Outline briefly the function(s) of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
• Compare the structure of the different blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries
• Relate the function of each blood vessel to its structure
• Show an awareness that the heart is a pumping organ distributing blood throughout the
body
• Define a pulse and locate a pulse point
• Measure pulse rate at rest and after exercise
• Investigate the increasing effect of physical activity on the pulse rate
• List the examples of cardiovascular diseases as: stroke, heart attack and hypertension
• Show an awareness of the different factors that contribute to cardiovascular diseases and
their preventive measures
• Interpret data from graphs related to cardiovascular diseases
Introduction
Man is a living organism made of many cells. To supply food to all the cells it needs a transport
system.
59
All living things, including man, are made of cells. Cells are the basic unit of life.
Cells can be viewed by using an instrument called a microscope.
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Figure 1: animal cell as seen through a microsocpe
The transport system in man is known as the blood circulatory system.
The blood circulatory system is made of three main components:
1. Blood
2. Blood vessels
3. Heart Heart
Blood vessels
containing blood
Figure 2. Blood circulatory system
Blood - liquid which carries food (e.g sugars), gases (e.g. oxygen) and other substances (e.g.
wastes) from one part of the body to another.
Heart - pumps blood throughout the body
Blood vessels - tubes which carry blood to all parts of the body
60
Blood Circulatory System Unit
1.3
1
ACTIVITY 1 – Understanding blood circulatory system
Figure 3 below shows the water supply system of a city.
Reservoir filled with

water
Pump
Supply pipes
Filtered
House
River Drained
Drain pipes
Figure 3: City water supply system
1. Study Figure 3 and answer the questions which follow.
(a) Water is supplied to the houses through supply pipes. Can you suggest which component
of the blood circulatory system the pipes represent?
(b) All waste water is drained and filtered into the river which is pumped back to the
reservoir. Which part of the circularory system is shown by the pump?
(c) Identify which component is represented by water.
(d) What do the houses represent?
• Man is a large organism which requires a transport system to supply food and gases
(e.g oxygen) to all parts of the body and remove wastes from it.
• The transport system in man is known as the blood circulatory system.
• The blood circulatory system is made of blood, heart and blood vessels.
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Blood
The liquid which runs throughout your body is known as blood. The body of an adult contains
about 5 to 6 litres of blood.
People often donate blood to save the life of needy patients.
Pint of blood
Figure 4. Blood donation
What is the colour of blood shown in the pint?
Can you suggest why it is red?
DID YOU KNOW…
In Mauritius, the blood bank needs around 150 pints of blood every day to save people.
We must encourage people to donate blood and save lives.
You may refer to this website for further information: www.bda-mauritius.org
ACTIVITY 2a – Identifying the components of blood
Figure 5(a) shows a blood sample collected for testing in a Medical laboratory. Figure 5(b) shows
the same blood after some time.
62
1.3
1
Plasma 55% Plasma
White blood
White blood
cells and platelets
cells and blood
platelets
Red blood cells
Red blood cells
Figure 5(a): Blood sample Figure 5(b): Blood sample after some time
1. Study figures 5(a) and 5(b) and answer the questions which follow.
(a) How many layers does blood settle into if left to stand?
(b) Identify the following layers of blood:
(i) The yellow coloured top layer
(ii) The pale white middle layer
(iii) The red bottom layer
(c) How many components are there in blood?
63
ACTIVITY 2b – Identifying the components of blood in a blood

smear
When blood is observed with a microscope, the following cells are observed. Study the
photograph carefully and label the components.
Figure 6: Blood smear
Blood is a red coloured liquid which is made of four components:
• Plasma
• Red blood cell
• White blood cell
• Platelets
Blood consists of 55% of plasma and 45% of blood cells and platelets.
64
1.3
1
Structure and Functions of Components of Blood

Plasma
Blood plasma is a pale yellowish liquid consisting mainly of water and dissolved substances
such as glucose, amino acids, salts, gases (e.g. oxygen), and waste substances. These dissolved
substances are transported in the body.
Blood Cells
Blood cells make up of about 45% of the blood, of which red blood cells are the most abundant.
There are also white blood cells.
Red blood Cells (RBCs)
DID YOU KNOW…
There are about a million red blood cells in each drop of blood. They are made in the bone
marrow.
ACTIVITY 3a – Examining red blood cells
Figure 7(a) shows the structure of red blood cell.
Figure 7(a): An an enlarged structure of red blood cell.
Cell surface membrane Cytoplasm contains no nucleus
Cytoplasm contains
haemoglobin
bi-concave disc shape
Figure 7(b) : Cross section of a red blood cell
65
1. Compare the diagram of a red blood cell (Figure 7(b)) with a typical animal cell (Figure 1)
and fill in the table below. For one feature, the answer is already given.
Features Typical animal cell Red blood cell

Shape of cell
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus present absent
Haemoglobin
(a) State the common features found in both red blood cells and animal cells.
(b) State the role of haemoglobin in red blood cells.
White Blood cells (WBCs)
There are fewer white blood cells than red blood cells. WBCs have a nucleus. They help to
protect the body from germs.
WBCs are made up in the bone marrow.
ACTIVITY 3b – Examining white blood cells
Study Figure 6 and answer the questions below.
1. How many different types of white blood cells are present in the diagram?
2. (a) Draw each type of the white blood cell in the space below. Label the different parts of
each cell.
66
1.3
1
(b) Does it have hemoglobin?
(c) Suggest the roles of white blood cells in our body.
Platelets
Platelets are small cell fragments found in blood. They are important in the clotting of blood.
In this way, they prevent excessive blood loss from the body when a blood vessel is damaged.
They also prevent the entry of germs at the wound.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

•
The functions of components of blood are as follows:
• Red blood cells contain a red pigment known as haemoglobin. They help to bind and
carry oxygen in the body.
• White blood cells protects body against diseases.
One type of WBCs engulfs microorganisms, digests and kills them. The other type
produces antibodies which help in the destruction of germs.
• Plasma transports dissolved substances (e.g. food, gases and others) in the body.
• Blood platelets help to clot blood and this prevents excessive blood loss from the body.
Blood clot also prevents the entry of germs at the site of the wound.
Blood Vessels
Blood is carried around our body through special tubes called blood vessels.
There are three main types of blood vessels:
1. Arteries : carries blood away from heart

2. Veins : carries blood towards the heart
3. Capillaries : carries blood to body cells
DID YOU KNOW…
Arteries divide to form very small vessels known as capillaries which eventually join to form veins.
67
(a)
single layer of cells (b)
single layer of cells
(c)
wall made of a
single layer of cells
Figure 8: Sections of (a) artery, (b) vein and (c) capillary
ACTIVITY 4 – Comparing artery, vein and capillary
1. Study the above figure and fill in the table below using the above information.
An example has been done.
Feature Artery Vein Capillary

Size of lumen small large very small
Thickness of wall
Outer wall
Number of distinct layers of wall
2. With the help of your teacher, give other features of the blood vessels in terms of elastic
wall, blood pressure and presence of valve.
• There are three types of blood vessels: artery, vein and capillary.
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart at high pressure. They have small lumen, their
walls are thicker and more elastic. They do not contain valves.
• Veins carry blood towards the heart at low pressure. They have large lumen, their walls
are thinner and less elastic. They contain valves to prevent backflow of blood.
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessel. They carry blood very close to cells in the body.
They have the smallest lumen, blood pressure is low and they have no elastic wall. They
are only one cell in thickness.
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1.3
1
The Heart
The heart is a muscular pump which pumps blood so that it can circulate around the body.
The heart is made of very strong muscle. The muscle in the heart contracts and relaxes over and
over again, throughout your life. However tired you are, your heart still keeps beating.
Figure 9: Structure of the heart
ACTIVITY 5 – Constructing a paper heart model
Study the steps below to construct a paper heart model.
1. Make a square by folding over the corner 2. Fold in corner so the point touches the
to the edge and cutting off the excess. centre.
Open and refold to locate the centre.
3. Fold in each corner to make a square. 4. Cut off a small part of each of three
corners.
69
5. Leave one corner uncut. 6. This is the heart model.
7. Label the flaps and show the direction 8. Add arteries and veins with directional
of blood flow using arrows. (Valves and arrows on the outside of the model.
differences in heart wall thickness may be
added).
9. Add colour to help students understand

blood circuit. 10. When the model is closed, labels are
hidden.
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1.3
1
Pulse
During each heartbeat, the muscles of the heart contract, causing a wave of pressure which
forces blood through the arteries.
When blood is pumped into an artery, its walls stretch and relax to maintain the flow of blood
under high pressure. The stretching and relaxation of artery walls is known as a pulse.
Pulse rate is the number of pulses in one minute. Each heart beat gives rise to a pulse. Therefore,
a heart beat is equivalent to a pulse.
Some of the common places where a pulse can be felt are the neck and the wrist.
Figure 10: Places where pulses are felt
ACTIVITY 6 – Investigating the effect of physical activity on pulse

rate
1. Draw a results table and be ready to write in your results as you collect them.
2. Work with a friend. Ask him/her to sit very still and relaxed for a few minutes. Then count his/
her pulse rate.
Activity Pulse/ min

carried out for 2 mins You Friend
Rest
Slow walking
Rapid walking
Running
71
3. Now ask your friend to do the exercise mentioned in the table for two minutes.
4. As soon as your friend has finished exercising, count his/her pulse rate again.
5. Continue to count his/her pulse rate for each exercise.
6. Draw a graph to display your results on the next page.
7. After drawing the graph answer the questions which follow.
(a) What was your pulse rate when you were sitting or inactive?
(b) During which exercise is the pulse rate highest?
(c) Suggest why you must rest for some time before the next exercise.
(d) Apart from doing exercises, list down some situations/ activities during which your pulse
rate may increase.
(e) What can you conclude from the above activity?
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1.3
1
• A pulse is the result of stretching and relaxation of the wall of an artery every time the
heart pumps blood in an artery.
• The pulse rate is the number of pulses counted in one minute.
• Pulse rate is higher with increase in any physical activity.
DID YOU KNOW…
Pulse rate is also affected by factors such as sex, age, weight, stress and some drugs.
Cardiovascular Diseases
You have learnt about components of the blood circulatory system. Now you will explore some
common diseases of the blood circulatory system. Cardiovascular disease affects the heart and
the blood vessels. It is usually associated with a build-up of fatty deposits inside the arteries
and an increased risk of blood clots.
The figure below shows a diseased artery.
Normal Artery Diseased Artery
Artery wall
Blood clot
Plaque
(fatty deposits)
Figure 11: Diseased artery
73
ACTIVITY 7 – Demonstrating blockage of artery using the analogy

of a pipe
The diagram below shows a water pipe blocked by different items.
Tap
Water
Water flow
Different items
(include wood, leaves,
cloth, pebbles, mud)
Figure 12: Blocked pipe
1. State what will happen to the water flow when the tap is opened.
2. Referring to Figure 11 on the previous page, state what is represented by
(a) Water
(b) Different items
In the same way, healthy arteries have a smooth lining and allow the blood to flow through
easily. However, saturated animal fats like cholesterol can stick to the walls. This can narrow the
artery and slow down the flow of blood.
The artery walls can become rough. This can cause the blood to clot and block the vessel.
Narrowing of artery causes serious health problems in various parts of the body and lead to
cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack, stroke and hypertension.
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1.3
1
Heart Attack
If an artery supplying oxygen and food to heart muscles is blocked, this can cause a heart
attack.
Stroke
If an artery supplying oxygen and food to brain is blocked the brain cells die causing a stroke.
This may lead to paralysis of parts of the body or the whole body.
Hypertension
If blood pressure increases above the normal range, it damages the lining of blood vessels.
Constant high blood pressure is harmful and is known as hypertension.
DID YOU KNOW…
Our blood pressure rises if we do anything to make our heart beat faster or if the arteries become
narrower.
Cardiovascular diseases are often associated with hereditary factors (inherited genes). Some
diseases such as hypertension tend to run in families.
ACTIVITY 8 – Identifying risk factors of cardiovascular diseases
The diagrams on next page show the risk factors that can cause cardiovascular diseases.
1. Study the diagram and match them correctly with given word(s).
75
• smoking
• obesity
• lack of exercise
• unhealthy food habits
• high salt intake
• excess alcohol consumption
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1.3
1
ACTIVITY 9 – Identifying risk factors of cardiovascular diseases
Stroke, heart attack and hypertension are some of the most common cardiovascular diseases.
1. Study the pictures below. Label them by cutting the words (in the dotted boxes) as shown
on the next page and sticking them with glue.
77
HYPERTENSION
STROKE HEART ATTACK

78
1.3
1
ACTIVITY 10 – Preventive measures of cardiovascular diseases
Cardiovascular diseases can be prevented by having healthy living habits.
Some of the habits are given in the diagrams below.
Cut the photos and stick them on the next page.
79
80
1.3
1
81
82
1.3
1
PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
Avoiding obesity Doing physical exercise regularly
Eating a healthy diet Avoiding smoking
Avoiding excessive alcohol
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ACTIVITY 11 – Interpreting data from graph related to

cardiovascular diseases
The graph shows death due to cardiovascular diseases in a population of 100,000 people in a
country.
Study the graph carefully and answer the questions which follow.
1. How many people died due to cardiovascular diseases in 2007?
2. In which year was the number of deaths highest?
3. Describe the trend shown by the graph from 2007 to 2015.
84
1.3
1
• Three common cardiovascular diseases are:

- heart attack
- stroke
- hypertension
• Things that can cause cardiovascular diseases include:

- diet with a high level of saturated fats/cholesterol.
- obesity
- stress and tension
- high intake of salt in diet
- lack of exercise
- smoking
- drinking too much alcohol.
• One can prevent the diseases by adopting healthy lifestyles, including regular exercises
and avoiding:
- obesity
- stress and tension
- diet with too much of salt
- diet with too much saturated fats and cholesterol
- smoking
- alcohol.
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Summary of unit
• Man is a large organism which requires a transport system to supply food, gases and
remove wastes from the body.
• The transport system in man is known as the blood circulatory system.
• The blood circulatory system is made of blood, blood vessels and the heart.
• Blood is a red coloured liquid which is made of four components: plasma, red blood
cells, white blood cells and platelets.
• Plasma is a yellowish liquid, it transports food and gases around the body.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body.
• White blood cells are of two types and they protect the body against diseases.
• Platelets helps blood to clot and prevent loss of blood at a wound.
• Blood vessels are tubes through which blood is transported throughout the body.
• There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries.
• Arteries carry blood at high pressure away from the heart. Their walls are thicker and
more elastic. They have small lumen.
• Veins carry blood at low pressure towards the heart. Their walls are thinner and less
elastic. They have large lumen.
• Capillaries connect arteries and veins. They are the smallest blood vessels.
• The heart is a muscular pump which ensures that blood flows continuously in blood
vessels.
• When the heart beats, blood comes out at high pressure, causing a wave like motion
in the artery. This is known as pulse.
• Pulse can be felt at the temple, neck, the wrist and other places in the body.
• Diseases which prevent the proper functioning of the circulatory system are known as
cardiovascular diseases.
• Some examples of cardiovascular diseases include stroke, heart attack and
hypertension.
• Risk factors which lead to the development of cardiovascular diseases are obesity,
stress/tension, high salt intake, lack of exercise, smoking, unhealthy food habits and
excess alcohol consumption.
• Some measures to prevent cardiovascular diseases are eating a healthy diet, doing
physical exercise regularly, avoiding obesity, smoking and excess alcohol.
86
Concept Summary • 1.3 • Blood Circulatory System
BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Blood
Blood Vessels Heart
Heart attack
Blood cells Plasma Artery Vein Capillary
Preventive
measures
Transports food Carries blood, Carries blood Carries
Red blood around the body gases and waste towards the blood
White blood Platelets to cells
cells substances away heart
cells
from the heart
Avoiding alcohol
Transport Help blood Avoiding smoking
oxygen around the Protect body to clot in a Blocked artery Avoiding obesity
body against diseases wound Doing regular exercise
Taking healthy diet
Avoiding too much salt in diet
Avoiding stress and tension
Heart attack Stroke Hypertension
Preventive measures
Avoiding alcohol
Avoiding smoking
Avoiding obesity
Doing regular exercise
Blood Circulatory System
Taking healthy diet

Avoiding too much salt in diet
1
Avoiding stress and tension

1.3
Unit
87
WORK OUT

Tick the right answer.
1. The fluid component of blood is called ___________________.
A red blood cells

B plasma
C white blood cells
D platelets
2. Which one of the following best describes the structure of an artery?

Size of Lumen Wall Valves
A Small Thick, Elastic Absent

B Large Thin, Elastic Present
C Large Thick, Non-elastic Present
D Small Thin, Non-elastic Absent
3. Which component of blood contains haemoglobin?

A White blood cells
B Platelets
C Plasma
D Red blood cells
4. Which of the following is NOT a disease of the blood circulatory system?
A Influenza
B High blood pressure
C Stroke
D Heart attack
5. Certain good habits are important to avoid cardiovascular diseases.One of these habits is
A Smoking
B Eating food rich in fat
C Exercising regularly
D Consuming lots of alcoholic drink
6. Blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called
A Arteries
B Veins
C Capillaries
D Venules
88
1.3
1
7. help blood to clot at a wound.
A Red blood cells

B Platelets
C Plasma
D White blood cells
8. Match the statements of column A to those of column B
Column A Column B
White blood cells • • carry oxygen
Platelets • • needs energy to live

Red blood cells • • kill germs
Plasma • • is a disease of the blood circulatory

system
Cell in our body • • help to clot blood
Stroke • • is a yellow liquid
1. Choose the right word given to label Figure 13
platelets red blood cells plasma white blood cells
Figure 13
89
2. Choose the right word to complete the following statements.
(a) Cells in the human body need ________________ to stay alive.
(b) Blood is a ____________ fluid.
(c) Blood is made up of _______ components.
(d) Red blood cells contain _____________,which helps to carry oxygen.
(e) Red blood cells are ____________ than white blood cells.
(f ) Plasma is a ____________fluid.
(g) ___________help blood to clot at a wound.
(h) Valves are present in ____________ .

(i) ____________ is a disease of the blood circulatory system.
(j) Physical activity increases ___________rate.
3 (a). Label the four components of blood shown in the diagram below.
Blood vessel
M
N
O
P
(b) State one function of each component:
M: _______________________________________
N: ____________________________________________
O :__________________________________________________
P: ____________________________________________________
90
1.3
1
4. Identify the three types of blood vessels shown in the diagrams below.
5. Put a tick in the appropriate column to indicate the right answer.
Arteries Veins Capillaries

Carry blood to the heart
Valves present
Blood flows in pulse

Carry blood away from the heart
Large lumen
Exchange of materials at the cells
6. The table below shows the result of an experiment carried out to show the effect of physical
exercise on heart rate.
Stage of Activity Heart rate of Person Heart rate of Person Heart rate of Person
A (beats per minute) B (beats per minute) C (beats per minute)
Before exercise 72 64 70
After exercise 120 110 12
What conclusion can you make from the above activity?
7. Suggest three ways to prevent cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack and hypertension.
91
8. Complete the crossword puzzle with the hints given below.
4 5
7
1. A cardiovascular disease. 5. A vessel which carries blood away from the

heart
2. Can be felt at the wrist and at the 6. The organ which pumps blood all around
temple. the body.
3. Help red blood cells to carry oxygen 7. Is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases
4. Help blood to clot at a wound 8. A blood vessel which carries blood towards
the heart.
92
1.4 Language of Chemistry
Learning Outcomes
• Define the terms element, symbol and atom

• Recognise the periodic table as an arrangement of elements
• Distinguish between metals and non-metals
Introduction
In Unit 2, you have learnt that matter is anything which has mass and occupies space (has
volume). You will also learn that matter can be elements, compounds or mixtures. In this unit,
you will learn about elements and compounds.
You will also learn about how chemists use a distinct language to communicate information
about elements, compounds and chemical reactions.
93
Elements
Elements are the simplest form of matter that can exist. Some common elements are copper,
gold, silver, oxygen, iron, aluminium and carbon.
Gold Copper Silver
Aluminium
Carbon Oxygen
Iron
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler sub-
stances.
Aluminium is an element. Take a piece of aluminium foil and cut it into small pieces. Continue
cutting these small pieces into their smallest possible parts as shown in Figure 1.
The smallest possible part of the foil will still be aluminium. This is because aluminium is an
element.
In the same way, if you cut a piece of carbon into the smallest possible parts, the smallest
parts obtained will still be carbon.
Thus, elements cannot be broken down into any other simpler substances.
Aluminium Foil Small pieces of aluminium

Aluminium Foil
Very small pieces of aluminium
Figure 1
94
Language of chemistry Unit
1.4
1
Elements and the Periodic Table

As at now, there are 118 known elements.
All known elements are represented in a special chart called the Periodic Table.
The elements are arranged in rows (called periods) and columns (called groups) according to
their properties.
A simplified version of the Periodic Table is shown in Figure 2.
H
Hydrogen
He
Helium
Li Be B
Boron
C N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
Lithium Beryllium Carbon
Na Mg Al Si
Silicon
P S
Sulfur
Cl
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Phosphorus
K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn
Manganese
Fe
Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn Ga Ge As
Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
Zinc Gallium Germanium
Rb
Rubidium
Sr
Strontium
Y
Yttrium
Zr
Zirconium
Nb Mo
Niobium
Tc
Molybdenum Technetium
Ru
Ruthenium
Rh
Rhodium
Pd
Palladium
Ag Cd In
Indum
Sn Sb
Antimony
Te
Tellerium
I
Iodine
Xe
Silver Cadmium Tin Xenon
Cs Ba La
Lanthanum
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re
Rhenium
Os
Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt
Platinum
Au
Gold
Hg Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
Cesium Barium Mercury
Fr
Francium
Ra
Radium
Ac
Actinium
Figure 2: Simplified version of Periodic Table
As you see in Figure 2, the names of the elements are given in the Periodic Table.
(You may also refer to the Periodic Table shown on page 263)
Can you identify 5 elements which you have come across earlier?
Where have you come across each element?
Write your answer in Table 1.
Table 1
Element Where have you come across the element?
95
Elements and their Symbols
ACTIVITY 1 – Identifying the symbols of elements
Instructions
1. Study the Periodic Table in Figure 2.
2. (a) What do you see above the name of each element?
(b) This is called the symbol of the element. How can you define the symbol of an element?
3. Use the Periodic Table to complete Tables 2 to 4 with the symbols of the given elements.

Table 2
Table 3
Name of Elements Symbol Name of Elements Symbol
Oxygen O Calcium Ca
Carbon Aluminium Al
Nitrogen Barium
Hydrogen Bromine
Fluorine Helium
Iodine Neon
Sulfur S Argon

Table 4
Name of Elements Symbol
Chlorine Cl
Chromium
Magnesium
Manganese
Zinc Zn
Zirconium
96
1.4
1
4. Study Tables 2 to 4.
Discuss with your teacher to find out how the symbols have been derived for the elements
in:
(a) Table 2
(b) Table 3
(c) Table 4
• Elements are the simplest form of matter that can exist.

• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler
substances.
• Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table according to their properties.
• A symbol is a short-hand way of representing an element.
• The symbols of elements are derived as follows:
- The symbols of some elements use the first letter of their English name. (Elements
in Table 2). The symbol is a capital letter.
- The symbols of some elements use the first and second letter of their English names.
(Elements in Table 3). The first letter is a capital letter and the second is a small letter.
- The names of the elements in Table 4 have the same first and second letter, for
example :
• chromium and chlorine
• magnesium and manganese
In such cases, the symbol consists of the first letter and the first consonant of the
element name.
Chromium – symbol Cr
Chlorine – symbol Cl
97
In addition to this, it is interesting to know that the symbols of some elements are
derived from their Latin names as shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Name of Elements Latin name Symbol
Sodium Natrium Na
Lead Plumbum Pb
Silver Argentum Ag
Iron Ferrum Fe
Gold Aurum Au
Potassium Kalium K
Elements as Metals and Non-metals

Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals based on their properties.
Metals
Metals are shiny in appearance and conduct electricity and heat well.
All metals are solid at room temperature, except mercury which is a liquid.
You must have heard about metals in your daily life. Can you name some? In fact, some common
metals are shown below:
Gold Copper Silver
Aluminium Iron
98
1.4
1
DID YOU KNOW…
Mercury is a liquid metal which is used in the thermometer.
Non-metals
Non-metals are elements which are dull in appearance. Non-metals do not conduct electricity
except carbon.
Most non-metals are gases at room temperature, for example oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and
chlorine.
Iodine, carbon and sulfur are solid non-metals.
Bromine is the only non-metal which is a liquid at room temperature.
N H
I Y
T D
Piece of carbon Sulfur powder
R R
O O
G G
E E
N N
Oxygen gas Nitrogen gas Hydrogen gas Iodine solid

cylinder cylinder cylinder
DID YOU KNOW…
Carbon is the only non-metal which conducts electricity.
99
Activity 2 will help you classify elements as metals and non-metals using the Periodic Table.
ACTIVITY 2 – Classifying elements as metals and non-metals
Instructions
1. Study the Periodic Table given in Figure 2.

