Phy 061 Chapter 25 Physics 1

Current – any motion of charge from one region to another. The moving charge can either be
positive or negative charge. For easier discussion, we will always consider the conventional
current throughout this chapter, a current composed of positive charges.

When there is electric field through a conductor,

the charge experiences electric force which causes it to
move. But a charged particle moving in a conductor
undergoes frequent collisions with the massive, nearly
stationary ions of the material. In each such collision the
particle’s direction of motion undergoes a random
change. The net effect of the electric field is that in
addition to the random motion of the charged particles
within the conductor, there is also a very slow net
motion or drift of the moving charged particles as a
group in the direction of the electric force.

Drift velocity (vd)– rate of slow net motion of charge.

difference in magnitude
average speed ~ 106 m/s
drift velocity 10-4 m/s

We define the current I (conventional current) to be in

direction in which there is a flow of positive
charge.
Current = net charge flowing through the area per unit time.
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= ;
𝑑𝑡
the unit of current is Ampere (A), named after French Scientist Andre Marie Ampere.
electric device magnitude of current used
radio mA (10-3 A)
computer nA (10-9 A)
circuits pA (10-12 A)

The current I is related to drift velocity:

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴
where n is the concentration (charged particles per unit volume), q charge of each particle and A
is the cross sectional area of the conductor.

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Current density is the charge per unit cross sectional area.
𝐼
𝐽=
𝐴
Current density is a vector quantity and it always points to
the direction of electric field.

OHM’s Law
“The ratio of magnitudes of E and J is a constant.”
𝐸
𝜌=
𝐽
where ρ is the resistivity and has the unit Ω∙m
The reciprocal of the resistivity is conductivity.

The ratio of V to I for a particular conductor is called its resistance, the property of a material that
resists the flow of charged particles through it; measured in ohms (Ω).
V
R
I
Comparing this equation to that of resistivity and current density, we see that
L
R
A

The influence that makes current flow from lower to higher potential is called electromotive force.
Every complete circuit with a steady current must include some device that provides emf. Such a
device is called a source of emf. Batteries, electric generators, solar cells, thermocouples,
and fuel cells are all examples of sources of emf.

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The potential difference between the two terminals of
an ideal battery is just equal to the emf inside it.
Vab = ε

A real battery has an internal resistance r when it

pumps current. Hence, the terminal voltage is
Vab = ε – Ir
where I is the current through the battery.

Ammeter is a device used to measure current. An ideal

ammeter has no resistance.

Voltmeter is a device used to measure voltage across

a device or resistor.

Below are the symbols used in circuit diagrams

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Ex 1 The figure on the right shows a source (a battery) with emf ε of
12 V and an internal resistance r of 2 Ω. The wires to the left of a and
to the right of Ammeter A are not connected to anything. Determine
the readings of the idealized voltmeter V and the idealized ammeter
A.
Ans
Reading on ammeter: 0
Reading on voltmeter: 12 V

Ex 2 Using the battery in Ex 1, we add a

4-Ω resistor to form the complete circuit shown below. What are the
voltmeter and the ammeter readings now?

Ans
Reading on ammeter: 2 A
Reading on voltmeter: 8 V

Ex 3 The voltmeter and ammeter in Ex 2 are moved to different positions in the circuit. What are
the voltmeter and ammeter readings in the situations in Figure: (a) and (b)?

Ans
(a)
Reading on ammeter: 2 A
Reading on voltmeter: 8 V

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(b)
Ans
Reading on ammeter: 0
Reading on voltmeter: 12 V

Ex 4 Using the same battery as in the preceding examples, we

now replace the 4-Ω resistor with a zero-resistance conductor,
as shown. What are the meter readings now?
Ans
Reading on ammeter: 6 A
Reading on voltmeter: 0

SERIES and PARALLEL

“For any combination of resistors we can always find a single resistor that could replace the
combination and result in the same total current and potential difference. The resistance of this
single resistor is called the equivalent resistance.”

Symbols:
Itot or I – the current that enters the combination of resistors
I1 – current through resistor R1
V1 – voltage across resistor R1
Vab – voltage at point a with respect to point b

RESISTORS IN SERIES

1. The current I must be the same in all resistors.

In symbols,
I = I1 = I2 = I3

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2. The potential difference across the entire combination is the sum of the individual potential
differences. In symbols,
Vab = V1 + V2 + V3
3. “The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in series equals the sum of their
individual resistances.” In symbols,
Req = R1 + R2 + R3

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

1. The potential difference is the same across each resistor. In symbols,

Vab = V1 = V2 = V3

2. The total current I must be equal to the sum of the three currents in the resistors. In symbols,
I = I1 + I2 + I3

3. “For any number of resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance equals
the sum of their reciprocals of their individual resistances.” In symbols,
1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R2 R3
or
1
Req 
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3
This means the overall resistance of the circuit is less than the resistance of any one of the branch.

Ex 5 Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown below and find the current in each
resistor. The source has negligible internal resistance.

Ex 6 Two identical light bulbs are to be connected to a source ε and negligible internal resistance.
Each bulb has a resistance R= 2 Ω. Find the current through each bulb, the potential difference
across each bulb, and the power delivered to each bulb and to the entire network if the bulbs are

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connected: (a) in series, as shown in Fig (a); (b) in parallel, as shown in Fig (b);
(c) Suppose one of the bulbs burns out; that is, its filament breaks and current can no longer flow
through it. What happens to the other bulb in the series case? In the parallel case?

Electric power – The rate of energy transfer, or the rate of doing work,; the amount of energy
transferred per unit time, which electrically can be measured by
P=I V
Power dissipated to a resistor
P =IV = I2R
Power at converting chemical to electrical energy in ideal voltage source (without internal
resistance)
P = Iε
Net power output of a realistic voltage source (battery with internal resistance)
Pout = Iε- I2r
Unit of power: Watt

Ex 7 Find the rate of energy conversion (chemical to electrical) and the rate of dissipation of energy
in the battery in the circuit in Ex 4 and the net power output of the battery in the previous example.
Ans
Power in converting chemical to electrical
P = Iε = (6 A)(12) = 72 W
Power dissipated in the battery (at the internal resistance)
P = I2r = (6 A)2(2 Ω) = 72 W
Net power output
Pout = 0

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Ex 8 At P 0.5/kWh, what does it cost to operate the 1200-W hair dryer for 1 h?
Solution:
Energy=power×time
=(1200 W)(1 h)
=1200 W  h
Converting Wh to kWh
1 kW  h
1200 W  h =1200 W  h 
1000 W  h
=1.2 kW  h
This is the energy consumed by the hair dryer.
Determining the cost
cost = price of electricity  energy consumed
= P 0.5/kWh 1.2 kWh
=P 0.60

Questions
1. Three bulbs are connected to a battery as shown in the figure on the right. What
kind of connection is this?
A. series B. parallel
2. A certain device in a 120-V circuit has a current rating of 20 A. What is the resistance of the
device?
A. 6 Ω B. 2,400 Ω C. 240 Ω
D. 100 Ω E. none of the above
3. As more devices are connected to series circuit, the current drawn by the entire circuit from the
same voltage source ____.
A. increases B. decreases C. remains the same