2. You will observe a red demarcating line.
Elements found on the right side of the line are non-metals.
Elements found on the left side of the line are metals.
Classify the elements given in Table 6 as metal or non-metal.
Table 6
Name of elements Metal or non-metal

Argon
Bromine
Calcium
Fluorine
Gold
Hydrogen
Helium
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Mercury
Neon
Chlorine
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Potassium
Sodium
Silver
Zinc
Iodine
100
1.4
1
• Elements can be classified as metals or non-metals.

• Metals are shiny in appearance and are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• All metals are solids at room temperature, except mercury which is a liquid.
• Non-metals are dull in appearance.
They do not conduct heat and electricity, except carbon which is a good conductor
of electricity. Most non-metals are usually gases at room temperature, for example
oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine. Some non-metals are solids, for example
iodine, carbon and sulfur. Bromine is a liquid non-metal.
• The position of elements in the Periodic Table can be used to deduce whether they
are metals or non-metals.
Atoms of Elements
In the first part of this unit, you have learnt that an element cannot be broken down into simpler
substances.
You also learnt that when you break down an element to form the smallest possible parts, these
smallest parts will still be the same element.
For example, when a piece of aluminium is cut until the smallest indivisible parts are obtained,
these smallest parts will still be aluminium, as shown in Figure 3.
These smallest indivisible parts of an element are called atoms.
Figure 3: Cutting aluminium into smallest possible parts form atoms.
101
Understanding what are atoms.
Observe the wall in the Figure 4.
Figure 4
• What is the wall made of?
• Were you able to guess correctly?
• Yes, you are right. The wall is made of many similar bricks.
• We say that the bricks are the building blocks of a wall.
• Just as a wall is made of bricks, all elements are made of atoms. The atoms are the
building blocks of elements.
Atoms are extremely small. You cannot see atoms with the naked eye.
Each element is made up of only one kind of atom.
The atoms of one element are different from atoms of another element.
Figure 5 shows three elements, aluminium, gold and carbon, and how the atoms of each
element differ from another element
Gold is an element
made up of only gold
atoms.
Carbon is an element
made up of only carbon
atoms.
Aluminium is an
element made up of
only aluminium atoms.
Figure 5: The atoms of different elements are different from each other.
Elements, which are solids, consist of a very large number of atoms joined together. For example,
in gold, iron, aluminium and carbon, the atoms are close together.
102
1.4
1
Summary of unit
• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
• There are 118 known elements.
• All elements are arranged in a special chart called the Periodic Table.
• Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals.
• All elements are made up of atoms.
• An atom is the smallest indivisible part of an element that can exist.
• The atoms of one element are different from those of other elements.
103
104
Concept Summary
1.4
• 1.4 • Language of Chemistry
MATTER
can exist as
Language of Chemistry
compounds mixtures
elements are represented by a shorthand

way called symbols
are arranged in a chart called
are the smallest

indivisible parts
Periodic Table are are

made up of
atoms substances
which cannot be broken

down into
simpler substances
1.4
1
WORK OUT
1. Use the words from the box to complete the sentences. You may use a word once, more
than once, or not at all.
metals ; element; compounds ; matter; non-metals;

carbon; periodic table; atom; liquid
(a) A substance that is made up of only one type of atom is called an .
(b) can exist as elements, mixtures and .

(c) All elements are arranged in a special chart called the .
(d) Mercury is the only metal which exists as a at room temperature.
(e) Elements can be classified as and .
(f ) The smallest indivisible part of an element is called an .
(g) is the only non-metal which conducts electricity.
2. What do you understand by each of the following terms:
(a) an element
(b) atoms
(c) the symbol of an element
3. (a) Write down one similarity between metals and non-metals.
(b) Write down 2 differences between metals and non-metals.
105
(c) Tick the appropriate column and give the colour of the elements:
Element Metal Non-metal State of the Colour

element at room
temperature
Sodium
Sulfur
Bromine
Mercury
Carbon
106
1.4
1
4. (a) Match the following elements with their symbols.
Elements Symbols
Sodium • • O
Bromine • • K
Sulfur • • Ag
Calcium • • H
Potassium • • Hg
Oxygen • • Au
Chlorine • • C

Cobalt • • Na
Aluminium • • Cu
Hydrogen • • Ca
Mercury • • Br
Gold • • CI
Silver • • S
Copper • • Co
Carbon • • Al
(b Identify all the elements in the above table which have symbols derived from their
Latin names.
107
5. The following statements refer to 5 different elements. Read each statement carefully.
Element 2 is a liquid used

Element 1 is a gas at room
in the thermometer.
temperature.
Element 3 is dull in Element 4 conducts

appearance. electricity. The symbol of element
4 is C.
Element 5 has a shiny

appearance.
Identify which of the above elements are metals. Justify your answer.
108
Diversity 2
2.1 Measurement of Physical Quantities
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• State the SI units of length, mass, volume, time and temperature

• Describe how to measure a variety of lengths with appropriate accuracy using tapes, rules
and a Vernier caliper
• Recognise the main types of errors associated with measurement of length namely paral-
lax error and zero error
• Read electronic balance and spring balance to record mass in their correct units
• Describe how to use a measuring cylinder to measure the volume of a liquid
• Discuss the experimental determination of the volume of a small irregular solid using a
measuring cylinder
• Describe how to measure a variety of time intervals using simple pendulum and digital
stopwatches
• Record the temperature using a laboratory thermometer
Introduction
In Grade 8, you learnt about measurement of length, mass, time, volume and temperature.
You also learnt about the importance of measurement in our everyday life.
In this unit, you will learn about measurement in more details.

109
ACTIVITY 1 – Recalling physical quantities, measurements and

units
Instruction
1. Discuss in your groups and then fill in the table. For each case, write down the instrument
being used, the physical quantity being measured and the unit of measurement.
The first one has been done for you.
Physical quantity:
length
Instrument used:
ruler
Unit of measurement:
cm
Physical quantity:
Instrument used:
Physical quantity:
Instrument used:
Physical quantity:
Instrument used:
Physical quantity:
Instrument used:
110
Measurement of Physical Quantities Unit
2.1
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• There are different kinds of physical quantities which we use in our daily life. These are
length, volume, time, temperature and mass.
• Their units are metre, metre cubed, second, degree celsius and kilogramme.
You will now study measurement of quantities in more details.
The Vernier Caliper

We know about metre rule and measuring tape. Now we will study a new measuring instru-
ment which is the caliper.
Table 1
The vernier caliper The digital caliper
The vernier caliper and the digital caliper are used to measure length accurately, up to one
tenth of a millimetre.
They are used to measure:
1. The external diameter of a circular object,
2. The internal diameter of a circular object, and
3. The depth of a small object.
These measurements are shown in Table 2.

Table2
Photosynthesis
Measuring external Measuring internal Measuring depth

diameter diameter
111
The Digital Caliper

Watches, balances and many measuring instruments and even Vernier calipers, are digital
nowadays. The main advantage of a digital instrument is that it gives the reading directly on
the screen.
Errors
Measurements may involve certain errors. Two common measurement errors are
(i) parallax error and
(ii) zero error (or end error).
Parallax Error
Parallax error is a human error. It is caused by a careless observer.
The following activity illustrates this error.
ACTIVITY 2 – Understanding parallax error
Instructions
1. Observe Figure 1.
The reading on a metre rule is being taken from three different positions by observers A, B
and C.
B 8.3 cm
correct
A
8.2 cm
wrong
C
8.5 cm
wrong
Figure 1
112
2.1
1
2. Note the readings which each observer records.
Observer A cm
Observer B cm
Observer C cm
3. Which observer gets the correct reading?
4. Which error do the other two observers make?
5. How do you avoid making parallax error?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• If we are not careful, we may make parallax error. We need to place our eyes in the
correct position to obtain correct readings.
Parallax Error in using Measuring Cylinder

Parallax error can also occur while using a measuring cylinder.
It occurs when the eyes are incorrectly positioned.
To avoid parallax error, it is important to:
(i) place the eyes opposite to the mark and
(ii) have the line of sight perpendicular to the scale, as shown in Figure 2.
113
Wrong eye position
19.2 cm3
20
19.5 cm3 Correct eye position
19
19.8 cm3
Wrong eye position
Figure 2
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Parallax error occurs when using a measuring cylinder.

This is avoided by placing the eye in level with the meniscus and keeping the line of
sight perpendicular to the scale.
Zero Error
Zero error is an error of the instrument.
It is caused:
(i) by an instrument having damaged ends, or
114
2.1
1
(ii) when the scale does not start at the zero mark
ACTIVITY 3 – Using a ruler with end error
Materials needed:
Ruler having broken end, rectangular object such as an eraser
Instructions
1. Study the diagram below. Discuss in groups and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Does the scale of the ruler start at zero? Explain your answer.
(b) What is this error known as?
(c) Record the reading on the left side of the object.
(d) Record the reading on the right side of the object.
(e) Calculate the length of the object.
115
Another example of zero error is shown in Figure 3.
It shows a reading although there is nothing placed on the pan.
Balance having zero error Balance having no zero error

Figure 3
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A precaution to be taken is to avoid using a ruler having a broken end i.e., with a zero
error. This is done by checking the measuring instrument before using it.
• Even a kitchen balance may have zero error.
• A measurement is useful when it is accurate.
Balances
An electronic balance shown in Table 3 is used to measure mass. It is used in markets.
An electronic balance is very easy to use. It gives the reading directly as shown.
A beam balance is also used to measure mass.
Table 3
Diagram of an electronic Electronic balance used to A beam balance

balance measure mass of fruits
116
2.1
1
A spring balance is another instrument used for measuring mass.

Table 4
Spring balance Using a spring balance to Close look at the readings

measure mass
ACTIVITY 4 – Using a balance with zero error
Materials needed:
A kitchen balance with zero error, a stone
Instructions
1. Observe your balance and check the zero error.
2. Discuss in your groups and then answer the questions that follow.
(a) Note the balance reading.
(b) What is this error known as?
(c) Gently place the stone on the pan. Note the new reading. .
(d) Calculate the true mass of the stone.
(e) How can we be sure of the mass of vegetables that we buy at the market?
117
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• We need to check the zero error of instruments before using them.

Thus, we will get accurate readings.
Volume of Irregular Solids
An irregular solid
An irregular solid does not have a well-defined shape. So, its volume cannot be found by
measuring its length, breadth and height.
Its volume is found by the displacement method.
A measuring cylinder is used to measure the volume of the stone.
ACTIVITY 5 – Measuring volume of a small stone
Materials needed:
250 cm3 measuring cylinder, water (slightly coloured to make it visible), small stone tied to a
thread
Instructions
1. Pour some water into the measuring cylinder. Note the volume.
118
2.1
1
2. Gently immerse the stone by means of the thread. Note down the new volume in Table 5.
Table 5
Final volume of water, V2 (cm3)
Initial volume of water, V1 (cm3)
Volume of stone = V2 – V1 (cm3)
3. Why must the stone be immersed gently?
4. Which error is avoided while reading the volume of liquid?
5. How is this error avoided?
6. How much water does the stone displace?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• When the volume of an object cannot be found directly, the displacement method is
used.
It is because an object displaces its own volume of liquid when immersed fully in that
liquid.
ACTIVITY 6 – Measuring volume of a larger stone using

displacement can
Materials needed:
Displacement can, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, water (slightly coloured to make it visible),
stone tied to a thread
Instructions
1. Fill the displacement can completely.
119
Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6
2. Place the measuring cylinder below the spout of the displacement can (Figure 4).
3. Gently lower the stone into the can using the thread (Figure 5).
4. Note the volume of water collected in the cylinder. Record your results in the Table 6.
Table 6
Final volume of water, V2 (cm3)
Initial volume of water, V1 (cm3)
Volume of stone = V2 – V1 (cm3)
5. Why is it important to fill the displacement can completely before immersing the stone?
6. Why is the stone immersed gently?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• An irregular solid does not have a well-defined shape. One example is a stone.
Its volume is measured using the displacement method.
If the stone is small, we use a measuring cylinder. If it is larger, we use a displacement
can.
The Simple Pendulum

The simple pendulum consists of a bob tied to a thread as shown in Table 7.
It is suspended from the clamp of a retort stand as shown in Table 7.
120
2.1
1
Table 7
Thread
Stand
Bob
Simple pendulum Simple pendulum on a stand
Oscillation of a Simple Pendulum

When the bob is slightly displaced and released, it swings. This is also called an oscillation or a
to-and-fro movement.
One oscillation is the movement of the

bob from A to B and back to A.
Retort
stand The time taken for one oscillation is the
period of the pendulum.
Pendulum
ACTIVITY 7 – Measuring the period of a simple pendulum
Materials needed:
Simple pendulum mounted onto a retort stand, stopwatch, metre rule
Instructions
1. Set the simple pendulum to a length of 25 cm using the metre rule.
2. Displace the bob slightly to the right and release.
3. Measure the time taken for 10 oscillations. Record your readings in Table 8.
4. Divide the value by 10. Record your readings in Table 8.
5. Repeat the experiment and compare your answers.
121
Table 8
Trial Time taken for Time taken for Period of the

no. 10 oscillations /s 1 oscillation /s pendulum /s
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• The bob of the simple pendulum oscillates regularly.

• The period of the pendulum remains constant (as long as the length remains constant).
ACTIVITY 8 – Using a simple pendulum for measurement of time
Materials needed:
Simple pendulum of length 25 cm mounted on a retort stand
Instructions
1. Use the simple pendulum of length 25 cm that was used previously. Its period of oscillation
is now known. It is 1s.
2. Proceed to the school compound. The pendulum is set to oscillate.
3. Now ask your friend to walk for a distance of about 50 m in a straight line.
4. Count the number of oscillations until the person is walking.
5. Calculate the time taken by your friend to walk the distance between the two points.
Method:
We know that one oscillation takes 1 s.
Suppose the number of oscillations counted is 20.
Then the time taken for the person to walk through the distance is 20 x 1 s = 20 s.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A simple pendulum of known period can be used for measuring time.

• People used this pendulum clock earlier to know the time.
ACTIVITY 9 – Using a mercury thermometer for measurement of

temperature
Materials needed:
A laboratory mercury thermometer, a digital stopwatch, a beaker having hot water
Instructions
1. Place the bulb of the thermometer into the hot water.
2. After stirring, record the temperature of the water. Stirring is done with the thermometer.
3. Start the stopwatch.
4. Measure the temperature of the water every minute. Record your answer in Table 9.
Table 9
Time /minute Temperature /oC

0 (start)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
5. What happens to the temperature with time?
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• A thermometer is used to measure temperature. The readings are expressed in degrees

Celsius (oC), but the SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).
• The temperature of hot water decreases with time.
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2.1
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Summary of unit
• Measuring instruments are used for accurate measurements of length, mass, time,
volume and temperature.
• Parallax error and zero error are two common errors of measurement.
• Parallax error occurs when the observer does not look at the scale in the proper
direction.
• An instrument is said to have zero error if it gives a non-zero reading when the true
reading is zero.
• To measure mass, we use a beam balance, an electronic balance or a spring balance.
•. A measuring cylinder measures the volume of a liquid.
• Displacement method is used to measure the volume of an irregular solid.
• A simple pendulum consists of a bob tied to a string. It is mounted on a retort stand. A
simple pendulum can be used for measurement of time.
• A thermometer is used for measurement of temperature.
Web links
Find out more at the following weblinks:
Simple pendulum
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2gnD5NEplY
Vernier caliper
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWcygRcSn38
Determining volume of body by displacement method

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fh4WcyusoCc
Using an electronic balance

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0UymyTJATLc
125
126
Concept Summary • 2.1 • Measurement of Physical Quantities
2.1
Length SI Unit m
Mass SI Unit g
Volume SI Unit m3
Measurement in Science
Time SI Unit s
Temperature SI Unit K
Measurement of Physical Quantities
Measuring Instrument Error in Measurement
Time Mass Length Temperature Volume

Zero error Parallax error
Thermometer How to avoid How to avoid

1. Beam balance
2. Electronic balance
3. Spring balance
Check for zero mark Keep line of sight
1. Ruler perpendicular to
2. Metre rule scale and opposite to
1. Stopwatch 3. Measuring tape the appropriate mark
2. Watch 1. Measuring cylinder
4. Vernier caliper
5. Electronic (digital) calipers
2.1
1
WORK OUT
1. A thermometer measures
A Length B Volume C Mass D Temperature
2. To measure the volume of a liquid, we may use a

A Stopwatch B Measuring cylinder
C Displacement can D Ruler
3. What is the best instrument for measuring the diameter of a coin?
A Vernier caliper B 30 cm ruler C Metre rule D Half-metre rule
4. How is parallax error avoided?
A have the line of sight opposite to the mark

B have the line of sight perpendicular to the scale
C have the line of sight opposite to the mark and perpendicular to the scale
D have the line of sight parallel to the scale
5. Which instrument does the physical education instructor use to time a 100-m race?
A A measuring tape B Stopwatch C Watch D Thermometer
127
1. Choose the correct option in each sentence.
(a) When we use a measuring cylinder to measure volume, we must avoid
(parallax error, end error).
(b) Before using a balance, we must check for (parallax error, zero
error).
(c) A beam balance is an instrument for measuring (mass, volume).

(d) To measure the diameter of a plastic pipe, we use (a ruler, vernier

callipers).
(e) To know if a patient has fever, a doctor measures his body (mass,
temperature)
2. Fill in the blanks using correct words from the given list.
irregular thermometer temperature zero large ruler

vernier calliper small volume parallax
(a) The is better than a 30-cm
for measuring the diameter of a coin.
(b) A displacement can is used when the solid is in size.
(c) A doctor checked the of a patient using a and

told him that he has fever.
(d) A stone is said to have an shape.
(e) We must always check a beam balance for error before using it.
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2.1
1
3. Name the instruments.
(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)
(f )
129
Column A Column B
Measuring tape is used to measure • • body temperature
To detect fever, a doctor measures • • eye is incorrectly placed
Parallax error occurs when the • • length of a room
An electronic balance is used in • • measuring cylinder
The time taken for one oscillation of a pendulum is its • • shops and markets
To measure volume of a liquid we use a • • period
5. Fill each blank using an appropriate word.

A measuring is used to measure the volume of a small
solid. Some water is poured into the cylinder and the
is noted. The solid is then tied to a and gently
immersed into the water. The new is again noted. The difference of
the two gives the volume of the solid.
One precaution is to immerse the stone to avoid water coming out.
Another precaution is to avoid error by placing the line of sight
to the mark and to the scale.
130
2.2 Mixtures and Separation Techniques
Learning Outcomes
• Define mixtures and their properties

• Identify solutions and suspensions as mixtures and give examples of both
• Investigate how mixtures can be separated into their respective components by the following
separation methods (techniques): use of magnet, decantation, filtration, crystallisation,
sublimation, distillation and chromatography
• Draw simple labelled diagrams to demonstrate the steps involved in separation techniques
• Explain the basic principles in filtration, crystallisation, sublimation, distillation and
chromatography as separation techniques
• State the applications of chromatography and distillation
Introduction
In this unit, you will learn what a mixture is and how its components can be separated.
Mixtures are made up of matter. Matter is anything which has mass and occupies space (has
volume). We are surrounded by matter and even our body is made up of matter.
Tables, chairs, books, beds, computers, animals, plants and water are made of matter. Even the
air you breathe is made of matter.
Matter can be elements, compounds or mixtures as shown on page 132. In Unit 1.4 (Language
of Chemistry) you have learnt about elements. In Unit 3 (Interactions), you will learn about
compounds. In this unit, you will learn about mixtures and their separation techniques.
131
Matter
can be
Elements Compounds Mixtures
Examples: Examples: Examples:

oxygen, copper, carbon dioxide, air,
carbon and gold water, kitchen sea water
salt, sugar
Mixtures
A mixture consists of two or more components (elements and /or compounds) together. The
components of a mixture can easily be separated by simple methods because they are not
chemically combined together. Examples of mixtures include air, sea water, soil and salads.
Activity 1 will allow you to learn more about mixtures.
ACTIVITY 1 – Investigating mixtures and their properties
This activity consists of three parts: Part I, Part II and Part III.
Part I:
Instructions
1. The pictures in Table 1 represent five different mixtures.
2. Observe the pictures carefully.
3. Discuss with your friends to identify the components present in each mixture.
4. Write your answer in the second column of Table 1.
5. Discuss with your teacher to identify three more mixtures and their components.
Write your answer in the last three rows of Table 1.
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Mixtures and Separation Techniques Unit
2.2
1
Table 1: Examples of mixtures
Mixture Components present
Mixture A: Salad
Mixture B: Seawater
Mixture C: Air
Mixture D: Sugar
dissolved in water
Mixture E: Sand
and water
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PART II:
Instructions
1. Study Figures 1 and 2 carefully and answer the questions below.
Figure 1 Figure 2
2. List the different wastes you can observe in Figure 1.
3. Explain how the wastes can be separated in the dustbins shown in Figure 2.
4. Do you think that Figure 1 represents a mixture? Explain your answer.
Part III
Instructions
1. Three sets of mixtures containing coloured candies are shown in Figures 3, 4 and 5.
2. Carefully observe the Figures.
3. Count the total number of candies in each mixture above. Write down your answer in
Table 2.
4. Count the number of different types of candies in each mixture. Write down your answer
in Table 2.
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2.2
1
Table 2
Total number of candies
Number of types of candies
5. The amount of each component in a mixture makes up its composition. From your results
in Table 2, what can you conclude about the composition of a mixture? Is the composition
of a mixture always fixed?
6. After completing Parts I to III of Activity 1, fill in the blanks below by choosing the correct
answer in each case.
A fruit salad, seawater and air are examples of (elements/mixtures). A
mixture consists of (one/several) components that are
(physically/chemically) combined together. The composition of a mixture
(can/cannot) vary. The components of a mixture (can/cannot) be separated
by simple methods.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
A mixture consists of two or more components that are not chemically combined together.
Salads, air and sea water are examples of mixtures. A mixture has the following properties:
• The composition of the different components in a mixture can vary. Thus, a mixture has
a variable composition.
• The components of a mixture can be separated by simple methods.
135
Solutions and Suspensions

Some mixtures can exist as solutions and suspensions. In the following activities, you are
going to investigate the properties of solutions and suspensions.
ACTIVITY 2 – Preparing a solution
Materials needed:
One beaker containing water, kitchen salt, spoon, glass rod

Instructions
1. Fill ¾ of the beaker with water

2. Add one spoonful of kitchen salt in the beaker
3. Stir the mixture with the glass rod.
Adding kitchen salt to water Stirring the mixture to obtain a salt solution
4. Observe carefully and answer the questions below.
(a) What happens to the salt when it is added to water and the mixture is stirred?
(b) Describe the appearance of the resulting mixture in the beaker.
5. When the salt is dissolved in water, the mixture is called a solution. The salt is called the
solute, while water is called the solvent.
Fill in the blanks below with the correct word.
(a) A is a solid that is dissolved in a liquid to form a .
(b) A is the liquid in which the solute is dissolved.
(c) A is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
(d) A is a mixture consisting of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
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2.2
1
ACTIVITY 3 – Preparing a suspension
Materials needed:
One beaker containing water, flour, spoon, glass rod
Procedure
1. Half-fill the beaker with water.
2. Add one spoonful of flour in the beaker.
3. Stir the mixture with the glass rod/spatula.
4. Answer the questions below:
(a) What happens to the flour when it is added to water and the mixture is stirred?
(b) Describe the appearance of the resulting mixture in the beaker.
(c) When flour and water are mixed, a suspension is formed. Can you provide a definition
for a suspension?
(d) Give three other examples of suspensions.
137
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• When a solid dissolves in a liquid, a solution is formed. A solution is a mixture consisting

of a solid (solute) dissolved in a liquid (solvent). The solution is clear with no solid
particles.
• A solute is the dissolved component in a solution.
• A solvent is the liquid in which the solute is dissolved.
• Examples of solutions include sugar solution, salt solution and food colour dissolved in
water.
• A suspension consists of a mixture of a liquid with undissolved solid particles.
• A suspension is usually cloudy because it contains undissolved solid particles.
• Examples of suspensions include muddy water, corn starch and water, water and
powdered chalk.
Separation of Mixtures
Mixtures form part of our everyday life. It is often important to separate the different components
of a mixture.
This can be done by using separation methods. In the following activities, you are going to
investigate about different separation methods.
ACTIVITY 4 – Separating components of a mixture using a magnet
Materials needed:
Horse-shoe magnet Iron paper clips Some small pieces of Clean small iron
paper nails
Small plastic pieces Chalk powder Small trays
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2.2
1
Instructions
1. Bring the magnet close to some metal paper clips as shown in Figure 6.
2. Carefully observe what happens.
Figure 6: Placing a magnet close to metal paper clips
3. (a) Write down the observations.
(b) Explain your observations.
4. Prepare the following mixtures in five different trays.
Mixture A: pieces of paper and iron nails

Mixture B: iron paper clips and plastic pieces
Mixture C: iron paper clips and iron nails
Mixture D: iron nails and chalk powder
Mixture E: chalk powder and plastic pieces
5. Bring the magnet close to each mixture one at a time.
6. Observe carefully.
7. Note down your observations in Table 3.
Table 3
Components of the Observation on placing magnet

mixture close to the mixture
Mixture A
Mixture B
Mixture C
Mixture D
Mixture E
139
8. Which of the above mixtures can be separated by using a magnet? Explain your answer.
9. Which of the above mixtures cannot be separated by using a magnet? Explain your answer.
10. Complete Table 4 to identify the magnetic and non-magnetic components in Mixtures A
to E.
Table 4
Mixture Magnetic component Non-magnetic component

Mixture A
Mixture B
Mixture C
Mixture D
Mixture E
11. What can you conclude from Activity 4?
Activity 5a will help you to learn about decantation as a separation method.
140
2.2
1
ACTIVITY 5a – Investigating decantation as a separation method
1. Figure 7 shows a conversation about decantation between three friends.
Study the conversation.
Yes, I do. My mother used

Hello friends, do you know to pour off water from cooked rice in
what decantation is? the kitchen. The rice must be settled at the
bottom. What about you, Sara?
Lina
Raja
Yes, you are right. It happens
when pouring off water from cooked Decantation is a separation
potatoes or even when removing method during which a liquid is separated
dirt from water. from an insoluble solid.
Sara Figure 7: Conversation on decantation

2. Discuss in groups to complete the exercise below. Raja
(a) Decantation means pouring off a from a mixture of a liquid and

an insoluble solid.
(b) Why it is important to let the rice settle at the bottom of the container before pouring
off the water?
(c) List two other examples where decantation is used in everyday life.
(i)
(ii)
In Activity 5a, you learnt how decantation is used in everyday life.
Now you will investigate how decantation is carried out in the laboratory.
141
ACTIVITY 5b – Separating a mixture of sand and water by

decantation in the laboratory
Materials needed:
Two beakers, glass rod, mixture of sand and water
Instructions
1. Allow the mixture of sand and water to settle for about 5 minutes in the beaker.
2. Carefully pour out all the water into an empty beaker using a glass rod as shown in Figure 8.
3. Observe the poured water in the beaker.
Figure 8
4. Answer the questions below.
(a) Why is the glass rod used during decantation?
(b) Why is it important to pour off the water carefully during decantation?
(c) Identify two other mixtures which can be separated by decantation.
(i)
(ii)
(d) Can you separate kitchen salt from water using decantation? Explain.
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2.2
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Decantation is a method of separating a liquid from an insoluble solid. Decantation is

carried out by carefully pouring out the liquid from the mixture, leaving the insoluble
solid behind in the container.
• It is important to carefully pour the liquid to prevent the solid from getting into the
separated liquid.
• Kitchen salt cannot be separated from water by decantation because it is soluble in
water.
Filtration
In Activity 5b, you have seen that an undissolved solid can be separated from a liquid by
decantation.
In Activity 6, you will learn that filtration is another method which can be used to separate an
undissolved solid from a liquid.
ACTIVITY 6 – Separating a mixture of chalk powder and water by

filtration
Materials needed:
Chalk powder suspension, two beakers, filter funnel, a filter paper, clamp, glass rod
A suspension of chalk powder and water
143
Instructions
1. Fold a filter paper as shown below.
2. Place the folded filter paper on the funnel held on a clamp as shown below.
1. 4.
2.
3.
3. Moisten the filter paper so that it sticks on the funnel.
4. Pour off the mixture of chalk powder and water (suspension) in the
funnel with the help of the glass rod.
5. Observe the process carefully. Give labelled drawings to describe your observations after
you have poured all of the mixture.
6. After filtration,
(a) the liquid collected in the beaker is called the filtrate.
(b) the solid left on the filter paper is called the residue.
Identify the filtrate and the residue in the above activity.
Filtrate Residue
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2.2
1
7. The filter paper containing chalk is left to dry. The chalk is collected as white solid.
8. The figures below show four applications of filtration in everyday life.

Write down one sentence about each application.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
145
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Filtration is a method used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid using a filter.
The liquid which passes through the filter paper during filtration is called the filtrate.
The solid which remains on the filter paper during filtration is called the residue.
Filtration is used in the following ways:
• To remove tea leaves when preparing tea.

• To remove solid impurities in water filter beds.
• To remove solid impurities from oil in cars (oil filter in cars).
• To remove dust particles when using a vacuum cleaner for cleaning.
You have seen above how insoluble solids can be separated from a liquid by decantation and
filtration.
You will now learn how to separate a mixture consisting of a soluble solid (solute) dissolved in
a solvent (liquid) by two different methods, evaporation and distillation.
ACTIVITY 7 – Separating kitchen salt from seawater by evaporation
Materials needed:
Tripod, bunsen burner, crucible, beaker of water, wire gauze, Crucible Salt
seawater Beaker
Water
Instructions
Tripod
This activity will be carried by your teacher.
Bunsen burner
1. Take some seawater in a crucible and place it on a hot
water-bath.
2. The seawater mixture will be heated until solid salt appears in the crucible.
3. Observe carefully as your teacher carries out the experiment.
(a) Is seawater a mixture? Explain.
(b) What happens to the seawater as it is heated?
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2.2
1
(c) What is left in the crucible?
(d) When a solution is heated, the solvent evaporates, leaving behind the dissolved solid
(the solute) as residue in the crucible. Identify the residue in the above activity.
DID YOU KNOW…
Evaporation to dryness is used to separate a solid from a liquid. This method cannot be used
for a sugar solution. This is because sugar decomposes when heated strongly (evaporated to
dryness) .
On strong heating, the sugar decomposes and turns black.
Another method for separating a mixture of solid dissolved in a liquid is crystallisation.
In fact, sugar can be separated from a sugar solution by crystallisation.
Activity 8 will help you learn about crystallisation.
DID YOU KNOW…
Copper (II) sulfate is a blue solid which dissolves in water to form a blue solution.
ACTIVITY 8 – Investigating crystallisation as a separation method
Materials needed:
Bunsen burner, tripod, wire gauze, copper (II) sulfate solution, glass rod, crucible, beaker of
hot water, spatula, filter paper
147
Instructions
1. This activity will be carried out by your teacher.
2. Place some copper (II) sulfate solution in a crucible
3. Place the crucible on a hot water bath on a Bunsen flame as shown in Figure 9.
4. Allow the copper (II) sulfate solution to evaporate until a small amount is left in the
crucible. You may find some blue crystals start to form in the solution. This solution is
called a saturated solution. Stop the heating.
5. Leave this saturated solution to cool and observe the process carefully.
6. As the solution cools down, you will find more blue crystals forming. These are copper (II)
sulfate crystals.
7. Use a spatula to remove the copper (II) sulfate crystals and dry them on a filter paper.
copper (II) sulfate

crystals
Figure 9
(a) Why was the copper (II) sulfate solution not allowed to dry completely?
(b) Give labeled drawings to describe all the steps involved in the crystallisation of
copper (II) sulfate.
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2.2
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Crystallisation is a method of separating a solute from its solution.

• During crystallisation, the solution is heated so that the solvent evaporates to leave a
small amount of saturated solution. The saturated solution is allowed to cool at room
temperature.
• Crystals of solute are formed and dried using a filter paper.
• Crystallisation is used to separate solutes that can be decomposed on strong heating.
In Activity 9, you will about another separation method, namely sublimation.
DID YOU KNOW…
Sodium chloride and ammonium chloride are two different solids which exist as white crystals.
ACTIVITY 9 – Investigating sublimation as a separation method
Materials needed:
Evaporating dish, glass funnel, cotton wool, Bunsen burner, tripod, a mixture of sodium
chloride (kitchen salt) and ammonium chloride
Instructions
1. This activity will be carried by your teacher.
2. Place the mixture of sodium chloride and ammonium chloride in the evaporating dish.
3. Invert the glass funnel on the evaporating dish and cover the end with a piece of cotton,
as shown in Figure 10.
149
after heating
Figure 10
4. Heat the mixture on a Bunsen burner.
5. Carefully observe the changes occurring.
6. Describe your observation with labeled drawings.
7. What have you observed on the inner surface of the funnel after heating the mixture?
8. Why is cotton wool placed on the upper hand of the funnel?
9. With the help of your teacher, explain the observations made.
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2.2
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Sublimation is a method which can be used to separate a mixture of two solids in

which one of the solids sublimes. In the above example, ammonium chloride sublimes
on heating and deposits on the inner surface of the funnel as the sublimate. The
ammonium chloride can be scraped out from the funnel with a spatula and placed in a
dish.
• Sublimation is defined as a process during which a solid changes directly to become

a gas (or vapour). In the above activity, the ammonium chloride sublimes to form gas.
On touching the cool surface of the funnel, the ammonium chloride gas (or vapour)
changes back to solid and deposits on the surface.
• Other solids which sublime are iodine and solid carbon dioxide.
On heating, they change directly into the gas (or vapour) state without forming liquid.
DID YOU KNOW…
You learnt in lower grades that most solids melt on heating, that is, they change to form liquid.
For example, solid ice melts to become liquid water.
Distillation
You have learnt earlier that a solution is a mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
Moreover, Activities 7 and 8, you have found how we can separate and obtain the solute from
the solution by evaporation and crystallisation.
In Activity 10, you will investigate how to obtain the pure solvent from a solution by distillation.
ACTIVITY 10 – Investigating distillation as a separation method
Recall that seawater is a mixture of kitchen salt (solute) dissolved in water (solvent).
In this activity, you will investigate how to obtain pure water from seawater by distillation.
Materials:
Bunsen burner, thermometer, distillation flask, seawater, boiling chips, condenser, rubber
tubing, conical flask, retort stand, rubber bung
151
Instructions:
1. The activity will be carried by your teacher.
2. The apparatus will be set up as in Figure 11 to carry out distillation.
Thermometer
Water out
Condenser
Distillation flask
Seawater
Anti-bumping Water in Conical flask
Wire gauze granules
Distilled
pure water
Wooden
Bunsen burner Tripod
block
Figure 11
3. Your teacher will light the Bunsen burner to heat the seawater in the distillation flask.
4. Carefully observe what happens as the seawater is heated.
5. Discuss with your teacher. Complete the sentences below to describe your observations.
(a) In Figure 11, the _____________ is boiled in the distillation flask.
(b) An increase in temperature is noted by the ____________.
(c) The _________________ ______________ are added in the distillation flask to ensure
smooth boiling.
(d) At 1000C, water boils and changes to _____________.
(e) The steam formed passes through the side-arm of the distillation flask into the
______________.
(f ) The steam is cooled and condenses to pure water. Pure water is collected in the
_______________.
(g) Solid _________________is left behind in the distillation flask.
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1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Distillation is used to obtain a pure solvent from a solution. During distillation, both
boiling and condensation are important.
• During distillation of a solution, the water boils to form steam. The steam rises and
passes into the condenser.
• The steam cools down in the condenser and changes into liquid water which is
collected as pure water in the conical flask.
• The anti-bumping granules are added to allow smooth boiling.
• The bulb of the thermometer should be placed at the side-arm of the flask. It should
not be dipped in the solution.
Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography is a separation technique which can be used to separate different
components dissolved in a common solvent. Activity 11 will help you learn about paper
chromatography.
ACTIVITY 11 – Investigating paper chromatography as a

separation method
In this activity, you will learn how to separate different components dissolved in a solvent. You
will be able to separate the different colours in black ink.
Materials needed:
A strip of filter paper, felt-tip pens (red, blue, green, black colours), pencil, ruler, water, a large
beaker, paper clip
Instructions:
This activity will be carried by your teacher using the steps below:
1. Draw a horizontal line with a pencil about 1 cm from the bottom of the
filter paper. This line is called the base line.
2. Place a very small dot of each coloured ink on the line using the felt tip
pens.
Figure 12
3. Leave the paper to dry as shown in Figure 12.
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4. Place the filter paper in a large beaker containing water as solvent.

Place a pencil and a paper clip at the top to hang the filter paper onto
the beaker.
5. Wait until all the water travels up the paper and separate the
components of ink.
6. The expected result of the ink chromatography is shown in Figure
13. After separation of the components, the resulting paper with the
Figure 13
separated components is called the chromatogram.
The chromatogram is shown in Figure 14.
7. Use your own chromatogram to answer the following questions.
(a) The solvent must be lower than the start line as shown in Figure 13.
Explain why?
Figure 14
(b) Explain why the beaker must be covered with a lid.
(c) Do you think that separation of the components would be possible if all the different
components move at the same speed on the paper? Explain.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Chromatography is a method to separate different dissolved substances in a solvent as

they move at different rates through a filter paper.
We use a pencil to draw the baseline and not a pen because the ink of the latter will interfere
with the chromatogram.
We must not allow the baseline to be dipped in the solvent because the spot mixture will
dissolve in the solvent.
It is important to allow the solvent to travel a maximum distance up the paper. This helps
the components to separate better.
The following mixtures can be separated by chromatography:
• Pigments in a coloured leaf or flower
• Colour pigments in food colouring
• Different colours or dyes present in ink
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2.2
1
Summary of unit
• A mixture consists of two or more components which are not chemically combined
together.
• The components of a mixture can be separated by simple methods.
• Some examples of mixtures are air, seawater, salads, and sugar solution.
• A solution is a mixture containing a solid (solute) dissolved in a liquid (solvent).
• A solute is a substance which dissolves in a solvent.
• A solvent is a liquid in which a solute is dissolved.
• A suspension contains a liquid with fine undissolved solid particles.
• Mixtures can be separated by different separation methods such as the use of a
magnet, decantation, filtration, crystallisation, sublimation, distillation and paper
chromatography.
• Magnetic attraction is used to separate iron objects (magnetic material) from non-
magnetic components by using a magnet.
• Decantation is used to separate a heavy insoluble solid from a liquid. (For decantation
to occur, the solid must settle down in the container).
• Filtration is used to separate an insoluble from a liquid by using a filter.
• Evaporation is used to obtain a solute from a solution by heating the latter to dryness.
The solute is left behind.
• Crystallisation is a method used to separate a solute from a solution. Unlike evaporation,
the solution is not heated to dryness. The solution is heated to form a saturated solution
which is allowed to cool down. On cooling, the solute is obtained as crystals.
• Sublimation is used to separate a mixture of solids where one of the solids sublimes
(solid changes to gas state directly). Three solids which sublime are ammonium
chloride, iodine and solid carbon dioxide.
• Distillation is the process by which a pure solvent is obtained from a solution.
• Paper chromatography is a method to separate different dissolved substances in a
solvent as they move at different rates through a filter paper.
155
156
Concept Summary
2.2
• 2.2 • Mixtures and Separation Techniques
Matter
Yes Can it be physically

No
separated?
Mixtures Pure substance

Mixtures and Separation Techniques
can be separated by Can it be chemically

exist as exist as Yes decomposed?
No
Decantation
Solution Suspension
Filtration
Element Compound
Crystallisation
Sublimation
Distillation
Paper chromatography
2.2
1
WORK OUT
1. Write one sentence to explain the meaning of:
(a) matter
(b) a mixture
(c) sublimation

(d) residue
(e) filtrate
(f ) a suspension
(g) a solution
2. (a) By means of a table, give three examples of mixtures and list their components.
Mixtures Components
157
(b) Explain why the components of mixtures can be easily separated by simple methods.
(c) Name one separation method or technique which can be used to obtain a solute from
a solution.
(d) Name a separation technique that is used to obtain a solvent from a solution.
3. The table below shows several mixtures. Identify the separation method you would use to
separate the mixture. In each case, justify your answer. Write your answer in the table.
Mixture Separation method Justification
Sugar solution To obtain the sugar
Mixture of iron nails and To obtain the iron nails

cotton wool
Mixture of ammonium To obtain the iodine

chloride and kitchen salt
Mixture of sand and water To obtain sand
Mixture of chalk powder and To obtain clear water

water
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2.2
1
4. For each of the following mixtures, identify whether it is a solution or suspension.
(a) Mixture of flour in water
(b) Copper (II) sulfate and water
(c) Sodium chloride and water
(d) Chalk powder and water
5. (a) The figure below shows the set-up for separating a mixture of ammonium chloride
and sodium chloride. Label the diagram with the correct words from the list below:
Evaporating dish, funnel, mixture, ammonium chloride vapour, cotton wool, sodium
chloride, ammonium chloride solid, Bunsen burner, flame

(b) What is the importance of the cotton wool during sublimation?
(c) Name two other solids which sublime.
6. Some apparatus are shown below. Name each apparatus.
159
Use the apparatus to give a labeled drawing to show how you will separate a mixture of
sand from water by decantation.
7. Use the hints given below to complete the crossword below:

3
A
N
4
I
O P
5
Across Down
3. To separate chalk from a solution 1. To collect pure water from a solution of

containing chalk and water water and copper (II) sulfate
4. A direct change from solid to gas state 2. To separate sand from water
5. To separate dyes present in black ink
160
2.2
1
8. The diagram below shows how a mixture of sawdust and water can be separated by filtration.
Label the drawing by giving the correct word in each box.

9. By means of large labeled drawings, describe how sugar can be separated from a sugar
solution by the crystallisation method.
161
2.3 Light
Light 2.3
Learning Outcomes
• Differentiate between luminous and non-luminous objects

• Recognise that stars produce their own light
• Recognise that planets and moons reflect light received from the sun
Luminous and Non-luminous Bodies
We do not see a bulb at night in complete darkness.
When it is switched on, then it becomes visible.
What happens when the bulb is switched on?
The bulb emits light.
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Light Unit
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1
Light from the bulb enters our eyes and the bulb becomes visible.
Things that emit light are called luminous bodies.
Examples are:
• the sun
• stars
• a light bulb
• a hot metal rod
We also have many objects around us that do not emit light. These are called non-luminous
bodies.
Examples are:
• Table
• Pencil
• Mountain
ACTIVITY 1 – Identifying luminous bodies
Instructions
1. Observe the given pictures.

2. Identify the luminous objects and name them.
3. Name four other luminous bodies.
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2.3 Light
ACTIVITY 2 – Identifying non-luminous bodies
Instructions
1. Observe the pictures given.
2. Identify the non-luminous objects and name them
3. Name four other non-luminous bodies.
How do we see Luminous and Non-luminous Objects?

We are able to see luminous objects like a candle because light travels to our eyes.
We are able to see non-luminous objects because they reflect light. This reflected light enters
our eyes.
So we can see both luminous and non-luminous bodies.
Our eye Our eye

Electric lamp
Electric lamp Book
Light from a luminous object travels Light from a non-luminous object is

directly to our eyes. reflected towards our eyes.
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1
The moon does not produce light. It reflects light received from the sun. This is why the moon
is said to be a non-luminous body. However, the sun is a luminous body, as it produces its own
light.
Similar to the moon, all the planets in our solar system also reflect the sun’s light.
This is how we are able to see the planets of our solar system. We can see them with the naked
eye and also by using telescopes.
The sun is actually a star and all stars produce light.
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2.3 Light
DID YOU KNOW…
Even insects and jelly fish produce light.
FIND OUT
The name of a fish which lives in deep sea and produces light.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Luminous bodies emit light of their own. They are seen by direct light.
• Non-luminous bodies do not emit light of their own. They are seen by reflected light.
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1
Summary of unit
• In this unit, we have learnt that there are bodies which produce light. These are called
luminous bodies. Examples are the sun, lamps, bulbs, stars, mobile phone screens,
television screens and others.
• There are also some living things that produce light, such as, fireflies, glowworms and
jellyfish.
• There are bodies that do not emit light. These are called non-luminous bodies. Most
bodies around us are non-luminous ones. Examples are chairs, tables, trees and stones.
• Planets and moons do not produce light. They reflect light that falls on them from the
sun. This is how we can see them, i.e., by reflection.
• Stars produce light.
Web links
Find out more about luminous and non-luminous objects at the following weblink:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qJ8D-t6qNo
167
168
Concept Summary
2.3
• 2.3 • Light
Light
LIGHT
is produced by is reflected by
Luminous Bodies Non-luminous Bodies
Sun, stars, Tables, chairs,

bulbs, lamps, trees, shoes,
jellyfish, fireflies, bags, planets,
candles moon
Light Unit
2.3
1
WORK OUT
1. Which of the following is an example of a luminous body?
A Full moon B Planet C Sun D Tree
2. Which of the following is a non-luminous body?
A A lit candle B A lighted torch C A LED D A book

1. Choose the correct option.
(a) We see a luminous object by light (direct, reflected).
(b) The moon is a (luminous, non-luminous) body.
2. Fill in the blanks.
(a) A star is a body because it emits of its own.
(b) In the sky, we also see planets but these are because they do
emit light of their own.
(c) We can see non-luminous bodies by of light.
3. Label the luminous and non-luminous bodies in this picture.
169
2.4 Motion
Motion 2.4
Learning Outcomes
• Distinguish between scalars and vectors and give examples of each.

• Define distance and displacement
• Calculate distance and displacement in different situations
• Define speed and velocity
distance travelled
• Calculate speed using speed =
time taken
displacement
• Calculate velocity using velocity =
time taken
change in velocity
• Define acceleration and use acceleration =
time taken
• Demonstrate an understanding that deceleration is a negative acceleration
Scalar and Vector Quantities

In our everyday life, we come across many different quantities. There are some quantities that
have direction and while others do not.
Those quantities which have direction are called vector quantities.
Those quantities which do not have direction are called scalar quantities.
Some examples of these quantities are given in Table 1.
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Motion Unit
2.4
1
Table 1
Scalar quantities Vector quantities
1 Mass Displacement
2 Temperature Velocity
3 Time Acceleration
4 Volume Force
5 Distance Weight
You will learn about these quantities later.
Motion of Bodies
We have learnt that animals move in search of food. They also move to escape from danger.
Even non-living things, such as, cars move from one place to another.
In this topic, we will learn more about motion of bodies.
ACTIVITY 1 – Identifying different types of motion
Instructions
1. Identify the kinds of motion in the pictures given in Table 2. Record them in the space
provided. Choose your answer from the statements given below.
a running lion a swimming fish a flying plane
a racing car a crawling snail a running athlete
Table 2
a crawling snail
2. In all these examples, we see that something is moving from one place to .
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2.4 Motion
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• There are different kinds of motions. These are flying, crawling, swimming and running.
• Both living and non-living things move.
Distance and Speed

When we talk of motion, two terms come to our mind.
(a) the distance moved by the body, and
(b) the speed with which it moves
These two quantities are indicated in a vehicle.
The dashboard shows that:

1. The speed of the car is about 80 km/h.
2. The car has travelled 35 758 km in all.
3. The car has travelled 126.5 km in this journey.
Part of the dashboard
Moreover, distance and speed-limit signs are displayed in many places as shown below.
Curepipe is 5 km away from this place The speed limit on this road is 50 km/h.
and Mahebourg is 33 km away.
Now you will learn more about these quantities.
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Motion Unit
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1
ACTIVITY 2 – Understanding speed
Instructions
1. Consider three cyclists, A, B and C, running a 6 km race.
C
B
A
Cyclists A, B and C
The times taken by each cyclist are given in the table below.
Cyclist A Cyclist B Cyclist C

Distance covered (km) 6 6 6
Time taken (minutes) 10 20 30
2. Which cyclist takes the smallest time?

3. Which cyclist takes the longest time?
4. Which cyclist is fastest? Explain your answer.
5. Now, convert the distance travelled from km to m and the time taken from minutes to
second. Record your answers in the table below.

Distance covered (m)
Time taken (s)
Distance travelled (m)
Time taken (s)
6. Calculate the values for the third row.
7. Observe the values in the third row. Who are the fastest and the slowest cyclists?
8. Which cyclist has the highest speed?
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2.4 Motion
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• From this activity, we learn that speed is, in fact, the distance covered divided by the
time taken. In other words,
distance travelled
Speed =
time taken
• The unit of speed is metres per second (m/s). Another commonly used unit is
kilometres per hour (km/h).
ACTIVITY 3 – Calculating speed
Instructions
1. Read the information given.
A bus travels a total distance of 30 km in 2 hours.
2. Calculate the speed of the bus in (i) km/h and (ii) m/s.
(a) Calculation of speed in km/h
Distance covered (km) =
Time taken (h) =
Distance travelled (km)

Speed = km/h
Time taken (h)
(b) Calculation of speed in m/s
Distance covered (m) =
Time taken (s) =
Speed = Distance travelled (m) m/s

Time taken (s)
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Motion Unit
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1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• We have learnt that speed can be calculated in km/h and also in m/s.
• Speed is the distance covered in each hour or in each second.
• So speed is the distance travelled per unit time.
Displacement
Displacement is another term used in the chapter of motion. To understand displacement, we
consider the following activity.
ACTIVITY 4 – Understanding displacement
Instructions
1. Study the example given below.
A person walks 3 km from A to B and then 4 km from B to C.
B 4 km
C End of journey
3 km
2. Calculate the total distance traveled.
3. Another person walks directly from A to C, which is 5 km.

4. Are the two distances the same?
It is found that the motion from A to B and then to C gives a distance of 7 km, but directly
from A to C gives 5 km only.
The distance between A and C, passing through B is 7 km.
The displacement between A and C is 5 km. Its direction is along AC.
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2.4 Motion
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Distance is the total length of the path covered. In the example, distance is 7 km.
• Displacement is the length of the straight line from the starting point to the finishing
point.
In this example, the displacement is 5 km along AC.
You have noticed that when we state the displacement, the direction also has to be
stated. So displacement is a vector quantity.
ACTIVITY 5 – Identifying distance and displacement
Instructions
1. Identify the following as distance or displacement.

2. Write your answer in the third column.
Situation Distance/ displacement
The boy and girl walk

around 1.5 km in the
park.
The plane flies 226 km

along a straight line
towards Reunion Island.
The boys run 100 m

along a straight line to
the finish line.
The cow walks a total of

500 m in the field in no
specific direction.
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Motion Unit
2.4
1
The table below gives two more examples of how to differentiate between distance and
displacement.
A person walks from A to B, then to C, to

The distance travelled is shown as 12 km. D and back to A.
The displacement is 5 km south-east. The distance travelled is 16 m.
The displacement is 0 m, as he is back to
the starting point.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Distance and displacement are different.

• Displacement has a direction.
Velocity
Velocity is similar to speed. The only difference is that velocity is a vector quantity.
This means that speed has only magnitude whereas velocity has both magnitude and direction.
The following diagram illustrates this.
speed = 20 m/s
Car A
speed = 20 m/s to the east
Car B
We can say:
Car A is moving with a speed of 20 m/s and car B is moving with a velocity of 20 m/s eastwards.
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2.4 Motion
ACTIVITY 6 – Recognising speed and velocity
Instructions
1. Identify the following as speed or velocity. Record your answer in the third column.
Situation Speed/ velocity
Cheetah running at
30 km/h in a zig-zag
manner to catch its
prey.
Girl jogging at 4 m/s

in a field in a specific
direction.
Rocket moving
upwards at 200 m/s.
A dog running at 3 m/s

in a field in no specific
direction.
Acceleration and Deceleration

Imagine you are running a race.
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Motion Unit
2.4
1
You feel that there is someone just behind you. What would you do?
You will try to run faster.
When we increase our speed, we say that we are accelerating.
Similarly, when a driver presses on the accelerator, the speed of the car increases.
This is acceleration.
Acceleration is the increase in velocity per unit time.
increase in velocity
Acceleration =
time
v
In symbol form, a = t , where v is the change in velocity.
The unit of acceleration is m/s2.
Acceleration is a vector quantity, as we have learnt earlier.
When a driver applies the brakes, the speed of the car decreases. This is deceleration.
Deceleration is the decrease in velocity per unit time.
Worked example
A lorry’s velocity increases from 20 m/s eastwards to 30 m/s in same direction in 5 s.
What is its acceleration?
Solution
Velocity change = 30 -20 = 10 m/s
Time taken = 5 s
change in velocity
So, acceleration (a) =
time taken
a = 10
5
a = 2 m/s
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2.4 Motion
Summary of unit
• A scalar quantity is a physical quantity having magnitude only.

• A vector quantity is a physical quantity having both magnitude and direction.
• Distance is the total length of the path moved. Its SI unit is metre, m. Distance is a
scalar quantity.
• Displacement is the length of the straight line in a specific direction. Its unit is metre,
m. Displacement is a vector quantity.
• Speed is distance covered per unit time. Its unit is m/s. Speed is a scalar quantity.
distance travelled
Speed =
time taken
• Velocity is distance covered per unit time in a specific direction. Its unit is m/s. Velocity
is a vector quantity.
displacement
Velocity =
time taken
• Acceleration is the increase in velocity per unit time. Its unit is m/s2. Acceleration is a
vector quantity.
increase in velocity
Acceleration = ; a= v
time taken t
• Deceleration is the decrease in velocity per unit time.
Web links
Find out more at the following weblinks:
Distance and displacement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8hJhTE3bUk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=edm8uy7O9NY
Speed of a body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5HBlXCfWHw
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Concept Summary • 2.4 • Motion
MOTION
Scalar quantity Vector quantity Velocity Speed Distance Displacement Acceleration Deceleration
measured in
has magnitude only
displacement
per unit measured in
has magnitude and time
direction m
has has m Increase in velocity per Decrease in velocity per

distance measured in unit time unit time
direction covered direction
per unit time
m/s
measured in
m/s
Motion
1
2.4
Unit
181
2.4 Motion
WORK OUT

Circle the right answer.
1. The SI unit of speed is:
A km/h
B m/s
C m/s2
D m2/s
2. Which of the following is an example of velocity?
A A car is travelling at 50 km/h to the East

B A car is travelling at 50 km/h

C A car travels 50 km
D A car travels 50 km to the East
3. Which of the following is a scalar quantity?

A Displacement B Speed C Velocity D Acceleration
4. Deceleration is:
A The distance covered per unit time

B The distance covered per unit time in a specified direction
C The decrease in velocity per unit time
D The increase in velocity per unit time
5. When a car accelerates,
A The velocity increases

B The velocity decreases
C The velocity does not change
D The velocity becomes zero
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Motion Unit
2.4
1
1. (a) Define displacement.
(b) Why is displacement considered to be a vector quantity?
(c) A girl leaves home and walks 200 m to a nearby shop. She buys a box of chocolates and
returns home by the same road.
(i) Calculate the total distance she walks.
(ii) Calculate her total displacement.

2. Observe the following cartoon and answer the following questions.
(a) Fill up the following table.
Physical Quantity SI unit Scalar/Vector

Speed
Velocity
(b) (i) Why is speed a scalar quantity?
(ii) Why is velocity a vector quantity?
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2.4 Motion
(c) A girl runs 100 m North and then 100 m East. The total time taken is 25 s.
(i) Calculate the total distance she runs.
(ii) Calculate her speed.
3. A car travels 10 km to the North. The driver then makes a U-turn and travels 4 km to the
South. The total time taken is 25 minutes.
(a) Draw a diagram of the car’s motion.

(b) Calculate the total distance travelled.
(c) Calculate the displacement.
(d) Calculate the velocity of the car in m/s.
(The following table will help you).
Displacement (km)
Time taken (minutes)
Displacement (m)
Time taken (s)
Velocity (m/s)
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Motion Unit
2.4
1
(e) A car driver is travelling at 30 m/s. He sees a danger in front and applies the brakes. The
car slows down to rest in 6 s. Calculate the deceleration of the car.
(The following table will help you).
Initial velocity (m/s)
Final velocity (m/s)
Change in velocity (v) (m/s)
Time taken (t) (s)

v
Deceleration a = t
Distance and speed are • • distance covered per unit time

Acceleration is • • scalar quantities
Speed is • • metre per second squared
The SI unit of deceleration is • • increase in speed per unit time
185
2.5 Biodiversity
Biodiversity 2.5
Learning Outcomes
• State the meaning of the term ‘biodiversity’

• Demonstrate a simple understanding of biodiversity
• Explain the importance of biodiversity
• Use quadrats to count and record the number of species in an ecosystem
• Recognise that natural calamities such as cyclones and droughts can affect biodiversity
• List and explain how human activities such as deforestation, pollution, degradation of
habitat, invasive alien species and global warming affect biodiversity
• Discuss ways to reduce the effects of human activities on biodiversity
Introduction
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
In Grade 7 and Grade 8, you have learnt about the living and non-living organisms and the
types of ecosystems. In this chapter, you will learn about biodiversity and its importance. You
will also learn how human activities affect biodiversity and ways to reduce these effects.
ACTIVITY 1 – Understanding biodiversity
Instructions
Figure 1 represents a forest with many living organisms.
Figure 1
1. List down all living organisms that you can see in this picture.
The variety of living things as shown in the forest is called biodiversity.
187
2.5 Biodiversity
Bio Life
Variety
of
Life
Diversity Variety
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of life on earth.
You will now discover the importance of biodiversity.
ACTIVITY 2 – Understanding the importance of biodiversity
Instructions
1. Study the diagrams below. Match the importance of biodiversity with appropriate diagram.
Provides natural beauty
Provides ideas for invention
Provides medicines
Source of food
Figure 2: Some examples of the importance of biodiversity
188
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
2. Discuss with your friend and suggest other importance of biodiversity.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth.

• Biodiversity is important because it provides us with:
- clean air to breathe, clean water to drink, food, medicine and clothing.
- a source of natural beauty, outdoors for sports such as golf, surfing etc.
- bright ideas for invention such as airplane and silk.
Now you are going to learn how to measure the biodiversity.
Using a Quadrat to Count and Record the Number of Species

Ecologists often study ecosystems. They are interested to know: RECALL
1. What kind of plants and animals there are in a given ecosystem;

An ecosystem consists of
the living things (e.g plants,
2. How many organisms there are of each kind; animals) in a given area,
interacting with one another
3. Where the organisms live. and also with their non-living
environment (e.g air, water).
Such studies will give them an idea about the biodiversity of those areas so that they can decide
whether the ecosystems need protection or not.
In this lesson, we will study the use of quadrat to count and record the number of species in an
ecosystem.
A quadrat is a wooden frame of variable size, e.g. 0.5 m x 0.5 m.
It is further divided into grids of 10 cm as shown in the diagram on next page. The quadrat is
then placed over an area where plants of a particular species need to be counted.
You can construct one for yourself using wooden frames.
189
2.5 Biodiversity
50 cm
10 cm
10 cm
50 cm
A quadrat
ACTIVITY 3 – Counting plants in a field using a quadrat
Instructions
The diagram below represents a garden of roses. Five quadrats have been placed at five different
places. Count the number of roses in each quadrat and record the information in the table
given on page 191. The first one has been done for you.
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
Q1 Q2
Q3
Q4 Q5
A garden of rose flowers
Quadrat Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Total
number
Number of 9
flowers
Average
Total/5 =
number of
flowers
191
2.5 Biodiversity
ACTIVITY 4a – Using quadrat to find the number of green plants in

the school garden
Instructions
1. Construct a quadrat using wooden frames or white tapes of dimensions 50 cm x 50 cm, as

shown on page 190.
2. Proceed to your school garden and place your quadrat at a random place in the garden.
3. Count the number of a specific green plant found in the garden.
4. Record the number in the table below.
5. Repeat the procedure in four random places.
6. Count and record the number of that specific green plant.
7. Find the total and calculate the average.
number
Number of 9
green plants
Average Total/5 =
number of
green plants
A student using a grid quadrat to count a specific plant in a green field
N.B for Teachers: If your school has no school compound with a garden or green field, your
students can do Activity 4(b).
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Biodiversity Unit
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1
ACTIVITY 4b – Using a model quadrat on a simulated green field
Instructions

1. Copy the drawing of the quadrat on the right on a piece of
transparent paper or plastic.
2. Place the quadrat in any five different places in the diagram
of a simulated green field.
3. Count the number of green plants falling inside each quadrat
and record in the table given on the next page.
4. Repeat the same procedure with the other four quadrats and
record in the table.
5. Find the average number of green plants in each quadrat.
Q1 Q2
Q3
Q4 Q5
A simulated green field
193
2.5 Biodiversity
number
Number of 9
green plants
Average Total/5 =
number of
green plants
Effect of Natural Disaster on Biodiversity

Examples of natural disaster are cyclones and drought. Let us explore the effects of each of
them.
Cyclones
The figure below shows some effects of cyclones on biodiversity. Identify and match the effects
with the pictures given below.
Picture Effects
Make food scarce and cause animals

to starve
Kill animals and plants
Destroy habitats
RECALL
Habitat is the place where an organism (e.g. a plant or an animal) lives.
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Biodiversity Unit
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1
Droughts
Shortage of water over a long period of time affects all forms of life. The diagram below shows
some effects of drought on biodiversity.
Cut the pictures given at bottom and stick them on the rectangle that best describes the picture.
Wildfire
Loss of biodiversity Migration of animals
Effects of
drought on
biodiversity
195
2.5 Biodiversity
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
Human Activities Affecting Biodiversity

We have already seen that biodiversity is essential for the survival of humans. However, some
human activities can be a threat to biodiversity resulting in deforestation, pollution and the
introduction of invasive alien species.
Deforestation
The cutting down of trees is known as deforestation.
Study the pictures below and insert the causes of deforestation by choosing the correct phrases
from the list below.
(i) To extract metal ores

(ii) To obtain wood for fuel and building
(iii) To grow food crops
(iv) To build new roads
(v) To make space to keep farm animals
Reasons
for
Deforestation
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2.5 Biodiversity
Effects of Deforestation
Deforestation causes more harm than benefits.
Match the pictures to show the effects of deforestation on biodiversity. The first one has already
been done.
Habitat loss
Soil erosion
Global warming
Flooding
Desertification
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Biodiversity Unit
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1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Natural disasters, such as cyclones and droughts, reduce biodiversity by

- destroying habitats
- making food scarce
- killing plants and animals
- causing migration of animals in search for water and food.
• Deforestation causes much harm to biodiversity.
- plants and animals lose their habitats, become vulnerable to attack, and die.
- when trees die, the soil becomes loose and is easily washed away, causing soil
erosion.
- Clearing of trees can lead to flooding, desertification and global warming.
DID YOU KNOW…
Without trees, the climates become warmer, leading to global warming. This causes polar ice
caps to melt and increase the level of the sea.
Pollution
Pollution causes harm to biodiversity. There are various types of pollution.
1. Study the pictures below and write down the type of pollution shown in each.
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2.5 Biodiversity
ACTIVITY 5 – Understanding effects of pollution on biodiversity
Instructions
All forms of pollution (air, water, land, noise) pose serious threats to biodiversity. Effects of
pollution on biodiversity are often very large. Some of them are shown in the pictures below.
Study the pictures and correctly match the effect caused by the different types of pollution.
Types of Pollution Effects
Noise pollution affects

marine life such as whales
Water pollution by oil spills

affects birds such as pelicans
Air pollution causes acid rain

which can destroy whole
forests
Land pollution affects plants

in forests
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Pollution is the release of unwanted substances in the environment.

• There are four main types of pollution
- Air pollution
- Water pollution
- Land pollution
- Noise pollution
• All types of pollution greatly affect the biodiversity.
Degradation of Habitat
The activity below will help you to explore the impact of habitat degradation on biodiversity.
ACTIVITY 6 – Outlining the impact of habitat degradation on

biodiversity
Instructions
1. Divide the class into four teams.
2. Each team represents a named ecosystem as shown below.

Team A – Forest ecosystem
Team B – Lake ecosystem
Team C – Grassland ecosystem
Team D – Wetland ecosystem
Each team has a leader who has to work together with his/her team members.
3. Each team will discuss and identify the different types of habitat that may be present in
their chosen ecosystem.
4. Each team will list names of organisms present in their selected habitats and record the
names in the table below. For example, Team A may consider tree as an habitat and birds
or lizards as organisms present on it as shown in the table below.
Habitat Name of organisms present in the habitat
Tree Birds, lizard
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2.5 Biodiversity
5. After filling the table, the following questions should be discussed:
(a) What would happen to the biodiversity if the habitat chosen by the team is destroyed?
(b) Can these degraded habitats further support the organisms present?
(c) Suggest possible causes of the habitat destruction.
6. Each team will present their collected information on a poster made of Bristol paper.
7. Each team will make a verbal presentation on their poster in front of the class.
Introduction of Invasive Alien Species

Invasive alien species are plants or animals which have been introduced by man, accidentally or
intentionally, in an area where they were not naturally present. They represent a serious threat
to native plants and animals. Some examples include:
Examples: goyave de Chine, Traveller’s Tree (Ravenala), liane cerf, rats, mongoose
and monkey.
Alien species may lack natural predators in their new environment, allowing them to breed
quickly and spread without limits to eventually take over a natural area. The alien species can:
1. transport diseases,
2. out-compete native species and
3. decrease biodiversity
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
ACTIVITY 7 – Identifying native and alien species
Instructions
Classify the following list into native and invasive alien species.
Ebony tree, bois de natte, bottle palm tree, goyave de Chine, bougainvilla,
frangipane, trochetia, traveller’s tree, ox tree, wild pigs, manglier rouge,
takamaka, deer, monkey, hare, red bulbul, rats, privet, fleur de Lys
Native Species Alien Species
ACTIVITY 8 – Investigating the effect of invasive species ‘goyave des

Chine’ on biodiversity
Instructions
1. Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
Figure A Figure B
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2.5 Biodiversity
(a) Figure A shows an alien species invading the Mauritian wild forest. Can you identify the
alien plant?
(b) How is it affecting the native trees?
(c) Can you suggest which activity is being carried out by the workers in Figure B?
(d Why is this activity necessary?
(e) Despite being an alien species, it is not completely eradicated from the Mauritian
forest. Suggest one reason for this situation.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Alien species are animals or plants introduced from outside our country.
• They grow very rapidly, invade our forest, and seriously threaten our native plants and
animals.
• They decrease our biodiversity, hence their propagation should be controlled.
204
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
Global Warming
In unit 1, you have learnt about how green house gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide
and methane have led to global warming. Now you will learn how global warming affects
biodiversity.
ACTIVITY 9 – Recognising the effects of global warming
Instructions
The pictures below show the effects of global warming on biodiversity.
1. Match the pictures with the correct description shown below.
Coral bleaching
Decrease in biodiversity
2. List other effects of global warming on biodiversity.
Conservation
In previous lessons, you have learnt how human activities are causing harm to biodiversity. If
nothing is done to stop these activities, one day the biodiversity will disappear completely.
What should be done? You will learn more about this in this section.
Conservation is the protection, restoration and preservation of biodiversity.
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2.5 Biodiversity
ACTIVITY 10 – Discussing ways to protect biodiversity
Instructions
The pictures below show some ways to protect biodiversity.
1. Observe the pictures carefully and write down the conservation measures in the boxes
provided. One example is already given
Setting up of nature reserves
206
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
207
2.5 Biodiversity
2. List three other ways we can protect biodiversity.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
• Human activities are causing great harm to biodiversity.

• To protect biodiversity, some human activities should be reduced.
• Loss of biodiversity can be reduced by:
- setting up of nature reserves and marine parks
- captive breeding
- reforestation or restoration of forests by planting trees
- sustainable management of forests
- enforcement of legislations and law
- reduction in all types of pollution
- banning of hunting of endangered animals.
- sensitising people through posters, media and talks on the importance of
conserving biodiversity.
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
Summary of unit
• Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth.
• Quadrats are used to count organisms and record the number of organisms/species in
an ecosystem.
• Biodiversity is important in the following ways:
- Provides clean air to breathe, clean water to drink, healthy crops, food, medicine,
clothing.
- Provides bright ideas for inventions such as airplane, silk.
- Is a source of natural beauty outdoor for sports such as golf, surfing etc.
- Gives us cultural traditions such as music, ceremonies, mythology, decorations
• Cyclones and droughts are natural disasters which cause loss of biodiversity.
• Both cyclones and drought cause degradation of habitat and kill species.
• Human activities, which cause harm to biodiversity, are deforestation, pollution,
introduction of invasive, alien species and global warming.
• Alien species grow rapidly and kill native species.
• To protect biodiversity, these human activities should be reduced.
• The restoration and protection of biodiversity is known as conservation.
209
210
2.5
Concept Summary • 2.5 • Biodiversity
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity
affected by importance estimation restoration
Quadrat Conservation
Natural calamities Human activities Provides Provides Provides
medicine natural ideas for
beauty invention
Provides
food
Global
Cyclone Drought Deforestation
warming
Invasive and alien

species
Pollution
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
WORK OUT

Tick the right answer.
1. Which one is a living thing?
A Car B Ball C Cat D Boat

2. Which is not an importance of biodiversity?
A Source of medicine
B Source of food
C Source of income
D Source of pollution

3. The cutting down of trees is known as:
A Global warming
B Deforestation
C Conservation
D Pollution
4. One reason why trees are cut is:
A to make space for agriculture

B to provide clean water
C to protect native birds
D to protect wild animals
5. Playing a very loud sound is a type of
A water pollution
B land pollution
C air pollution
D noise pollution
6. Coral bleaching is a result of
A deforestation
B land pollution
C global warming
D conservation
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2.5 Biodiversity
7. Which one is an example of an invasive alien species?
A Bois de natte
B Ebony tree
C Goyave de Chine
D Trochetia
8. Which activity forms part of conservation?
A Removing native species

B Removing alien species
C Throwing litter in the sea
D Releasing toxic gases in air
9. How can forests be restored?
A By planting trees
B By cutting trees
C By making new roads
D By increasing land for agriculture
10. Which natural calamity reduces biodiversity by causing wildfires?
A Flood
B Cyclone
C Drought
D Earthquake
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
1. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate words from the list given below.
pollution important cyclone large variety
Forests are biodiversity as they have a large of plants
and animal species. Biodiversity is very for mankind as it provides many of
man’s needs. Natural calamities such as drought and decrease biodiversity.
However, many human activities such as deforestation, and introduction of
alien species also cause a decrease in biodiversity.
2. Match the terms on the left with their correct definition on the right.

Destruction of the living space for
Pollution
living organisms
Deforestation Increase in temperature of the earth
Preservation and restoration of

Global warming
biodiversity
Releasing harmful substances in the

Degradation of habitat environment
Conservation Cutting down of trees
213
2.5 Biodiversity
3. Try to find and draw a ring around the following words in the grid.
BIODIVERSITY NATIVE
CONSERVATION EBONY
DEFORESTATION TROCHETIA
POLLUTION QUADRAT
ALIEN DROUGHT
A Q W E R T Y U I O P A S D F
R T Y U I I T R O C H E T I A
D D E F G H J K L Z X C V B L
T R E J B R T Y H G F D S J I
J O K F I Y G F D R N R T P E
T U M C O N S E R V A T I O N
G G N J D R Y T R T T Y J L P
F H B Y I Q E R T Y I U I L O
D T V T V W I S V Q V Y B U I
S T C R E E O W T U E T Y T U
A G X E R R T S F A U E G I Y
A H Z W S T Y X R D T G O O T
H J S Q I Y U E V R Q I N N R
J K F W T U I D T A Z W O P E
E B O N Y I O C G T A Z P N W
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Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
4. Seema notices a poisonous plant growing near her school. She decides to find out how
many plants are growing in a square of grass with an area of 50 m2.
50 m2
B
C
3x 1 m2 quadrats
She throws a quadrat over her shoulder and counts the number of poisonous plants inside
it. Then she does the same at two more positions. The table shows her results.
Quadrat Poisonous plants

A 1
B 2
C 3
(a) Explain why Seema threw the quadrat over her shoulder instead of just putting it down
on the grass.
(b) Estimate the total number of poisonous plants growing in the square of grass.
(c) How could Seema get a more reliable estimate?
5. Some villagers plan to remove the trees from this hillside.
215
2.5 Biodiversity
Doing this could damage their environment.

(a) Suggest one immediate problem for the animals that live on the hill.
(b) Suggest one problem that could arise during the rainy season.
6. The diagram shows four common sources of pollution.
B. waste gases
from power stations
A. waste water burning fossil fuels
from homes
D. water from a
farmer’s field
C. waste gases
from car
engines
(a) Which two sources can cause air pollution?
(b) Which two sources can pollute water?
(c) Name the acidic gases in sources B and C.
(d) Name the main pollutants in sources A and D.
(e) Suggest why the trees behind the factory are dying.
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Measurement in Science Unit
Language of chemistry 3.1
1
INTERACTIONS 3
Learning Outcomes

• Define the terms molecule, formula, valency and compound
• Work out the formulae of compounds
• Identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction
• Write down word equations to represent chemical reactions
Introducing Molecules
ACTIVITY 1 - Recalling about atoms of elements
Earlier you have learnt in Unit 2 that aluminium, gold, silver and carbon are elements which
contain a large number of atoms joined together.
Before learning about molecules of elements, it is important to learn that some elements such as
helium, argon and neon exist as separate single atoms and can be represented as shown in Figure 1.
Ne Ne Ar
He He
Ne Ar
Ne Ne Ar
He He
Ar Ar
He He Ne
Atoms in helium Atoms in neon Atoms in argon
Figure 1: Elements such as helium, neon, argon and krypton exist as single atoms.
However, there are also some elements which exist as groups of atoms called molecules.
In Activity 2, you will learn about molecules.

217
3.1 Language of chemistry
Molecules of elements
ACTIVITY 2 - Finding out about molecules of elements
Instructions
1. Study Figure 2 which represents the molecules of some elements.
H H O O Cl Cl I I
Hydrogen molecule Oxygen molecule Chlorine molecule Iodine molecule
Figure 2: Molecules of some elements
Each sphere represents

one atom of an element
a) What do molecules consist of? ______________________________________________
b) State how many atoms are present in one molecule of
(i) hydrogen ________________ (ii) oxygen ________________
(iii) chlorine ________________ (iv) iodine ________________
c) Observe the atoms of each molecule. Are they joined or separated?
_______________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Some elements exist as molecules.

A molecule consists of two or more atoms joined together chemically.
Non-metals such as hydrogen, chlorine , oxygen and iodine exist as molecules consisting
of two atoms. Their molecules are diatomic because they consist of two atoms. Other
elements which exist as diatomic molecules are nitrogen, fluorine and bromine.
It is important to note that the molecules of some elements consist of more than two
atoms, as shown on the next page.
218
3.1
1
S P
S S
S S P
P P
S S S
Sulfur molecule Phosphorus molecule
Each sulfur molecule consists of 8 atoms.

Each phosphorus molecule consists of 4 atoms.
Formula of molecule
In Activity 1, you have learnt that elements are represented by symbols. A symbol is a short
hand and universal way of representing an element.
In the same way, molecules are represented by formulae.
Let us find out what a formula is.
Oxygen molecule consists of 2 atoms of oxygen chemically joined together.
O O
Oxygen molecule
Formula of oxygen: O2
Figure 3 explains why the oxygen molecule is represented by the formula O2 .
Observe Figure 3 carefully.
O2
Symbol of element
Subscript in formula: number
of atoms in the molecule
Figure 3: Explaining the formula of oxygen
Activity 3 will help you identify the formulae of other elements.

219
ACTIVITY 3 - Finding out the formulae of some elements
Instructions
1. Study Figure 3 carefully on previous page.

2. Use the explanation in Figure 3 to find out the formulae of the different elements
represented in Table 1.
3. Complete Table 1 to give:
(i) the number of atoms in the molecule
(ii) the symbol of each element
(iii) the formula of the element.
Table 1: Molecules of elements and their formulae
Symbol of Number of atoms Formula of

Element Molecule
the element in 1 molecule molecule
Oxygen O O
Hydrogen H H
Chlorine Cl Cl
Fluorine F
F
Bromine Br Br
Iodine I I
Ozone
(Ozone is a gas O
which consists of 3
O O
atoms of oxygen in
its molecule)
P
Phosphorus P
P P
S
Sulfur S S
S
220
3.1
1
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
The formula is a short-hand and universal way of representing a molecule.

The formula of a molecule is written as follows:
Xn
Symbol of element
number of atoms in the molecule
In the above sections, you have learnt about molecules of elements.
You will now learn about compounds and their molecules.
Compounds
As we have seen earlier, matter can also be compounds.
Activity 4 will help you learn about compounds.
ACTIVITY 4 - Finding out about compounds
Instructions:
1. Read the text below.
A compound is a substance which consists of two or more elements chemically combined

together.
Each compound has a definite composition, that is, the proportion of each element in a
compound is fixed.
Four compounds are shown below:
• Water – consists of hydrogen and oxygen combined together
• Kitchen salt (sodium chloride) – consists of sodium and chlorine combined together
• Carbon dioxide - consists of carbon and oxygen combined together
• Glucose - consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen combined together
OXYGEN
water kitchen salt oxygen cylinder glucose
221
2. Answer the questions which follow.
(a) What do you understand by the term “compound”?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
(b) Give 2 examples of compounds.
__________________________________________________________________________
(c) Write down two differences between a mixture and a compound.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Examples of compounds are given in Table 2.
With the help of your teacher, identify the constituent elements of each compound.
Write your answer in the right column of Table 2.
Table 2: Compounds and their constituent elements
Compound Elements present in the compound
Water Hydrogen, oxygen
Kitchen salt (Sodium chloride)
Hydrogen chloride
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen bromide
Common alcohol (ethanol)
Hydrogen iodide
Glucose
Carbon monoxide
Methane
In Activity 3, you have seen that 2 or more atoms of same element join together to form
molecules which are represented by formulae.
In the next section, you will learn that compounds can also exist as molecules. These are
molecules of compounds and they are also represented by formulae.
222
3.1
1
Molecules of compounds
Some compounds, like water, carbon dioxide, glucose, and methane are made up of molecules.
For example, water is a molecule consisting of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen
joined together.
Water molecule
Therefore, the formula for a water molecule is H2O, as illustrated in Figure 4 below.
H2O
Symbol of hydrogen Symbol of oxygen
2 atoms of hydrogen in
one molecule of water
Figure 4: Explaining the formula of water
Activity 5 will help you learn about the formulae of some other compounds.
ACTIVITY 5 - Finding the formulae of molecules of compounds
Instructions:
1. Table 3 illustrates some molecules of compounds.

2. Study the molecules carefully.
3. Identify the constituent elements in each compound.
4. Calculate the number of atoms of each element in one molecule of the compound.
5. Use the example given in Figure 4 above to write the formula for each molecule.
6. Write your answer in Table 3. The first one has been done for you.
223
Table 3: Molecules of compounds and their formulae
Number of atoms
Constituent
Molecule of each element in Formula
elements
one molecule
Hydrogen (H) H: 2
H2O
Oxygen (O) O: 1
Water
Carbon dioxide
H
H C
H
H
Methane
C O
Carbon monoxide
N
H H
H
Ammonia
N
O
O
Nitogen dioxide
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Compounds are made up of 2 or more elements chemically combined together. Some

compounds exist as molecules. The molecules of compounds are represented by formulae.
The formula of a molecule includes the symbols of the atoms of the elements present in the
molecule and the number of atoms of each element in one molecule.
Water has formula H2O.
One atom of oxygen combines with two atoms of hydrogen.
Hydrogen and oxygen combine in this proportion to form water because each element has a
combining power, or valency, which its atom uses to combine with atoms of other elements
to form compounds. In the next section, you will learn about valency of elements.
224
3.1
1
Valency of elements
To understand the valency of elements, consider the blocks shown below.
Pink block Blue block Green block
The pink block has one hook, therefore one pink block combines with only one other pink
block.
One blue block has two hooks, therefore it combines with two pink blocks.
One green block has three hooks, therefore it combines with three pink blocks.
In the same way, each element has a combining power. This is called the valency of the element.
The valency of the element determines the proportion in which the element combines with
another element.
225
Table 4 gives the symbols and valencies of some elements.
Table 4
Name of element Symbol Valency
Argon Ar 0
Helium He 0
Neon Ne 0
Bromine Br 1
Chorine Cl 1
Iodine I 1
Fluorine F 1
Hydrogen H 1
Potassium K 1
Sodium Na 1
Silver Ag 1
Calcium Ca 2
Magnesium Mg 2
Oxygen O 2
Zinc Zn 2
Aluminium Al 3
Nitrogen N 3
In the next section, you will learn how the symbols and valencies of elements are used to work
out the formulae of compounds.
Working out the formulae of compounds
Just like elements are represented by symbols, compounds are represented by short-hand
forms called formulae.
The examples below show how you can work out the formula of the compound, water, using
the symbols and valencies of the elements present in the compound.
226
3.1
1
EXAMPLE 1: Working out the formula of sodium chloride
Element Hydrogen Oxygen
Symbol H O
Valency 1 2
Exchange valency 2 1
Formula of water H2O
The formula of water is H2O.
Note that subscript 1 is not written after O.
EXAMPLE 2: Working out the formula of magnesium oxide
Element Magnesium Oxide
Symbol Mg O
Valency 2 2
Exchange valency 2 2
Divide the valencies by the
1 1
smallest number
Formula of magnesium
MgO
oxide
The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO.
Note that subscript 1 is not written after Mg and after O.
Activity 6 will allow you to work out the formulae of some compounds.
227
ACTIVITY 6 - Working out the formulae of some compounds
Instructions:
Using the method described above, work out the formulae for the following compounds in
your copybook.
(a) Sodium oxide
(b) Magnesium chloride
(c) Aluminium bromide
(d) Potassium iodide
(e) Magnesium oxide
(f ) Aluminium nitride
(g) Zinc nitride
(h) Calcium fluoride
Chemical reactions
Matter can undergo two types of changes, physical changes and chemical changes.
Physical change is one in which no new substance is formed. The starting material can be
easily obtained back.
Chemical change is one in which new substances are formed. The starting material cannot be
easily obtained back.
Table 5: Some physical and chemical changes
Physical changes Chemical changes
Melting of ice cream Burning of wood
Freezing of water Baking a cake
228
3.1
1
Physical changes Chemical changes
Drying of clothes Photosynthesis
Cutting wood Respiration
Folding a piece of paper Burning carbon
Evaporation Cooking food
In the next activity, you will more about chemical changes which are also called chemical
reactions.
ACTIVITY 7 - Investigating chemical reactions
Materials needed
• Magnesium ribbon
• A pair of tongs
• Bunsen burner
• Crucible
This activity will be carried out by your teacher.
229
Procedure
1. Observe the magnesium ribbon carefully. Record your observations in the given table
below.
2. Hold the magnesium ribbon with the tongs and put it over the Bunsen burner flame.
Describe what happens.
3. Allow the magnesium ribbon to burn completely.
4. Observe the residue obtained. Write your observations in the table below.
Appearance of magnesium ribbon before

burning
Appearance of residue formed when

magnesium is burnt
5. When magnesium burns in the air, magnesium combines with oxygen to form magnesium
oxide. Is this change a chemical change or physical change?
___________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion
Magnesium and oxygen are called reactants, while magnesium oxide is the product obtained.
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
Reactants Product
When magnesium burns in air, it reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
A chemical change takes place since magnesium oxide is a new substance formed. A chemical
change is called a chemical reaction.
During a chemical reaction, the starting substances are called the reactants.
The new substances formed during a chemical reaction are called the products.
230
3.1
1
Word equations
In this section, you will learn how to write word equations to represent chemical reactions.
The following examples 1, 2 and 3 will help you write word equations.
EXAMPLE 1: Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water.
We can represent this chemical reaction using a word equation as follows:
hydrogen + oxygen water
where the + sign means that the two substances react chemically with each other and the .
symbol implies that a chemical reaction takes place.
This is an example of a chemical equation. The initial substances are called reactants, and the
final substances are called products.
Write down word equations to represent the following chemical reactions.
(a) Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to produce hydrogen chloride.
Hydrogen + chlorine hydrogen chloride
(b) Sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide.
____________________________________________________________________
(c) Aluminium reacts with chlorine to form aluminium chloride.
____________________________________________________________________
(d) Zinc reacts with bromine to produce zinc bromide.
____________________________________________________________________
(e) Sodium reacts with water to form hydrogen gas and a compound called sodium hydroxide.
___________________________________________________________________
231
End of unit Summary

• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
• A symbol is a shorthand way of representing an element.
• The valency of an element is its combining power.
• An atom is the smallest indivisible part of an element that can exist.
• A molecule is made up of atoms that are chemically joined together.
• The formula of a molecule is a short-hand way of representing a molecule.
• The formula of a compound shows the ratio of the different number of atoms of
each element in a compound.
• Chemical reactions are chemical changes which produce new substances.
• Chemical reactions can be represented by word equations.
• The starting substances in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
• The substances formed in a chemical reaction are called products.
• In a word equation, reactants are placed on the left side of the equation and
products are placed on the right side of the equation.
232
3.1
1
Concept Summary
Formulae
are represented by
can exist as consist of 2 atoms chemically

compounds molecules
or more combined together
Symbol
are made up of 2
or more elements can exist as
is represented by a
shorthand way called
chemically
joined together
substance is a element
which cannot be
is the smallest
broken down into has a
indivisible part of an
simpler substances atom combining power
called
valency
233
1. Choose the correct answer.
(a) Elements consist of particles called …………………….
A radical B atoms C spheres D cubes
(b) What is the correct name for the compound with formula CaF2?
A Calcium bromide B Fluoride calcium C Calcium fluoride D Calcium fluorine
(c) What is the correct name for the compound with formula ZnS?
A Zinc sulfur B Zinc sulfate C Zinc sulfite D Zinc sulfide
(d) What is the correct formula of the compound calcium nitride?
A CaN2 B Ca2N3 C Ca3N2 D CaN3
(e) Barium reacts with oxygen to produce barium oxide, which is a white solid. Which is the
correct word equation to represent the reaction?
A Barium + oxygen barium oxide
B Barium + oxygen white powder
C Barium + air barium oxide
D Barium + air white powder
2. Use the given list of words to complete the following sentences.

metals element molecule compound
valency non-metals periodic table
(a) A substance that is made up of only of kind of atom is called an ____________________.
(b) A substance that is made up of two or more types of atoms is called a ____________________.
(c) A ____________________ of an element is made up of same atoms chemically joined
together.
(d) All elements are arranged in a special chart called the ____________________.
(e) The combining power of an element is called its ____________________.
234
3.1
1
3. Work out the formulae of the following compounds. Work out this exercise in your
copybook.
a) Sodium chloride
b) Magnesium nitride
c) Calcium chloride
d) Aluminium oxide
e) Silver oxide
f ) Aluminium fluoride
g) Magnesium hydride
4. Write word equations for the following chemical reactions
(a) Carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
(b) Hydrogen reacts with fluorine to form hydrogen fluoride.

(d) Silver reacts with bromine to form silver bromide.
5. Identify the reactants and products in the following chemical reactions.
a. Calcium + oxygen calcium oxide
b. Hydrogen + oxygen water
c. Nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia
d. Carbon dioxide + carbon carbon monoxide

e. Potassium reacts with water to form hydrogen and a compound called potassium hydroxide
f. Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen (in presence of
chlorophyll and sunlight).
235
6 . Complete the crossword using the clues given below. (You may also refer to the Unit
1.4 (Language of Chemistry).
Down 1 2
1. a special table in which elements are
classified
2. a change which does not produce new
substances and is reversible
3. the combining power of an element 3
6. a short-hand way to represent a molecule
4
8. it is made up of two or more elements
combined together
9. the smallest indivisible part of an element
that has the properties of that element 5
11. the element whose molecule consists of 8
atoms
7 8
10
11
Across
4. the name given to molecules consisting of
two similar atoms
5. a change which produces new susbtances
and is irreversible
7. it is made up of two or more atoms joined
together
10. a substance which cannot be broken
down into simpler substances
11. a short-hand way of representing an
element
236
Measurement in Science
Energy
Energy 4
4.1 Our atmosphere and the environment
ACTIVITY 1 - Recognizing that absorption of heat by greenhouse

Instructions
1. Read the text below.
Greenhouse gases which are present in the atmosphere keep the Earth’s surface warm.
These GHGs are also known as heat trapping gases. Human activities emit an excess of
GHGs, causing an increase in the Earth’s temperature. This is known as global warming.
2. Complete the exercise by choosing from the given list of words
atmosphere global warming excess greenhouse gases

warm GHGs earth
(a) A rise in temperature of our planet is called ___________________________________
(b) Heat trapping gases are known as ___________________________________
(c) GHGs means _______________________________________________
(d) GHGs help to keep our planet ______________________________________
(e) GHGs are found in the _____________________________________________
(f ) Global warming is caused by an ___________________________ of GHGs.

237
4.1 Our atmosphere and the environment
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
There are some gases in the atmosphere which trap heat energy from the sun. They are
called greenhouse gases (GHGs). They keep the Earth’s surface warm for the survival of
living things. However, an excess of these gases brings along an increase in the Earth’s
temperature. It is known as global warming.
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Energy
4.2 Energy, Heat and Temperature
Learning Outcomes

• State the principle of conservation of energy
• Explain the conservation of energy in simple systems, falling objects and simple
pendulums
• Describe the production of electricity using renewable and non-renewable sources of
energy
• Classify the polluting and non-polluting sources of energy for electricity production
• List the advantages and disadvantages of producing electricity using renewable and
non-renewable sources of energy
• Demonstrate and understand the concept of heat and temperature
Introduction
We learnt about energy in Grade 8. Energy is the capacity to do work. This means that energy
is required to be able to do work.
We, human beings, are able to work because we obtain energy from the food we eat.
A bus obtains energy from diesel, that is , its fuel.
There are different forms of energy like heat, light, sound and movement energy.
We obtain energy from different sources like food and petrol.
ACTIVITY 1 - Recalling the different forms of energy
Instructions
1. Identify the forms of energy illustrated.
2. Write your answers in the space provided.

239
Examples Form & Energy
Light energy
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
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Energy, Heat and Temperature Unit
4.2
1
ACTIVITY 2 - Recalling different sources of energy
Instructions
1. Identify the sources of energy illustrated below.
2. Write down your answers in the space provided.
Examples Source of Energy
The sun
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
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____________________________________
____________________________________
Potential energy and kinetic energy

(a) Potential energy
This is an additional form of energy. Let us examine the following diagrams which illustrate
potential energy.
Examples of potential energy
Archery See saw Water slide
From these diagrams we observe that potential energy is stored in:

(i) a bent metal bar
(ii) a compressed spring
(iii) an object above ground level
From these observations we can say that potential energy is an energy which an object
possesses depending on its state or its position above ground level.
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4.2
1
Potential
energy
stored by a
stretched/ stored by a
compressed body above
object ground level
Potential energy calculation
Potential energy is calculated using the formula:
E=mgh
m - mass in kg
g - 10 N/kg
h - vertical height above ground level in m
On ground level, h = 0, so potential energy is zero.
WORKED EXAMPLE:
A 2 kg mass is lifted from the ground to a vertical height of 5 m above ground level.
(i) What is the potential energy of the body when it was on ground level?
Potential energy at ground level = 0 J
(ii) Calculate its potential energy at a vertical height of 5 m above
ground level.
Potential energy at a height of 5 m is:
E = mgh = 2×10×5 = 100 J
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ACTIVITY 3 - Calculating potential energy
A leopard of mass 30 kg is resting on a tree at a height of 5 m above the ground.

Calculate its potential energy.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
A man of mass 60 kg is standing on a ladder. He is at a height of 1 m from the ground.

Calculate his potential energy.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Potential energy is stored in:

(i) a stretched elastic band,
(ii) a stretched or compressed spring, or
(iii) a body that is above the ground level.
Potential energy of a body increases when its mass increases.

It also increases when height of a body increases.
It is calculated using E = mgh.
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4.2
1
(b) Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is another term for movement energy. A moving body has kinetic energy.
The following examples illustrate kinetic energy.
Examples of bodies having kinetic energy
A boy running A cyclist speeding An ostrich running
Kinetic energy calculations
Kinetic energy is calculated using:

1
E = 2 mv2
m - mass in kg
v - speed in m/s
When an object is at rest, its speed is zero, so its kinetic energy is zero.
WORKED EXAMPLE:
A girl of mass 40 kg runs at a speed 2 m/s.
Calculate her kinetic energy.
E = 1 mv2
2
= 1 × 40 × 2 × 2
2
= 80 J
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ACTIVITY 4 - Calculating kinetic energy
The mass of a toy car is 1 kg. It is moving at 2 m/s.

Calculate the kinetic energy of the toy car.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
The mass of the horse is 500 kg. It is running at 4 m/s.

Calculate its kinetic energy.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Kinetic energy is same as movement energy. Any moving body has kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy increases when the mass of the moving body increases.
It also increases when the speed of the moving body increases.
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4.2
1
The law of conservation of energy

This states that:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.
Applying the law of conservation of energy to a child playing on a swing.

Let us consider conservation of energy of a child playing on a swing.
At A, the girl is at the highest position. She has maximum potential energy. Her kinetic energy
is zero, as she starts from rest.
As she moves from A to B, her potential energy decreases and her kinetic energy increases. At
B the girl has minimum potential energy but maximum KE.
As the girl moves from B to C, her kinetic energy decreases and her potential energy increases.
At C the girl has maximum potential energy. Her kinetic energy becomes zero, as she comes
to rest.
Her energy continuously changes from potential to kinetic and back to potential, but her total
energy remains unchanged.
This is called the law of conservation of energy.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Energy exists in different forms. Heat energy, light energy, chemical energy, potential and
kinetic energies are a few of them.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can be converted from one form to
another.
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Renewable and non-renewable energy sources

A renewable energy source is an energy source which is easily replaced by nature.
A non-renewable energy source is an energy source which is not easily replaced by nature.
Examples are given in Table 1.

Table 1
Renewable source of energy Non-renewable source of energy
1. Wood and charcoal 1. Coal
2. Solar energy 2. Petrol
3. Energy of falling water (hydropower) 3. Diesel
4. Wind energy 4. Cooking gas
5. Bagasse
ACTIVITY 5 - Identifying renewable and non-renewable energy sources
Instructions
1. Identify and name the following renewable energy sources.
Renewable energy source Name
____________________________________
____________________________________
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4.2
1
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
2. Identify and name the following non-renewable energy sources.
Non-renewable energy source Name
____________________________________
____________________________________
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Renewable energy sources are easily replaced by nature. Non-renewable energy

sources are not replaced by nature and will one day be completely finished.
It is therefore a better idea to rely more on renewable energy sources.
Power stations
A power station uses an energy source like falling water, wind or a fossil fuel to generate
electricity.
There are different kinds of power stations.
These are explained below.
(a) Hydroelectric power station
In a hydroelectric power station, the potential energy of the water is converted to kinetic energy.
The falling water turns the turbine. The turbine is connected to the generator. The generator
produces electrical energy.
Elec
tric
ity
Water intake
Transformer
Wa
ter
Dam flo
w
Generator
Turbine
Water discharge
Potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy of water is turned into kinetic energy of the turbine.
The kinetic energy of the turbine is converted into electrical energy in the generator.
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4.2
1
Advantages and disadvantages of a hydroelectric power station
Electricity production using hydroelectric power
Advantages Disadvantages
The power station will not function during
This form of energy is available locally.
drought.
The power station may break during heavy
It does not cause air pollution.
flood.
(b) Wind power station
In a wind power station, the kinetic energy of the air is used.
Kinetic energy of air is converted into kinetic energy of the blades.

Kinetic energy of the blades is then turned into electrical energy in the generator.
Advantages and disadvantages of a wind power station
Electricity production using wind power
The power station will not function when
This form of energy is available locally.
there is no wind.
The power station may break during strong
It does not cause air pollution.
wind.
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(c) Thermal power station
In a thermal power station, fuel (coal, bagasse, diesel, oil) is burnt to heat water in a huge boiler.
This produces steam at high pressure.
The kinetic energy of the steam is converted to kinetic energy of the turbine. Then the kinetic
energy of the turbine is converted into electrical energy in the generator.
Boiler
(furnace)
Turbine
Steam
Transmission
Lines
Coal
Water Generator
Transformer
River
Condenser
Condenser cooling
water
Advantages and disadvantages of a thermal power station
Electricity production using thermal power
This source of energy is not free. The fuel
This source of energy is available all the time.
must be imported.
A thermal power station runs at lower cost. The power station causes air pollution.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
A power station produces electrical energy (or electricity).

A hydroelectric power station uses the potential energy of falling water.
A wind power station uses the kinetic energy of wind.
A thermal power station uses the kinetic energy of steam.
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4.2
1
Air pollution
Clean air is essential for life.
Unfortunately, the air we breathe is not clean everywhere. It contains things which are
harmful to our health.
In other words, the air is polluted.
Two common sources of air pollution are:
(i) Thermal power stations using coal and petroleum products like diesel
(ii) Cars and other vehicles running on petrol and diesel
Main sources of air pollution
Thermal power stations Car (and vehicle) exhausts
The gases emitted from the chimneys and exhausts of vehicles contain very harmful substances.
These substances rise into the air and combine with rain water to form acid rain.
Acid rain destroys buildings, vegetation and

pollutes rivers and lakes.
For this reason, we must, as far as possible, use

clean sources of energy like hydropower and
wind energy.
We must avoid using coal and petroleum

products.
Acid rain
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Non-polluting sources of energy
Hydropower (energy of falling water) Wind energy
Polluting sources of energy
Coal Petroleum products
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Air pollution is a serious problem in the world.

In certain cities, people have to wear masks to walk outside. In Mauritius, we are lucky
as we do not have these problems yet.
Still, we must make an effort to use energy sources which do not cause air pollution.
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4.2
1
Heat and temperature

We learnt in Grade 8 that heat is a form of energy.
The sun, an electric stove, and a gas stove are a few sources of heat energy.
The sun Electric stove Gas stove
Heat energy flows from a hot body to a cold body.
When we cook food, heat flows from the flame (hot body) to the food.
Similarly, heat energy flows from the sun (hot body) to the Earth (cold body).
Heat energy flows from the flame Heat energy flows from the sun
to the food to the Earth
Temperature, on the other hand, is a measure of how hot or cold something is.
A fruit juice, for example, is a cold drink whereas we normally drink hot tea in the morning.
When we have fever, there is a rise in the body temperature.
Fruit juice Hot tea Fever

(Low temperature) (High temperature) (Rise in temperature)
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In the third diagram, the child’s parent is using an instrument to measure his body temperature.
This is a thermometer.
In fact, a thermometer is used to measure temperature. The thermometer used to measure

body temperature is called a clinical thermometer.
Mercury clinical thermometer Digital clinical thermometer
Ice point and steam point
Ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice. Its value is 0 oC.
Steam point is the temperature of steam coming from pure boiling water. Its value is 100 oC.
ACTIVITY 6 - Using a mercury thermometer to measure ice point and

steam point
With your help, your teacher will set up the two sets of apparatus for you.
Materials needed
• Ice
• Funnel
• Stand
• Thermometer
• Water
• Burner
Instructions
1. Observe the two set ups.
2. Discuss in groups and answer the following questions.
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4.2
1
Finding the ice point Finding the steam point
(i) What does the funnel contain? _______________________________________________
(ii) How do we know that the ice is melting? _______________________________________
(iii) Note the reading shown by the thermometer. ___________________________________
(iv) What is this value known as? _________________________________________________
(v) How do we know that the water is boiling? _____________________________________
(vi) What can you see above the boiling water? _____________________________________
(vii) Note the reading shown by the thermometer. ___________________________________
(viii) What is this value known as? _________________________________________________
The ice point and the steam point help us to measure other temperatures.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNT
Ice point and steam point are two important temperatures.

Ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice. Its value is 0 oC.
Steam point is the temperature of steam coming from pure boiling water.
Its value is 100 oC.
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End of unit Summary

• Energy is the capacity to do work.
• There are many forms and sources of energy.
• Potential energy is stored in a stretched elastic band and a stretched or
compressed spring. It is also stored in a body found above ground level.
• Kinetic energy (previously known as movement energy) is obtained from a
moving body.
• A renewable energy source is easily replaced by nature but a non-renewable
energy source is not replaced by nature.
• A power station converts one form of energy into electrical energy. Falling water,
wind, sunlight and petrol are used to produce electricity.
• Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is.
• Heat is a form of energy which flows from a body at higher temperature to a
body at lower temperature.
• To measure any temperature, two known temperatures are needed. These are ice
point (0 oC) and steam point (100 oC).
258
Concept Summary Coal, petrol, diesel
and cooking gas
Heat, light, sound,

Non-renewable
electrical, chemical,
Any moving body potential and kinetic Sources of energy
(movement)
Renewable
Forms of energy
Wood, charcoal,
bagasse, hydropower,
solar and wind
Kinetic energy
ENERGY
Potential energy degree of hotness
or coldness
Temperature
Stretched elastic band measured using

Stretched/compressed spring
Body above ground level
Energy, Heat and Temperature
Thermometer
1
4.2
Unit
259
1. Multiple choice questions. Choose the correct answer.
(a) Which of the following is an example of potential energy?
A Water on top of a waterfall B Water at the bottom of a waterfall
C Water entering a power station D Water coming out of the power station
(b) A clinical thermometer
A has a long range of temperature B has a constriction
C can measure ice point D can measure steam point
(c) A battery contains
A heat energy B chemical energy
C electrical energy D Light energy

(d) Which of the following is a renewable energy source?
A bagasse B coal
C petrol D cooking gas
(e) The value of ice point is:
A 0 oC B 10 oC C 50 oC D 100 oC
(a) Dry wood used to cook food contains ____________________ energy. (chemical, light)
(b) Wind is a ____________________ source of energy. (renewable, non-renewable)
(c) A boy at rest on the top of a hill has ____________________ energy. (potential, kinetic)
(d) When a car moves faster, its ____________________energy increases. (potential, kinetic)
(e) In a thermometer, we use ____________________. (water, mercury)
(a) Energy is the capacity to do ____________________.
(b) The SI unit of energy is ____________________.
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4.2
1
(c) Temperature is a measure of the amount of ____________________ or coldness.
(d) Thermal power stations cause air ____________________.
(e) Ice point is the temperature of pure ____________________ ice.
4. Fill each blank using an appropriate word.
Bagasse is a fuel used in Mauritius for producing electrical energy.
It is a ____________________ source of energy because it is ____________________ replaced
by ____________________. Bagasse contains ____________________ energy. When it is
burnt, this energy is converted to ____________________ energy which is used to heat water

in a boiler.
As a result, high pressure steam is produced which is directed onto the turbine. The
____________________ energy of the steam is converted to ____________________ energy of
the turbine which is connected to a generator.
The generator produces ____________________ energy. Such a power station is known as a
____________________ power station.
A lighted bulb produces light energy and hotness or coldness
A stretched elastic band has heat energy
Temperature is a measure of over and over again
A moving car has potential energy
Hydropower is a kinetic energy
A renewable energy source can be used renewable source of energy
261
6 . Complete the crossword using the clues given below.
1 2
3 4
6
Across Down
4. Falling water is a source of renewable 1. A bulb produces light energy and _______
_______. energy.
5. The energy of a moving body. 2. The liquid contained in a thermometer.
6. Burning coal and petroleum products 3. A _______ thermometer is used to
cause air ________. measure body temperature.
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The Periodic Table
Simplified version of the Periodic Table
Models and systems
Grade 9 Extended Programme - SCIENCE - Teacher’s Notes
General guidelines to teachers

It is a known fact that the topics in Science cannot be solely taught to students within the four
walls of the classroom. It is imperative that students are taken outside the class to observe
and explore items and phenomena. It is important that the teachers should properly plan and
organise activities in order to actively involve students in the learning of science concepts.
Teachers need to enhance students’ participation by asking them to bring and/or manipulate
different items relevant to activities in the student’s book, e.g., measuring tape.
The Science classroom should be arranged in group settings to promote cooperative learning.
In each group, the educator could include students of different abilities/levels. Groups may
consist of 3 to 6 students. Teachers should instruct students about the norms and discipline that
should prevail in groups, e.g., assigning a group leader, participation of all students, waiting for
one’s turn to speak, and respecting one another’s answers and opinions.
Differentiation should be used to allow all students to participate in each activity. This can
motivate students, especially the slow learners, to engage in the various activities, thus,
boosting their self-confidence. Field work/educational visits should be carried out, whenever
necessary, so that students can observe, experiment, ask questions and take note. You may
consider gardens and nature parks while organising educational trips. However, this should
be done after having explored the immediate environment of the students, i.e., the school
environment and the home environment.
Such educational trips (pre-trip, on-site, and post-trip) must be properly planned and organised
with clear aims and objectives. These must be explained to students so as to give them
maximum opportunities to learn. They should also be empowered to observe and record all
necessary data/information in their worksheets or diaries. This would assist students to learn
by finding out on their own and hence developing a habit of self-learning/Inquiry. For instance,
they can use annotated diagrams while taking note of how electricity is produced in Mauritius.
They must be encouraged to ask questions to the teacher and other resource persons. There
should always be a debriefing session after each field visit that would consolidate the learning
of the concepts that students have been exposed to.
Teachers are encouraged to use a variety of teaching strategies appropriate to the age, ability
and attainment level of the students to facilitate their understanding, thus getting the latter
interested in their studies and helping them develop their scientific skills.
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Models and systems
For example, bring learners to:

• Explore the environment (observe type of species or biodiversity in a given area,
determine types of pollution…)
• Identify and explain reflection and refraction of light and their importance
• Discuss the impact of pollution or natural disasters on biodiversity
• Demonstrate understanding of elements found on earth
• Identify and measure physical quantities, amongst others
As far as possible, ensure that students are able to express themselves using clear, descriptive
language as well as appropriate scientific vocabulary effectively, e.g., reflection, blood,
biodiversity, elements, etc. Use ICT, including the internet and other sources, to search for
additional information. While students develop knowledge and understanding of different
science concepts and also various skills, it is also imperative that they acquire necessary values
and proper attitudes; for instance, caring for environment, including animals and plants;
handling measuring instruments with care, under the supervision of the educator, and ensuring
safe practices in all activities. While visiting nature parks, especially where there are species
of rare plants, students should not tread on small plants or pick flowers, seeds or fruits. They
should also respect these spaces through appropriate behaviour during outings and ensure
that environmentally friendly habits are practiced (e.g., no littering).
We will now see the activities in detail.
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Models and systems
1.1 THE ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENT AROUND US

ACTIVITY 1: Recalling the process of photosynthesis
1. carbon dioxide
2. roots
3. chlorophyll
4. sunlight
5. sugar, oxygen
6. glucose
7. food
8. chemical
ACTIVITY 2: Describing the carbon cycle

The three processes involved in the carbon cycle are:
1. Photosynthesis
2. Burning
3. Respiration
ACTIVITY 3: I mportance of photosynthesis and respiration

in maintaining the composition of air constant
3. (a) Carbon dioxide
(b) From the air around us
(c) Oxygen
(d) Yes, it is important because living things need oxygen for respiration.
(e) Carbon dioxide.
4. Statement True False

Respiration occurs only in animals 
Photosynthesis takes place in the absence of sunlight 
Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
in the presence of sunlight 
Both animals and plants release oxygen in the air 
Both respiration and photosynthesis help
to maintain the composition of air 
Note: Do not consider artificial light for plant growing
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 4: Recognising that absorption of heat by greenhouse

1. greenhouse gases
2. warm
3. carbon dioxide
4. atmosphere.
5. global warming.
ACTIVITY 5: Identifying greenhouse gases and their sources
Greenhouse
Main source Description
gas released
Production of electricity
Carbon dioxide
in power stations
Burning of garbage Carbon dioxide
Livestock farming Methane
Using motor vehicles Carbon dioxide
Decaying of organic
Methane
waste in landfills
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 6: Finding out the effects of climate change
Severe droughts Torrential rain and flash floods
Violent cyclone Coral bleaching
Beach erosion Rise in sea level
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 7: Identifying air pollutants, their sources and their effects
Table 2: Air pollutants

Air Pollutant Sources Effects
• Produced when fuels are Carbon monoxide affects the
Carbon monoxide burnt in limited supply transport of oxygen by blood
of oxygen. and can cause death.
• Released from exhausts Oxides of nitrogen cause
Oxides of nitrogen of motor vehicles respiratory problems and
acid rain.
• Released during volcanic
Sulfur dioxide causes
activities.
Sulfur dioxide respiratory problems
• Produced when coal is
and acid rain.
burnt in power stations
CFCs are present in aerosol CFCs destroy the ozone
Chlorofluorocarbons sprays and refrigerants. layer which protects the
(CFCs) They are also used earth from the sun’s harmful
as solvents. UV rays.
Smokes are released from:
• Factory chimneys
• Exhaust of motor vehicles Smoke can cause respiratory
Smoke
• Power stations problems and affect the eyes.
• Forest fires
• Burning of wastes
The students will work in groups of 3 and prepare a poster to show the sources of air pollutants
and their effects. They will present their poster to the class.
The Educator will then summarise the activity highlighling the sources and effects of each air
pollutants.
ACTIVITY 8: Investigating the causes and harmful effects of acid rain
3. (a) coal/oil.
(b) sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
(c) invisible
(d) sulfuric
(e) nitric
(f ) acid rain
(g) animals
(h) pollution
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Models and systems
Students will be able to learn that pure (unpolluted) air is important for the survival
of all living things and air pollution has many harmful effects.
ACTIVITY 9: D
iscussing measures to prevent air pollution
(a) Prevent people from throwing or dumping their gabages anywhere. Putting in
place strict laws, anti-litter campaigns to raise awareness, putting up litter bins
(b) Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers
(c) Reduce use of cars, practice car pooling, use public transport (metro, bus),
walk or use bicycle for short distances. Regular servicing of vehicles.
(d) Prevent forest fires by keeping them clean, prevent people from lighting fires
for barbecues
(Forest fire can also be accidental. Obey local laws regarding open fires, including
campfires. Carefully extinguish smoking materials)
(e) Avoid burning garbages and other waste products
(f ) Filters should be placed in factory chimneys to filter the smoke released
(g) Spraying of water in crushing plants
ACTIVITY 10: Explaining the causes and effects of water pollution
In this section, you will learn about the causes and effects of water pollution.
Marine dumping
Effects of marine dumping
It pollutes the marine environment. It causes harm to aquatic life. It affects also tourism industry.
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Models and systems
Release of industrial wastes in water bodies
Effect of industrial wastes

Pollution of water bodies nearby
Release of sewerage in water bodies
Effects of sewerage
Pollution of water bodies, bad smell, death of aquatic life.
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Models and systems
Household activities
Effect of household activities

Chemicals used cause much harm to aquatic life nearby. Pollution of rivers.
Oil spillage in the sea
Effect of oil spillage in the sea

Pollution of water bodies, kills marine life, pollutes our beaches, affects other animals such as
birds, affects tourism industry.
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Models and systems
Agricultural activities
Effect of agricultural activities

Excess fertilizers flow into water bodies nearby thus polluting them and killing aquatic life.
Plastic dumping
Effect of plastic dumping

Plastic dumping causes much harm to aquatic animals, fish eat plastic particles present in the
sea and are contaminated.
Note: Most of the causes may have similar effects.
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 11: U
nderstanding eutrophication and its harmful effects
3. Different steps occurring in eutrophication are given below

• Excess fertilizers flow in rivers and lakes.
• This causes rapid growth of algae in the water bodies
• The algae cover the surface of water
• Sunlight cannot reach aquatic plants.
• Aquatic plants die and decompose
• This decreases the amount of oxygen in the water
• Aquatic animals also die as they do not receive oxygen.
ACTIVITY 12: D
iscussing measures that can be taken
to prevent water pollution
Statement Tick Justification

Excess fertilizers pollute
Reduce use of pesticides and fertilizers  water bodies nearby
Dead animals can be thrown in rivers
Many plastic objects
are thrown away in water
Reduce use of plastic objects  bodies thus causing pollution
and death of aquatic life
Paints, varnishes and used motor oil should Paints, varnishes and used motor
not be thrown in rivers  oil would pollute the rivers
Polluted water which
Industries should treat their waste water
before releasing them in the environment  is dumped in water bodies
kills aquatic life
Toxic wastes must be thrown in lakes,
not in rivers
So, as to decrease
Use fewer chemicals for house cleaning  the amount of chemicals
present in waste water
So that they can be recycled
Throw all plastic wastes in a special waste
bin for plastic  and not dumped anywhere
or burnt
Litter and waste should not be thrown Litter and waste would pollute
on the beaches and riverside.  beaches and riverside
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Models and systems

1. (a) chemical
(b) Sulfur dioxide
(c) pollutants
(d) water pollution
(e) eutrophication
2.
A B
Photosynthesis process takes place • • brings along climatic changes
Greenhouse gases • • to prevent air pollution
We must adopt good practices • • produce sulfur dioxide in great amount
Global warming • • destroy the ozone layer
Volcanic activities • • in the presence of sunlight
CFCs • • keep the Earth’s surface warm
3.
During burning, oxygen is formed 

A rise in the ocean temperature causes coral bleaching 
Acid rain does not affect crops 
Water pollution is not caused by human activities 
Eutrophication creates dead zones in aquatic habitats 
To prevent eutrophication, we must use less fertilizers 
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Models and systems
4. (a) Any two of the following relating to Activity 10; reduce use of fertilizers;
Reduce use of household chemicals
(b) Any two of the following relating to activity 7: Carbon monoxide,
oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, CFCs, smoke
(c) Photosynthesis and respiration
5. (a) Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen

(b) Damage to crops, trees, buildings, causes harm to aquatic animals
(c) by reducing pollutant such as sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
in the atmosphere
6. (a) Combustion and respiration

(b) Photosynthesis
(c) Combustion
(d) There will be an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.
Because plants are responsible for the absorption of carbon dioxide.
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Models and systems
7. 1
R
2
A
3
a
4 5
6
l 7
a i
8
a l t
10
n s i
1: Respiration
2: Algal bloom
3: Methane
4: Eutrophication
5: Carbon cycle
6: Global warming
7: Air pollutants
8: water pollution
9: acid rain
10: combustion
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Models and systems
8. (i) Excess fertilizers flow in rivers and lakes.

(ii) This causes rapid growth of algae in the water bodies
(ii) The algae cover the surface of water.
(iv) Sunlight cannot reach aquatic plants.
(v) Aquatic plants die and decompose
(vi) This decreases the amount of oxygen in the water
(vii) Aquatic animals also die as they do not receive oxygen.
1.2 - LIGHT
ACTIVITY 1: I nvestigating how light enables us to see
In this activity, we are trying to show that light is essential for us to be able to see things
around us.
When the holes A and B on the two sides are blocked, light does not enter the box. The
eraser is not seen by the observer, peeping from the hole C. When the two holes A and B
are exposed to light, by removing the hands, the eraser is seen. When the two holes are
blocked again, the eraser is not seen.
From this activity we can conclude that light is essential for vision.
We can even stretch the activity for the learners by asking them to compare how does
the eraser appear when only one hole is covered. This would show that we can see the
eraser but it is not as bright as before, because the amount of light passing through one
hole is less than when both holes are open. Thus, to be able to see clearly, a reasonable
amount of light is essential.
ACTIVITY 2: I nvestigating how light travels

In this activity, we are trying to show that light travels in a straight line.
When the holes in the three cards are aligned, the source of light (the candle flame) can
be seen. When any one of the cards is displaced laterally, the three holes are no longer
in a straight line and light from the candle is no longer seen.
The next step is to confirm the idea being put forward, by aligning the three holes again
and viewing the source of light. It is seen that when the three holes are aligned, the light
(flame) is seen once more.
We can make this idea visual by using a thin straight rod that passes through the three
holes. The straight rod represents the straight path in which light travels.
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These observations confirm that light travels in a straight line.
To reinforce the understanding of this concept, this activity can be conducted by using
a narrow paper tube.
It is found that when the paper tube is straight, we can see through, but not when it
is bent.
This further reinforces the idea that light travels in a straight line.
Ray and beam of light
Now that we have learnt that light travels in a straight line, we can represent light using a
straight line with an arrow. The straight line represents the light and the arrow indicates
the direction in which light is travelling. This line represents a ray of light.
When a source emits light, the latter can diverge to a larger area, converge to a smaller
area or even travel parallel and cover the same area on a perpendicular surface. This
travelling light is called a beam. The beam can be converging, diverging or parallel.
In figure 4, learners are required to draw the type of beam being shown. They will see
that there are different types of beams, diverging beam from the sun, parallel beam
from the torch and diverging beam from the laser device. Then the idea of beam is
introduced and the terms diverging, converging and parallel beams are shown using
examples from the laser, lens and torch respectively.
The next concept to be taught is reflection of light.
It is introduced using the idea that in the morning when we are getting ready to go to
school, we look at the mirror. We see our image formed by reflection of light.
ACTIVITY 3: Investigating reflection of light
The idea of reflection is explained by light bouncing off the mirror after striking it. The
diagram is provided to introduce some scientific terms in the study of reflection of light.
Through discussions, learners will provide the following answers:
(a) The ray which strikes the mirror is called the incident ray.
(b) The ray which bounces off the mirror is the reflected ray.
(c) The point at which the ray strikes the mirror is called the point of incidence.
(d) The normal is a perpendicular line drawn at the point of incidence on the mirror.
It is at right angles (90o) to the surface.
(e) The angle of incidence i, is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
(f ) The angle of reflection r, is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
Through this activity learners are required to grasp the terms used in the study of
reflection of light.
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 4: I nvestigating the laws of reflection
When the mirror is fixed in a vertical plane on the line drawn, the laser light is shone on
it. The reflected light is identified as shown in figure 7. The normal line is drawn.
Some learners might experience difficulty in using a protractor to measure angles i
and r. We can overcome this problem by asking learners to use scissors to cut paper
triangles representing i and r, and then comparing the two angles by placing the two
triangles, one on top of the other piece.
Students should be able to say that the two angles are equal, i.e., i is equal to r.
This statement should be related to the first law of reflection.
The second law being more demanding is just given to the learners. However, higher
ability learners could be taught the second law by using three thin rods, converging at
one point and kept in a single plane, respecting i = r. This would show that the incident
ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie on the same plane.
ACTIVITY 5a: O
bserving the properties of an image formed
by a plane mirror
The essential part of this activity is to be able to count the number of squares. Once all
the corners of the image are spotted, the mirror is removed and the image is drawn.
For the question no.4, the probable answer could be, the image is seen to be reversed
(renverser). The term laterally inverted may be introduced at this point.
Learners will also discuss and come up with the observation that the image is of the
same size as the object. Moreover, the distance of the image behind the mirror is same
as the distance of the object in front of the mirror. These can be only noticed when the
number of squares has been counted properly.
Learners are also questioned on whether we can touch the image that has been formed
by the mirror. As we cannot touch the image formed hereby, it is said to be a virtual
image. It also means that the image thus formed, cannot be projected on a screen.
There are other properties of images formed by a plane mirror, which will be studied
in the next activity.
ACTIVITY 5b: R
ecognising other properties of images formed
by a plane mirror
Students observe that when the person lifts his right arm, in the image the left arm is
being raised. This phenomenon is called lateral inversion. The example of ambulance
(and other priority vehicles like the fire engine) is used to explain the importance of
using laterally inverted images in our daily life.
Through some further discussion, educators can show that in both the object and the
image, the head of the person is above the body, this property is called upright. So,
another property of an image formed by a plane mirror is that the image is upright.
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Models and systems
So, to summarise, we have seen that plane mirrors form images that have the following
characteristics:
1. The image is of same size as the object.
2. The image distance from the mirror is same as the object distance from the mirror.
3. The image is upright.
4. The image is virtual.
5. The image is laterally inverted.
Refraction of light
The idea of refraction of light is introduced using the idea of a spoon kept in a glass of
water. As the straight spoon appears bent in the water, it is said that this occurs due to
refraction of light.
Two more examples are given for refraction of light occurring in nature. These are the
formation of a rainbow and the formation of mirage on sunny and warm days.
Refraction is said to occur in general when light moves from one transparent medium
to another. These two media are transparent and allow light to pass through, moreover,
they have different nature and composition.
The ray diagram shows that light travels from air to glass. As glass is denser than air, the
ray of light bends towards the normal. The point of incidence, the normal at the point
of incidence, the incident ray and the refracted ray are all shown to ease understanding
of the refraction of light.
Learners should also recognise that when light travels from glass (denser) to air (less
dense), the ray bends away from normal.
Apart from the formation of rainbow and mirage, other examples are hereby cited.
In the case of a fish being viewed inside water, the fish appears to be at a smaller
depth (shallower) than the real depth due to refraction of light. In fact, the ray of sun‘s
light being reflected from the fish, on reaching the surface of water, refracts (bends
away) from the normal. To the observer, the ray appears to come from a fish that is at
a shallower position.
In the same way, in the second example, the ray of sun’s light being reflected from the
base of the swimming pool, bends away from the normal on reaching the surface. To
an observer, the ray of light appears to come from a shallower point. Thus, the base
appears to be higher than normal, and the swimming pool appears to be shallower.
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 6: I nvestigating refraction of light
This activity is a very simple one that can be performed by educators or children
at school or at home. The coin is kept at the base of the opaque container and the
observer should move away from the container until the coin is just hidden by the
edge of the container used.
Then water is poured carefully in the container such that the position of the coin is not
disturbed. It is found that as the container fills up, at a certain point in time, the coin
becomes visible. This is due to refraction of light. It happens because sun’s light or from
any source in the room, reflected from the coin is refracted away from the normal.
Summary of unit
The main points raised have been summarised here. Educators are expected to do the
same after the unit.
It can be done by telling learners what have been completed, or even by asking learners
about what they are able to recall from this particular section. It can also be done by
asking learners to draw what they recall from this unit, knowing that they may not be
able to write about their understanding of concepts.
Concept summary
This is a visual on the concepts covered in the particular unit. As most of our learners
are visual learners, they can be made to work in groups and made to produce a visual
on the related sub-concepts learnt. Educators also have the choice to draw the concept
summary on the board or on A3 size paper and conduct further discussions on the
topic studied. Group work is highly encouraged in this exercise.
END OF UNIT QUESTIONS

The answers to the questions set are hereby provided for reference.
1. C converging beam
2. D this is not a characteristic but the law of reflection
3. A it bends towards the normal
1 (a) transparent
(b) opaque
(c) refraction of light
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Models and systems
2. (a) collection, set or group; parallel, diverging and converging

(b) the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal lie on one plane. This is the
first law of reflection.
(c) because light travels in straight lines
(d) teeth of his…; coming from behind
3. Light travels straight in air and bends in water or glass. For this reason, air is a less
dense medium. Glass and water on the other hand are dense media.
Refraction is the bending of a ray of light when light travels from air to glass or
water. Refraction occurs because light travels at different speeds in different media.
When a ray of light travels from air to glass or water, the ray bends the normal.
When the ray travels from glass or water to air, the ray bends away from the normal.
4. Learners are expected to follow the instructions and measure the angles as
required. In case of low ability students, triangular pieces of paper cut into proper
angles may be used, as the idea is just to show that i = r. Finally the diagram needs
to be labelled by students.
5. Reflection occurs on a mirror

Light is represented using rays and beam
Refraction occurs when light travels from air to glass
Light travels along straight lines
Light travels at different speeds in air and water
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1.3 - BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
ACTIVITY 1: U
nderstanding blood circulatory system
1 (a) blood vessels

(b) heart
(c) blood
(d) cells
Blood
The colour of blood is red.
Because it includes a type of cells that contain a red pigment.
ACTIVITY 2a: I dentifying the components of blood
1 (a) three
(b) (i) plasma

(ii) white blood cells and platelets
(iii) red blood cells
(c ) four
ACTIVITY 2b: I dentifying the components of blood smear
White blood cell Red blood cells
Plasma
Platelets White blood cell
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 3a: Examining red blood cells
Features Typical animal cell Red blood cell

Shape of cell irregular round and biconcave disc shape
Cell membrane present present
Cytoplasm present present
Nucleus Present absent
Haemoglobin absent present
(a) Both red blood cells and animal cells have cell membrane and cytoplasm.
(b) Haemoglobin helps to bind and carry oxygen in the body.
ACTIVITY 3b: Examining white blood cells

1. Two
2. (a) Students are required to draw each type of WBC and label its parts (cell
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus).
(b) No
(c) White blood cells protect body against diseases.
One type of WBCs engulfs microorganisms, digests and kills them.
The other type produces antibodies which help in the destruction of germs.
ACTIVITY 4: Comparing artery, vein and capillary
Feature Artery Vein Capillary

Size of lumen small large very small
Thickness of wall walls are thicker walls are thinner only one cell
in thickness
Outer wall thick thin (wall made of
only a single
layer of cells
and it is very
thin)
Number of distinct layers of wall three three one
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Models and systems
2. With regard to other features of the blood vessels in terms of elastic wall, blood
pressure and presence of valve, educators must emphasise the following:
• the walls of arteries are thicker and more elastic. Arteries can thus carry blood
away from the heart at high pressure. They also do not have valves.
• The walls of veins are thinner and less elastic. Veins can thus carry blood towards
the heart at low pressure. They also contain valves to prevent backflow of blood.
• The wall of capillary is made of a single layer of cells (or only one- cell in thickness) and
has no elastic wall. Capillaries can thus carry blood very close to cells at low pressure.
ACTIVITY 5: C
onstructing a paper heart model
Students are required to construct a paper heart model (steps 1-6).
To conduct steps 7-9, the educator may ask students to search for further information
and find out (i) the direction of blood flow (ii) valves and (iii) differences in heart wall
thickness.
With the help of the educator students can thus add the direction of blood flow, valves
and differences in heart wall thickness in the heart model.
ACTIVITY 6: I nvestigating the effect of physical activity on pulse rate

(a) The answer will vary from one person to another. But the pulse rate must be lower
than when s/he is active (e.g. slow/rapid walking, running).
(b) Running
(c) To allow the heart rate to return to normal (in order to determine the increase
in pulse rate due to next exercise).
(d)
Dancing, hiking, cycling and other physical activities. (Also note that other
situations which may increase pulse rate include fever, fear, stress).
(e) Pulse rate is higher with increase in any physical activity.
ACTIVITY 7: D
emonstrating blockage of artery using
the analogy of a pipe
1. There will be very little or no water flow from the tap

2. (a) blood
(b) fat deposits (plaque) and blood clots
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 8: I dentifying risk factors of cardiovascular diseases
• • smoking
• • obesity
• • lack of exercise
• • unhealthy food habits
• • high salt intake
• • excess alcohol consumption
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 9: I dentifying risk factors of cardiovascular diseases
STROKE HEART ATTACK
HYPERTENSION
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 10: Preventive measures of cardiovascular diseases
Avoiding obesity Doing physical exercise regularly
Eating a healthy diet Avoiding smoking
Avoiding excessive alcohol
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Models and systems
ACTIVITY 11: I nterpreting data from graph related

to cardiovascular diseases
1. 467
2. 2015
3. The number of death due to cardiovascular diseases increased from 467 in 2007 to
486 in 2009 and decreased to 474 in 2010. There was an increasing number of death
from 477 in 2011 to 527 in 2015.

1. B. Plasma
2. A. Small (size of lumen), thick, elastic (wall), absent (valves)
3. D. Red blood cells
4. A. Influenza
5. C. Exercising regularly
6. A. Arteries
7. B. Platelets
8. Matching exercise (as shown below)
Column A Column B
White blood cells • • carry oxygen
Platelets • • needs energy to live
Red blood cells • • kill germs
Plasma • • is a disease of the blood circulatory system
Cell in our body • • help to clot blood
Stroke • • is a yellow liquid
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Models and systems
1.
red blood cells
plasma platelets
white blood cells
2. (a) Energy
(b) Red
(c) Four
(d) Haemoglobin
(e) smaller
(f ) Yellow
(g) Platelets
(h) Veins
(i) Stroke, heart attack or hypertension (anyone of them)
(j) Pulse
3. (a) M: White blood cell

N: Platelet
O Red blood cell
P: Plasma
(b) M: Protects our body against diseases

N: helps to clot blood and prevents excessive blood loss from the body
O: contains haemoglobin that helps to bind and carry oxygen in the body
P: carries dissolved substances (e.g. glucose, salts, gases) in the body
4.
Capillary
Artery Vein
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Models and systems
5.
Arteries Veins Capillaries
Carry blood to the heart 
Valves present 
Blood flows in pulse 
Carry blood away from the heart 
Large lumen 
Exchange of materials at the cells 
6. Heart rate increases with any physical exercise.
7. Any three of the following answers:

- Doing regular exercises
- Avoiding obesity
- Avoiding stress and tension
- Avoiding diet with too much saturated fats and cholesterol
- Avoiding diet with too much of salt
- Avoiding smoking
- Avoiding alcohol
8.
1
s
t
2
r p
3h o u
a k l
4 5
p l a t e l e t s
r m e
6
h e a r t o
e g
r l
7
y o b e s i t y
b
8
v e i n
n
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Models and systems
1.4 - LANGUAGE OF CHEMISTRY

Table 1
Element Where have you come across the element?
Aluminium Kitchen utensils, window frames, cans are made up of aluminium
Oxygen We breathe in oxygen. Plants give out oxygen during
photosynthesis. Oxygen is important for burning
Copper Electric wires
nitrogen Composition of air
Iron For construction purposes
ACTIVITY 1: I dentifying the symbols of elements
2. (a) one- or two-letter abbreviation

(b) The symbol of an element can be defined as a one –letter or two letters
abbreviation to represent the elements name.
3.

Table 2
Table 3
Name of Elements Symbol Name of Elements Symbol
Oxygen O Calcium Ca
Carbon C Aluminium Al
Nitrogen N Barium Ba
Hydrogen H Bromine Br
Fluorine F Helium He
Iodine I Neon Ne
Sulfur S Argon Ar

Table 4
Name of Elements Symbol
Chlorine Cl
Chromium Cr
Magnesium Mg
Manganese Mn
Zinc Zn
Zirconium Zr
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Models and systems
4. With the help of teacher students will find out how the symbols have been derived
for the elements in Table 2-4.
Table 2 1st letter

Table 3 1st and 2nd letters
Table 4 1st and 3rd letters
ACTIVITY 2: C
lassifying elements as metals and non-metals
Table 6
Name of elements Metal or non-metal
Argon Non-metal
Bromine Non-metal
Calcium metal
Fluorine Non-metal
Gold metal
Hydrogen Non-metal
Helium Non-metal
Iodine Non-metal
Iron Metal
Magnesium metal
Mercury metal
Neon Non-metal
Chlorine Non-metal
Nitrogen Non-metal
Oxygen Non-metal
Potassium metal
Sodium metal
Silver metal
Zinc metal
Iodine Non-metal
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Models and systems
Atoms of Elements
Understanding what are atoms.
Observe the wall in the Figure 4.
Figure 4
• Bricks

1. (a) Element
(b) Matter, compounds
(c) Periodic table
(d) Liquid
(e) Metals and non-metals
(f ) Atom
(g) Carbon
2. (a) An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more
simpler substances.
(b) The smallest indivisible parts of an element are called atoms.
(c) A symbol is a short-hand way of representing an element.
3 (a) Each metal or non-metal is made up of only one kind of atom.

(b) All metals (except mercury) are solids whereas most non-metals are gases
at room temperature.
Metals conduct electricity whereas non-metals (except carbon) do not conduct
electricity.
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Models and systems
(c)
State of the
Element Metal Non-metal element at room Colour
temperature
Sodium
 solid White
Sulfur
 Solid Yellow
Bromine
Reddish
 liquid
brown
Mercury
 Liquid Silvery
Carbon
 Solid Black
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Models and systems
4. (a)
Elements Symbols
Sodium • • O
Bromine • • K
Sulfur • • Ag
Calcium • • H
Potassium • • Hg
Oxygen • • Au
Chlorine • • C
Cobalt • • Na
Aluminium • • Cu
Hydrogen • • Ca
Mercury • • Br
Gold • • CI
Silver • • S
Copper • • Co
Carbon • • Al
(b) Sodium, Silver, Gold, Potassium
5. Element 2 – M
ercury is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature
and is used in thermometer.
Element 5 – Metals are usually shiny in appearance.
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2.1
1
2.1 MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

This is a topic that has already been learnt at Grade 8 level. At Grade 9 level, students are
required to reinforce what was already learnt and also grasp what could not be mastered.
ACTIVITY 1: Recalling physical quantities, measurements and units
In this activity, learners are required to recall the physical quantities involved, the instruments
used, and the units of measurement for the examples given. Educators need to make sure
that this recall is done properly so that following activities are also grasped well.
Following this activity, the Vernier caliper is introduced as an instrument that can read up
to one tenth of a mm, i.e., an instrument that is more accurate than the metre rule. The
mechanical and the digital calipers are shown, and also how they can be used to measure
internal and external diameters, as well as, the depth of an object. Educators are expected
to make learners familiar with the instruments but without going into the details of how the
readings are taken with the mechanical one. However, students may be given the digital
caliper and acquainted with the direct readings that can be noted from the instruments.
Eventually, educators proceed with the discussion on how errors can crop up in
measurements, and how these are avoided. Some common errors are hereby discussed.
These are the parallax error, end error and zero error. Discussions would be around how the
errors crop up, and how they can be avoided.
ACTIVITY 2: Understanding parallax error
The activity is about the measurement of the length of a strip or tape fixed on the table. The
instrument is a metre rule, that has a certain thickness as seen in the diagram.
It is observed that the three observers are viewing from different directions and are
consequently getting three different readings. Students are required to record the three
readings noted by the three observers A, B and C.
Discussions would follow around which observer gets a correct measurement and who
are those who get erroneous readings. Eventually, the educator needs to bring students to
understand that the middle observer gets a correct reading as s/he is looking at the scale at
right angles at the point of measurement.
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The discussion is taken further to discuss about parallax error that may arise in the use of
a measuring cylinder. Students are made to understand that the correct reading for the
volume of the liquid is obtained by placing the eyes in level with the meniscus and viewing
the scale at right angles. Moreover, the lower meniscus is considered for accurate readings.
Zero error
Examples of the ruler with a broken end and the stopwatch with an incorrectly adjusted
needle are used to explain what are end error and zero error respectively.
ACTIVITY 3: Using a ruler with a broken end
This activity is about using a ruler with a broken end. The end error can be eliminated by
simply subtracting the initial reading from the final reading. Thus, a ruler with a broken end
is still useful, though it is better to use a rule which has no broken end.
The activity continues with the understanding of what is a zero error in a balance. It is just
the balance giving a non-zero reading when nothing is placed on the balance. It arises due
to an incorrectly adjusted needle/pointer.
Balances
Different types of balances are shown. These are the electronic balance, the beam balance
and the spring balance.
ACTIVITY 4: Using a balance with zero error
In this activity, we are trying to figure out how to use a balance that has a zero error. The
reading is non-zero even when nothing is placed on the pan.
The solution is to look for the zero error button and adjust the balance to the zero error
mode. In case this option is not possible, we can still use the balance. In that case, the initial
value is subtracted from the final value obtained.
Learners are advised to always check for zero error in balances, especially when buying
something at the market or in shops.
Volume of Irregular Solids

As the length, breadth and height of an irregular object cannot be measured, its volume is
not easily measurable. Thus, the displacement method is used where a measuring cylinder
is required.
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2.1
1
ACTIVITY 5: Measuring volume of a small stone
The procedures are followed by students under the guidance of the educator. Coloured
liquid may be used to get the volume reading, but it should not be too dark in colour as it
may be difficult to obtain the readings against a dark background.
It is to be noted that the object needs a slow immersion to avoid splashing and also to avoid
overflow of liquid. Moreover, the precautions learnt in handling a measuring cylinder need
to be applied in this activity.
The whole idea in this activity is to observe that when an object is fully immersed, it displaces
its own volume of liquid. So, the displacement method is used to measure volume of an
irregularly shaped body, that can sink in the liquid being used.
If larger irregular body is considered, the displacement can is very useful.
ACTIVITY 6: Measuring volume of a larger stone using displacement can
Learners are required to follow the instructions, set up the apparatus and take all
measurements on their own, as far as possible to be able to grasp all skills.
The displacement can should be filled completely and the stone is gently immersed to
obtain accurate results.
The Simple Pendulum

The simple pendulum is a piece of thread tied to a small spherical ball. The thread is tied to
a stand. The bob is set into small oscillations.
ACTIVITY 7: Measuring the period of a simple pendulum
As far as possible, educators should encourage learners to participate actively in the activities.
The time taken for 10 oscillations is measured, and then this time is divided by 10. The value
obtained is called the time period, periodic time or simply period.
ACTIVITY 8: Using a simple pendulum for measurement of time
In the previous activity students learnt how to determine the period of a simple pendulum.
In this activity they will use this simple pendulum to measure time accurately.
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The instructions given in the activity need to be strictly followed by learners.
The method is to time the number of oscillations taking place for a very specific event, then
to calculate the time taken using the explanation given in the book.
ACTIVITY 9: Using a mercury thermometer for measurement

of temperature
In this activity, learners are required to use two instruments and record the readings. The
initial temperature is noted. The stopwatch is started and at regular time intervals the reading
on the thermometer is taken. All readings are recorded in the table provided. Educators have
the choice to ask some above average students to plot the graph of temperature against
time and then write down their observations.
Learners should be able to tell that as time goes on, the temperature of the water falls.
Summary of unit
The main points raised have been summarised here. Educators are expected to do the same
after the unit.
It can be done by telling learners what have been completed, or even by asking learners
about what they are able to recall from this particular section. It can also be done by asking
learners to draw what they recall from this unit, knowing that they may not be able to write
about their understanding of concepts.
Weblinks
The web links provided will ensure that learners have been exposed to ICT based resources
in the learning of the concepts. Videos can be used to reinforce concepts learnt through the
activities.
Concept summary
This is a visual on the concepts covered in the particular unit. As most of our learners are
visual learners, they can be made to work in groups and made to produce a visual on the
related sub-concepts learnt. Educators also have the choice to draw the concept summary
on the board or on A3 size paper and conduct further discussions on the topic studied.
Group work is highly encouraged in this exercise.
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2.1
1
Questions
The answers to the questions set are hereby provided for reference.

1. D temperature
2. B measuring cylinder
3. A Vernier caliper
4. C have the line of sight opposite to the mark and perpendicular to the scale
5. B Stopwatch
Structured questions
1. (a) parallax error
(b) zero error
(c) mass
(d) vernier calipers
(e) temperature
2. (a) The Vernier caliper is better than a 30-cm ruler for measuring the diameter of a coin.
(b) A displacement can is used when the solid is large in size.
(c) A doctor checked the temperature of a patient using a thermometer and told him
that he has fever.
(d) A stone is said to have an irregular shape.
(e) We must always check a beam balance for zero error before using it.
3. (a) beam balance

(b) stop watch
(c) clinical thermometer
(d) Vernier caliper
(e) ruler
(f ) displacement can
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2.1
2.2 Mixtures and Separation
Measurement of PhysicalTechniques
Quantities
4. Measuring tape is used to measure length of a room

To detect fever, a doctor measures body temperature
Parallax error occurs when the eye is incorrectly placed
An electronic balance is used in shops and markets
The time taken for one oscillation of a pendulum is its period
To measure volume of a liquid we use a measuring cylinder
5. A measuring cylinder is used to measure the volume of a small irregular solid.

Some water is poured into the cylinder and the volume is noted.
The solid is then tied to a thread and gently immersed into the water.
The new volume is again noted.
The difference of the two readings gives the volume of the solid.
One precaution is to immerse the stone gently to avoid water coming out.
Another precaution is to avoid parallax error by placing the line of sight level to the
mark and perpendicular to the scale.
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2.2
1
2.2 MIXTURES AND SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

ACTIVITY 1: Investigating mixtures and their properties
PART I
Mixtures Component
A: Salad Kiwi, abricot, blackberries, strawberries,

banana
B: Seawater Salt and water
C: air Oxygen gas, nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide

gas, rare gases and water vapour
D: sugar dissolved in water Sugar, water
E: sand and water Sugar, water
3 other mixtures:
Red, white and black beans Red beans, white beans, black beans
Steel mixture Carbon and iron
Milk powder and water Milk powder, water
PART II
2) Carton box, plastic bottle, paper, newspaper, food cans, egg tray, bottle capsules,
drinking cans, plastic foil and plastic bag
3) The wastes are sorted and placed in the respective dustbin for example, plastic wastes
are collected in the plastic dustbin.
4) Yes, all the components of the mixture can be separated by physical means.
PART III
Table 2
Total 9 20 10
Type of candies 4 4 4
5) The composition of a mixture can vary. A mixture has variable composition.

6) mixtures, several, physically, can, can
305
ACTIVITY 2: Preparing a solution

1. Salt dissolves in water
2. A clear/transparent/ colourless mixture is seen.
3. (a) solute, solution
(b) solvent
(c) solution
(d) solution
ACTIVITY 3: Preparing a suspension
4.(a) Flour does not dissolve in water/ flour is insoluble in water.

(b) The flour (white solid) is deposited at the bottom of the beaker
(c) A suspension consists of a mixture of a liquid with undissolved solid particles.
(d) 3 examples of suspension:
- mud and water
- cornstarch and water
- powdered chalk and water
ACTIVITY 4: Separating components of a mixture using a magnet
3. (a) The metal clips are attracted by the magnet.

(b) Since the paper clips contain iron metal, the magnet attracts iron metal.
4. In this activity, teacher should provide the pupils with demonstration of the physical
appearance of each mixture so that pupils can observe the colour/texture/ state of
each component.
7.
Table 3
Mixture Components of the mixture Observation on placing magnet close

to the mixture
A iron nails and pieces of paper Iron nails are attracted by the magnet
whereas pieces of paper are not
B Iron paper clips and plastic pieces Iron paper clips are attracted by the
magnet whereas plastic pieces are not.
C Iron paper clips and iron nails Both iron paper clips and iron nails are
attracted by the magnet
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2.2
1
D iron nails and chalk powder Iron nails are attracted by the magnet,
whereas chalk powder is not.
E chalk powder and plastic pieces Chalk powder and plastic pieces are not
attracted by the magnet
8. Mixtures A, B and D.
The mixtures contain a magnetic and a non-magnetic material. The magnetic material
will be attracted to the magnet. Hence the components are separated.
9. Mixtures C and E. One of the components should have been magnetic.
10.
Table 4
Mixtures Magnetic Non-magnetic

A iron nails pieces of paper
B Iron paper clips Plastic pieces
C Iron paper clips and iron nails -
D iron nails Chalk powder
E - Chalk powder and plastic pieces
11. Iron containing materials are attracted by a magnet whereas other components such
as plastic, chalk powder, pieces of paper are not attracted by a magnet.
ACTIVITY 5a: Investigating decantation as a separation method
2. (a) liquid
(b) To prevent the rice grains flow along with water while decanting.
(c) (i) Decant water from boiled potatoes
(ii)Decant water while washing pieces of vegetables.
ACTIVITY 5b: Separating a mixture of sand and water by decantation

in the laboratory
4. (a) To ease the process by allowing the liquid to run down the side of the glass rod
(b) To prevent the sand flow along with water.
(c) rocks/pebbles and water, babycorn and water, decant solution from a mushroom can.
(d) No, because salt dissolves in water.
307
ACTIVITY 6: Separating a mixture of chalk powder and water by filtration
5.
Filter funnel
Filter paper
Chalk powder (residue)
Retort stand
Beaker
Water (filtrate)
6. Filtrate is water and residue is chalk powder.
8. (a) Tea leaves remains on the sieve as residue and liquid tea is collected as filtrate in the cup.
(b) Water is filtered through a filter bed to remove leaves, rocks and other solid
impurities.
(c) Oil filter is placed in car to remove solid impurities from reaching the motor engine.
(d) Air filter is used to remove dust and other impurities in the vacuum cleaner.
ACTIVITY 7: Separating kitchen salt from seawater by evaporation
4. (a) Yes, it contains salt and water.

(b) Water from the seawater evaporates - water turns into water vapour.
(c) Salt is left in the crucible.
(d) Salt.
ACTIVITY 8: Investigating crystallisation as a separation method
8. (a) To observe the formation of copper (II) sulfate crystals.

(b) Evaporating dish
Copper (II) Copper (II)

Evaporating dish sulfate sulfate
solution crystals
Boiling
Wire water
gauze
Burner Tripod Tripod

stand stand
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2.2
1
ACTIVITY 9: Investigating sublimation as a separation method
6.
Cotton plug
Inverted funnel
Solidified ammonium
chloride
Vapours of
ammonium
chloride
Mixture of
ammonium Evaporating dish
chloride and salt
Tripod
Bunsen burner
Wire gauze
7. On heating, some of the solids change directly to the gaseous state without passing through
the liquid state. The gaseous substance then solidifies on the inner surface of the funnel.
8. To prevent the escape of the ammonium chloride vapour.
9. After heating the mixture, solid sodium chloride remains in the crucible while solid
ammonium chloride sublimes to form ammonium chloride vapour.
ACTIVITY 10: Investigating distillation as a separation method
5. (a) sea water

(b) thermometer
(c) anti-bumping granules
(d) steam
(e) condenser
(f ) conical flask
(g) salt
ACTIVITY 11: Investigating paper chromatography as a separation method
7. (a) So that the black ink does not dissolve in the solvent (water).
(b) To prevent air from entering the beaker as the solvent will evaporate.
(c) No. Only when the components move at different rates that separation is possible.
309
MIXTURES
1. (a) matter – Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
(b) a mixture – A mixture consists of several components that are physically combined
together and can be separated by simple method.
(c) sublimation - Sublimation is a process by which a solid turns directly into gas
state on heating.
(d) residue – A residue is the solid that remains on a filter paper.
(e) filtrate - A filtrate is the liquid collected after filtration
(f ) a suspension – A suspension consists of a mixture of a liquid and insoluble solid
particles.
(g) a solution –A solution consists of a mixture containing a solute dissolved in a
solvent.
2. (a)
Mixtures Components
Sugar and water Sugar, water
Salt and water Salt, water
Sand and water Sand, water
(b) Since the components are physically combined together therefore they can be
separated easily.
(c) Crystallization
(d) Distillation
310
2.2
1
3.
Mixture Separation method Justification
Sugar solution To obtain sugar Since sugar is soluble in water

Crystallization method
Mixture of iron nails and To obtain iron nails Since iron nails are attract ed by
cotton wool Use a magnet a magnet while cotton wool are
not.
Mixture of ammonium To obtain ammonium Ammonium chloride sublimes on

chloride and kitchen salt chloride heating while kitchen salt remains
Sublimation as residue.
Mixture of sand and To obtain sand Sand is an insoluble large solid
water Decantation and can be separated by pouring
off water from the mixture
Mixture of chalk powder To obtain clear water Chalk powder is a finely insoluble
and water Filtration solid and can be separated from
the mixture by filtration
4. (a) suspension
(b) solution
(c) solution
(d) suspension
5. (a) Cotton plug
Inverted funnel
Solidified ammonium
chloride
Vapours of
ammonium
chloride
Mixture of Evaporating dish

ammonium
chloride and salt
Flame
(b) To prevent the escape of the gas formed during heating.

(c) Solid iodine and solid carbon dioxide
311
6. Separation of sand and water using the apparatus mentioned:
Glass rod Beaker
Water
Sand
Water
7.
1
D
2
I D
S E
T C
F I L T R A T I O N
3
A
L N
S U B L I M A T I O N
4
A A
T T
I I
C H R O M A T O G R A P H Y
5
N N
312
2.2
1
8.
Mixture of Filter funnel

sawdust and
water
Sawdust (residue)
Filter paper
Beaker
Water (filtrate)
Sugar Sugar
Solution Crystals
Evaporating
dish
Boiling
water
Wire
gauze after some
minutes
Bunsen Tripod Tripod

burner stand stand
313
2.3 Light
2.3 LUMINOUS AND NON-LUMINOUS BODIES

The example of a bulb has been used to explain the idea of a luminous body. Some examples
of luminous and non-luminous bodies are given.
ACTIVITY 1: Identifying luminous bodies
In this activity students are required to identify the luminous bodies and name them.
The answers are:

• Candle
• Torch
• Sun
• Bulb
• Stars
• Lamp
Other four luminous bodies suggested are (any four from):

• Hot metal rod
• Fire fly
• Angler fish
• Jellyfish
• LED
• Screen of mobile phone
ACTIVITY 2: Identifying non-luminous bodies
The identified non-luminous bodies are:

• Earth
• Moon
• Chair
• Book
• Building
• Tree
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Light Unit
2.3
1
Other four non-luminous bodies suggested are (any four from):

• Leather bag
• Metal can
• Rubber band
• Cotton cloth
• Plastic bottle
• Tissue paper
How do we see Luminous and Non-luminous Objects

There is a clear explanation about luminous bodies emitting light, the light travelling to the
person’s eyes, and the person being able to see things around him/her. One example is the
star which produces its own light.
As for non-luminous bodies, the object does not emit light but just reflects the light received
from another source. The reflected light enters our eyes so we can see the objects around us.
The moon’s nature of being a non-luminous body has been made clear. Even the planets in
our solar system have been classified as non-luminous bodies. They are all seen when they
reflect light received from the sun.
DID YOU KNOW…
Fire fly and glow worm produce light so they are luminous insects.
FIND OUT
The answer is the angler fish.
Web links
The weblink provides additional resources for the study of luminous and non-luminous
bodies.
315
2.4
2.3 Motion
Light

1. C sun
2. D a book
Structured questions
(a) by direct light (direct, reflected).
(b) The moon is a non-luminous body.
2. Fill in the blanks.

(a) A star is a luminous body because it emits light of its own.
(b) In the sky, we also see planets but these are non-luminous because they do not
emit light of their own.
(c) We can see non-luminous bodies by reflection of light.
3. Label the luminous and non-luminous bodies in this picture.

Non-luminous bodies:
People
Road
Metal poles
Luminous bodies:
Car bulbs
Street lights
Sign boards
316
Motion Unit
2.4
1
2.4 MOTION
Scalar and vector quantities
Simple explanations on scalar and vector quantities have been provided, with respective
examples.
Students are required to draw table 1 in their notebooks so that they understand the
difference between the two categories of quantities.
ACTIVITY 1: Identifying different types of motion
Students will discuss in groups and identify the different types of motion. They appear in the
following order:
1. a crawling snail
2. a running lion
3. a running athlete
4. a racing car
5. a swimming fish
6. a flying plane
In all the examples, the body travels from one place to another.
Distance and speed

In this section learners identify two quantities that are common when we talk about motion.
These are the distance travelled and the speed with which the bodies move.
The example of the dashboard of a car has been used to show the two quantities involved.
Moreover, road signs have been used to relate these two quantities to our daily life experiences.
317
2.4 Motion
ACTIVITY 2: Understanding speed
The example of three cyclists who cover the same distance in different times is used to explain
speed. Students will perform simple calculations to show which cycle is moving faster and
which one is slower.
Cyclist A takes shortest time, so he is fastest. Cyclist C is slowest.
Distance in m 6000 6000 6000
Time in seconds 600 1200 1800
Distance / time 10 5 3.3
From the table, cyclist A moves fastest as he has the highest value of distance /time, i.e.,
speed is highest.
Thus, learners conclude that speed is obtained by calculating distance / time taken.
ACTIVITY 3: Calculating speed
For the bus to travel 30 km in 2 hours,
Speed = distance / time = 30/2 km/h = 15 km/h
Speed = distance / time = 30000/7200 m/s = 4.2 m/s
These calculations show that the bodies move with certain speeds, then speed is defined as
the distance moved per unit time.
The main unit is m/s, but for most practical examples the speed is taken in km/h.
318
Motion Unit
2.4
1
ACTIVITY 4: Understanding displacement
In this activity the difference between distance and displacement is explained.

It is found that the total distance is 3 + 4 km = 7 km.
However, when they take the straight path between A and C, the distance is only 5 km. This
straight-line path is called the displacement.
The displacement is thus defined as the distance covered in a straight line, in a specific
direction.
ACTIVITY 5: Identifying distance and displacement
In this activity students will identify which examples show a distance travelled and which
ones show a displacement.
It is found that in the first and the fourth examples, as there is no mention of a specific
direction, the paths covered are distances.
However, the paths covered in the second and third examples have specified directions, so
these two are displacements.
The two additional examples are to reinforce the demarcation between distance and
displacement. In the first one the distance depends on the path taken and is equal to 12 km,
whereas, the displacement is only 5 km, in the direction shown.
The last example shows an important concept. It shows that the displacement becomes zero
if the person or body comes back to the original point, whereas the distance can be of any
value, depending on the path taken.
Velocity
This example shows the slight difference between speed and velocity. The velocity has
direction whereas for speed we do not need to mention the direction. This would also mean
that a body having a constant velocity is normally travelling in a straight line.
319
2.4 Motion
ACTIVITY 6: Recognising speed and velocity
In this activity, students will discuss and choose two instances out of the four where the
bodies are having a velocity.
These are second and third examples, as directions have been specified.
Acceleration and Deceleration

Acceleration has been explained qualitatively as the speeding up of a body, and deceleration
as the slowing down of the same.
The calculation part involves the formula:
Acceleration = increase in velocity / time taken
Educators are required to work out the example given on page 179, so that learners understand
the idea of acceleration.
Summary of unit
Educators are encouraged to lead students through this summary, as a recall process/quick
revision of the topics covered.
Web links
Even the weblinks can be used fruitfully to show animations related to the topics under study.
Concept summary
It is expected that educators use these tools appropriately to consolidate the learning of the
concepts in motion.
320
Motion Unit
2.4
1
Multiple choice questions

1. B m/s
2. A direction is stated
3. B speed
4. C the decrease in velocity per unit time.
5. A the velocity increases
1. (c) (i) distance = 400 m
Displacement = 0 m
2. (a) A tick (⎷) can be used to fill the third column of the table.
(c) (i) distance = 200 m + 200 m = 400 m.
(ii) speed = distance / time = 400/25 = 16 m/s
3. (a) The diagram of the motion would look like:
4 km
10 km
(b) total distance = 10 + 4 = 14 km

(c) displacement = 6 km due north
(d) velocity = displacement / time = 6000/(25 × 60) in m/s
(e) initial velocity = 30 m/s

Final velocity = 0
Change in velocity = -30 m/s
Acceleration = -30/6 = -5 m/s2
Deceleration = 5 m/s2
321
2.5
2.4 Biodiversity
Motion
4.
Distance and speed are scalar quantities
Acceleration is increase in velocity per unit time
Speed is distance covered per unit time
The SI unit of deceleration is metre per second squared
322
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
2.5 BIODIVERSITY
ACTIVITY 1: Understanding biodiversity
1. Cat, lion, tiger, giraffe, zebra, elephant, flamingo, leopard/cheetah, snake, hippopotamus,
butterfly, creepers, travellers’ palm, flamboyant tree, cactus, etc.
ACTIVITY 2: Understanding the importance of biodiversity
1.
Provides natural beauty
Provides ideas for invention
Provides medicines
Source of food
323
2.5 Biodiversity
Other importance of biodiversity may include the following :
o Clean air to breathe, clean water to drink, food, medicine and clothing.
o Outdoors for sports such as golf, surfing, etc.
o Many industrial products such as paper, cloth (wool, cotton and silk) are obtained
from processing of raw materials from living organisms
o Plants regulate composition of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
o Plants prevents soil erosion
o Plants absorbs greenhouse gases and helps stop global warming
o Biodiversity provides ground for recreational activities such as watching birds and
animals.
ACTIVITY 3: Counting plants in a field using a quadrat
number
Number of 9 10 10 10 12 51
flowers
Average
number of Total/5 = 10.2
flowers
ACTIVITY 4b: Using a model quadrat on a simulated green field
number
Number of 8 11 11 11 12 53
green plants
Average
number of Total/5 = 10.6
green plants
Note: Teachers are encouraged to use a model quadrat on different simulated fields (e.g. green
field, rocky shore) to study different organisms (plants or animals) in a given ecosystem or area.
324
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
Effect of Natural Disaster on Biodiversity
Cyclones
Picture Effects
Make food scarce and cause

animals to starve
Kill animals and plants
Destroy habitats
Drought
Wildfire
Loss of biodiversity Effects of Migration of animals

drought on
biodiversity
325
2.5 Biodiversity
Human Activities Affecting Biodiversity
Deforestation
To extract metal ores
Reasons
for
To obtain wood for fuel Deforestation
and building To build new roads
To make space to keep To grow food crops

farm animals
326
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
Effects of Deforestation
Habitat loss
Soil erosion
Global warming
Flooding
Desertification
327
2.5 Biodiversity
Pollution
Air pollution Water pollution
Land pollution Noise pollution
ACTIVITY 5: Understanding effects of pollution on biodiversity

Types of Pollution Effects
Noise pollution affects

marine life such as whales
Water pollution by oil spills

affects birds such as pelicans
Air pollution causes acid rain

which can destroy whole
forests
Land pollution affects plants

in forests
328
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
ACTIVITY 6: Outlining the impact of habitat degradation on Biodiversity
In this activity, students are required to work in team – search for information, discuss and fill
in the table for habitats/name of organisms for a named ecosystem. They will work together
to suggest possible causes of the destruction/degradation of the chosen habitat(s). They will
finally compile all their collected information in a reader-friendly way on a poster and present
their findings in the class. In this way, students will get the opportunity to learn from each
team on the impact of habitat degradation on biodiversity.
It should be noted that this activity covers aspects related to habitat degradation in both
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
ACTIVITY 7: Identifying native and alien species
Native Species Alien Species
Ebony tree Fleur de Lys Goyaves de Chine Deer
Bois de natte Bougainvilla Monkey
Bottle palm tree Traveller’s tree Hare
Trochetia Frangipane Privet
Ox tree Rats
Manglier rouge Red bulbul
Takamaka Wild pigs
(Note: Merles (Mauritius Bulbul) is medium sized songbird with a greyish body, a black crest and
an orange bill. It is endemic to Mauritius)
329
2.5 Biodiversity
ACTIVITY 8: Investigating the effect of invasive species

‘goyave de Chine’ on biodiversity
(a) Goyave de Chine
(b) They out compete native species for food, water and air and grow very fast in the natural area.
(c) Uprooting or removal of goyave de Chines (alien species)
(d To allow native species to use resources (soil nutrients, water and air) and grow in the
area
(e) Since the wood of goyaves de Chine is hard, compact, durable, and resistant, it is being
used for lathe work, tool handles, charcoal, and firewood. Its fruit is also tasty and is a
good source of vitamin C.
ACTIVITY 9: Recognising the effects of global warming
1. Matching exercise
Coral bleaching
Decrease in biodiversity
2. Other effects of global warming on biodiversity.
Some of the effects of global warming on biodiversity include the following:
i. Rising sea levels- create problems for many coastal ecosystems threatening lives of many
species e.g. mangroves.
ii. Increase in extreme events such as fire, cyclone, drought and flood favours increase in
alien species and decrease in native species.
iii. Decreased rainfall endangers the lives of species living in wetlands and aquatic habitats.
330
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
ACTIVITY 10: Discussing ways to protect biodiversity
Setting up of bird parks (captive breeding)
Setting up of marine parks
Tree planting
331
2.5 Biodiversity
reforestation or restoration of forests by planting trees
Reduction in all types of pollution (including water and air)
Three other ways we can protect biodiversity
- banning of hunting of endangered animals
- Enforcement of legislation and law to protect native species and to punish those who do
not abide to law
- sensitising people through posters, media and talks on the importance of conserving
biodiversity
332
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1

Multiple choice questions
1. C cat
2. D source of pollution
3. B deforestation
4. A to make space for agriculture
5. D noise pollution
6. C global warming
7. C goyave de Chine
8. B removing alien species
9. A by planting trees
10. C drought
1. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate words from the list given below.
Forests are large biodiversity as they have a variety of plants and animal species.
Biodiversity is very important for mankind as it provides many of man’s need. Natural
calamities such as drought and cyclone decrease biodiversity. However, many human
activities such as deforestation, pollution and introduction of alien species also cause a
decrease in biodiversity.
2. Matching exercise
Destruction of the living space for

Pollution
living organisms
Deforestation Increase in temperature of the earth
Preservation and restoration of

Global warming
biodiversity
Releasing harmful substances in the

Degradation of habitat environment
Conservation Cutting down of trees
333
2.5 Biodiversity
3.
A Q W E R T Y U I O P A S D F
R T Y U I I T R O C H E T I A
D D E F G H J K L Z X C V B L
T R E J B R T Y H G F D S J I
J O K F I Y G F D R N R T P E
T U M C O N S E R V A T I O N
G G N J D R Y T R T T Y J L P
F H B Y I Q E R T Y I U I L O
D T V T V W I S V Q V Y B U I
S T C R E E O W T U E T Y T U
A G X E R R T S F A U E G I Y
A H Z W S T Y X R D T G O O T
H J S Q I Y U E V R Q I N N R
J K F W T U I D T A Z W O P E
E B O N Y I O C G T A Z P N W
4. (a) Because this step allows her to place the quadrat at random place in the garden.
(b) Total number = number of poisonous plants in (Quadrat A + Quadrat B + Quadrat C) = 6
(c) To obtain a more reliable estimate, the following steps must be done:
(i) repeat the procedure in more than three random places
(ii) count and record the number of poisonous plants
(iii) find the total and calculate the average number of poisonous plants
5. (a) Some animals may die due to loss of their habitat (lack of food, shelter)
(b) Soil erosion/flooding/landslide
334
Biodiversity Unit
2.5
1
6. (a) Waste gases from car engines and power stations

(b) Waste water from homes and water from farmer’s field
(c) Carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide
(d) Detergents from A; pesticides/herbicides/insecticides from D
(e) Some air pollutants (e.g. sulfur dioxide) dissolve in rain forming an acid. This acid rain
falls on land and may destroy the nearby trees
335
Language of chemistry
3.1 LANGUAGE OF CHEMISTRY

ACTIVITY 2: Finding out about molecules of elements
a) Atoms
b) 2
c) Joined
ACTIVITY 3: Finding out the formulae of some elements
Symbol of Number of atoms Formula of

Element Molecule
the element in 1 molecule molecule
Oxygen O O O 2 O2
Hydrogen H H H 2 H2
Chlorine Cl Cl Cl 2 Cl2
Fluorine F F 2 F2
F
Bromine Br Br Br 2 Br2
Iodine I I I 2 I2
Ozone
(Ozone is a gas O
which consists of 3
O O O 3 O3
atoms of oxygen in
its molecule)
P
Phosphorus P P 4 P4
P P
S
Sulfur S S S 8 S8
S
336
ACTIVITY 3: Finding out about compounds
2 (a) A compound is a substance consisting of two or more elements chemically combined

together.
(b) water, carbon dioxide
(c) - The components of a mixture can be separated easily while the different elements
present in a compound cannot be separated easily.
- A mixture has variable compostion while a compound has fixed composition.
3
Table 2: Compounds and their constituent elements
Compound Elements present in the compound
Water Hydrogen and oxygen
Kitchen salt (Sodium chloride) Sodium and chlorine
Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen and chlorine
Carbon dioxide Carbon and oxygen
Hydrogen bromide Hydrogen and bromine
Common alcohol (ethanol) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Hydrogen iodide Hydrogen and iodine
Glucose Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Carbon monoxide Carbon and oxygen
Methane Carbon and hydrogen
337
ACTIVITY 5: Finding the formulae of molecules of compounds
Table 3: Molecules of compounds and their formulae
Number of atoms of
Constituent
Molecule each element in one Formula
elements
molecule
Hydrogen (H) H: 2
H2O
Oxygen (O) O: 1
Water
Carbon (C) C: 1
CO2
Oxygen (O) O: 2
Carbon dioxide
H
H C Carbon (C) C: 1
H CH4
H Hydrogen (H) H: 4
Methane
Carbon (C) C: 1
C O CO
Oxygen (O) O: 1
Carbon monoxide
N
H H Nitrogen (N) N: 1
H NH3
Hydrogen (H) H: 3
Ammonia
N N: 1
O Nitrogen (N)
O NO2
Oxygen (O) O: 2
Nitogen dioxide
338
ACTIVITY 6: Working out the formulae of some compounds
3. (a) Sodium oxide (b) Magnesium chloride (c) Aluminium bromide

Sodium oxide Magnesium chloride Aluminium bromide
Na O Mg Cl Al Br
1 2 2 1 3 1
Na2O1 = Na2O Mg1Cl2 = MgCl2 Al1Br3 = AlBr3
(d) Potassium iodide (e) Magnesium oxide (f ) Aluminium nitride

Potassium iodide Magnesium oxide Aluminium nitride
K I Mg O Al N
1 1 2 2 3 3
K1I1 = KI Mg2O2 = MgO Al3N3 = AlN
(g) Zinc nitride (h) Calcium fluoride

Zinc nitride Calcium fluoride
Zn N Ca F
2 3 2 1
Zn3N2 Ca1F2 = CaF2
ACTIVITY 7: Investigating chemical reactions
4.
Appearance of magnesium ribbon before
Grey colour solid
burning
Appearance of residue formed when

White colour residue
magnesium is burnt
5. It is a chemical change.
339
(b) Sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide.

sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide

aluminium + chlorine aluminium chloride
(d) Zinc reacts with bromine to produce zinc bromide.

zinc + bromine zinc bromide
(e) Sodium reacts with water to form hydrogen gas and a compound called sodium hydroxide.
sodium + water hydrogen + sodium hydroxide
1. (a) B
(b) C
(c) D
(d) C
(e) A
2 . (a) element
(b) compound
(c) molecule
(d) periodic table
(e) valency
3. (a) Sodium chloride (b) Magnesium nitride (c) Calcium chloride

Sodium chloride Magnesium nitride Calcium chloride
Na Cl Mg N Ca Cl
1 1 2 3 2 1
Na1Cl = NaCI Mg3N2 = Mg3N2 Ca1Cl2 = CaCl2
340
(d) Aluminium oxide (e) Silver oxide (f ) Aluminium fluoride

Aluminium oxide Silver oxide Aluminium fluoride
Al O Ag O Al F
3 2 1 2 3 1
Al2O3 = Al2O3 Ag2O = Ag2O AlF3 = AlF3
(g) Magnesium hydride

Magnesium hydride
Mg H
2 1
Mg1H2 = MgH2
4. (a) Carbon reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide.

carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
(b) Hydrogen reacts with fluorine to produce hydrogen fluoride.

carbon + fluorine carbon fluoride

Aluminium + chlorine aluminium chloride
(d) Silver reacts with bromine to produce silver bromide.

silver + bromine silver bromide
5. (a) Calcium + oxygen calcium oxide

Reactants: Calcium
Oxygen
Product: calcium oxide
(b) Hydrogen + oxygen water

Reactants: Hydrogen
Oxygen
Product: water
341
(c) Nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia

Reactants: Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Product: ammonia
(d) Carbon dioxide + carbon carbon monoxide

Reactants : Carbon dioxide
Carbon
Product : Carbon monoxide
(e) Potassium reacts with water to form hydrogen and a compound called potassium
hydroxide
Reactants : Potassium
Water
Products : Hydrogen
Potassium hydroxide
(f ) Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen (in
presence of chlorophyll and sunlight).
Reactants: Carbon dioxide
Water
Products: Glucose
Oxygen
342
6. crossword
1 2
P P
E H
R Y
3
V I S
4
D I A T O
O M I C
L D C
5
C H EE M II C A
A L
N C L
C T
Y A
6
F B
7 8
M O L E CC U LL E
9
A R O E
10
E L E M E N T M M
O U P
11
S Y M B O L O
U A U
L N
F D
343
Energy
4.2 ENERGY, HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

In this unit also, a significant part has been completed in Grade 8. It is expected that
educators consolidate on what has already been learnt.
ACTIVITY 1: Recalling the different forms of energy
The answers to the examples given are:

• Heat
• Chemical
• Electrical
• Sound
• Movement
ACTIVITY 2: Recalling different sources of energy
The answers to the examples given are:

• Batteries / cells
• Petrol / gasoline
• Cooking gas
• Coal
• Wind
After this activity it is expected that students recall that a source of energy is not same as a
form of energy. Educators could take more examples to consolidate this idea among learners.
The two concepts of Potential energy and Kinetic energy are completely new to EP learners.
Educators need to proceed carefully with the related explanations, so as to bring learners to
understand these terms and solve related problems.
344
Energy
ACTIVITY 3: Calculating potential energy
Ep = mgh = 30 x 10 x 5 = 1500 J
Ep = mgh = 60 x 10 x 1 = 600 J
ACTIVITY 4: Calculating kinetic energy
Ek = ½ mv2 = ½ x 1 x 2 x 2 = 2 J
Ek = ½ x 500 x 4 x 4 = 4000 J
The law of conservation of energy
The main idea behind this law is that energy cannot be created and it cannot be destroyed.
It can only be converted from one form to another or transferred from one body to another.
Alternately, we can say that the total energy in a closed system remains constant.
Thus, the first version is more appropriate for the EP learners to understand.
ACTIVITY 5: Identifying renewable and non-renewable energy sources
The idea that a source of energy can be replaced by nature should be explained clearly to
learners. For example, after sunset we get sunrise after few hours. So the sun reappears as a
source of energy.
Even water that has fallen in a dam, can be replaced by rain fall and the water cycle.
Wind blows continuously across lands and oceans.
Trees (wood) grow to reasonable size after few years.
So, nature replaces these sources of energy, that is why they are called renewable sources.
Those which cannot be replaced, or take millions of years to be replaced are called non-
renewable ones. These are the fossil fuels such as cooking gas, diesel, petrol/gasoline and
coal.
345
Energy
Even the advantages and disadvantages of electricity production using various sources need
to be discussed. Focus should be on the polluting nature of certain sources of energy.
The idea of air pollution resulting from car exhausts and power stations need to be made
clear. Moreover, acid rain formation due to pollution needs to be explained to the learners. As
this topic has been explained earlier in this book, the ideas are expected to be consolidated.
Polluting and non-polluting sources of energy
It is a good idea to demarcate between polluting and non-polluting sources of energy from
renewable and non-renewable sources. Students have a tendency to think that renewable
sources are non-polluting. This misconception has to cleared among learners.
Heat and temperature
Though heat and temperature are closely related, they are two distinct physical quantities.
Students should be engaged into fruitful discussions and activities to be able to discriminate
between them.
In the first place, some sources of heat energy have been shown, then the idea that heat flows
from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature has been illustrated.
Moreover, the idea of hot and cold bodies has been discussed.
The instrument used to measure temperature, i.e., the thermometer has been illustrated, but
this is not adequate. The additional requirements for us to be able to measure temperature is
the knowledge about the ice point and the steam point.
These are the respective temperatures of pure ice that is melting, and steam above pure water
that is boiling. They are called the fixed points, and are essential factors in measurement of
temperature.
ACTIVITY 6: Using a mercury thermometer to measure ice point

and steam point
Activity 6 is about these two fixed points. Learners should have first hand experience of these
two set ups.
For educators to be able to demarcate between the two quantities, it is good to know that heat
energy is measured in joule whereas temperature is measured in degree Celsius. Moreover,
heat is a form of energy whereas temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of a body.
346
Energy
Multiple choice questions.

1. (a) C
(b) B
(c) B
(d) A
(e) A
2. (a) chemical
(b) renewable
(c) potential
(d) kinetic
(e) mercury
3. (a) work
(b) joule
(c) hotness
(d) pollution
(e) melting
4. Bagasse is a fuel used in Mauritius for producing electrical energy. It is a renewable source
of energy because it is continuously replaced by nature. Bagasse contains chemical
energy. When it is burnt, this energy is converted to heat energy which is used to heat
water in a boiler. As a result, high pressure steam is produced which is directed onto the
turbine.
The kinetic energy of the steam is converted to mechanical energy of the turbine which
is connected to a generator. The generator produces electrical energy. Such a power
station is known as a thermal power station.
347
Energy
5. A lighted bulb produces light energy and heat energy
A stretched elastic band has potential energy
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness
A moving car has kinetic energy
Hydropower is a renewable source of energy
A renewable energy source can be used over and over again
6. 1 2
H M
3 4
C E N E R G Y
L A R
5
K I N E T I C
N U
6
P O L L U T I O N R
C Y
348

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GRADE Extended Programme

MAURITIUS INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

© Mauritius Institute of Education (2020)

I am equally thankful to the Ministry of Education, Human Resources, Tertiary

This curriculum material includes clear and colourful illustrations

It is expected that educators provide ample opportunities to learners

Along with the main activities presented in the textbook, educators

1.1 The atmosphere and

2.1 Measurement of Physical

4.1 Our atmosphere and the

1.1 The Atmosphere and Environment around us

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ACTIVITY 1 – Recalling the process of photosynthesis

1. Figure 1 illustrates the process of photosynthesis.

Figure 1 : The process of photosynthesis

1. The plant takes in from the atmosphere.

2. Plants absorb water through their and transport it to their leaves.

3. The green matter present in leaves is known as .

4. Chlorophyll traps energy from .

6. The sugar produced during photosynthesis is called .

7. Thus, photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their in the

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

ACTIVITY 2 – Describing the carbon cycle

1. Figure 2 illustrates the carbon cycle.

2. Carefully study Figure 2 and read the text given on page 4.

Figure 2: The carbon cycle

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

The three processes involved in the carbon cycle are:

ACTIVITY 3 – Importance of photosynthesis and respiration in

2. Study their statements

3. Discuss with your friends to answer the questions below.

(a) What gas do plants take in during photosynthesis?

(b) Where do plants obtain that gas?

(c) What gas do plants release during photosynthesis?

(d) Is this gas important for living things? Why?

Statement True False

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

ACTIVITY 4 – Recognizing that absorption of heat by greenhouse

1. Read the text below

Complete the exercise by choosing from the given list of words

atmosphere global warming greenhouse gases warm carbon dioxide

(a) Gases which trap heat in the atmosphere are known as .

(b) They help to keep our planet .

(c) is an example of a greenhouse gas.

(d) Greenhouse gases are found in the .

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

ACTIVITY 5 – Identifying greenhouse gases and their sources

1. Different human activities are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Sources of greenhouse gases

Activity Description Greenhouse gas released

Using motor vehicles

Decaying of organic waste in

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

ACTIVITY 6 – Finding out the effects of climate change

1. The figures below illustrate some effects of climate change.

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

ACTIVITY 7 – Identifying air pollutants, their sources and their

1. Table 2 gives a list of air pollutants, their sources and effects.

Table 2: Air pollutants

Air Pollutant Sources Effects

WHAT I HAVE LEARNT

ACTIVITY 8 – Investigating the causes and harmful effects of acid

1. Figure 4 illustrates the causes and effects of acid rain.

The gases mix with moisture in the air to

(b) Acid rain is caused by .

(d) _ _is the release of harmful substances in water