V. Demenko.

Mechanics of Materials 1

LECTURE 4

1. Concept of Stress

In order to characterize the law of distribution of internal forces over

the section a measure of their intensity should be introduced. The measure
used is stress.

Consider
a section A of a
body (Fig.1).
We isolate an
element of area A
enclosing a point on
which an Fig.1 internal
force is acting. The average stress on the area A is taken to be

. (1)

We reduce the area A by contracting it to the point K. Since the medium is

continuous, a limiting process applies as . In the limit we obtain

. (2)

The vector quantity of true stress represents the total stress at the point K on
the section A.
The stress has the dimension of force divided by area. The SI unit of stress is a

pascal: .

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2 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials

The stress in a given point of a

section considered is a vector
quantity, i.e. it is characterized by
magnitude and direction.
Let us resolve the total stress
vector into two components: one
Fig.2 directed along the normal to the
section and the other lying in the section plane (see Fig.2):
The stress component directed along the normal to the section will be called the
normal stress and designated by the Greek letter . The component lying in the
section plane will be called the tangential (shearing) stress and designated by
Greek letter .
2. Relations ships between Stresses and Internal Force Factors
In majority of cases, it is convenient
to resolve the total stress into three
components directed parallel to the
coordinate axes. This resolution for a
point in the cross section of a bar is
shown in Fig.3:
For these components, the following
rule of subscripts has been adopted: the
Fig.3 first subscript corresponds to the
coordinate axis perpendicular to the plane; the second subscript gives the
coordinate axis to which the given stress is parallel. According to this rule,
normal stresses should be written two subscripts, i.e. , but usually one or
both subscripts is omitted.

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 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials 3

Let us establish how the stresses and internal force factors in a cross
section of a bar are interrelated.
Multiplying the stresses , and by the area dA, we obtain
elementary internal forces:

(3)

Summing these elementary forces over the entire area of the section we
find expressions for the components of the main vector of internal forces:

(4)

Multiplying each of the elementary forces by the distance to the corresponding

axis, we obtain the elementary moments of internal forces:

(5)

Summing the elementary moments over the entire area of the section, we get the
expressions for the components of the main moment of internal forces:

(6)

These formulas will be used in the further discussion for solving one of
the principal problems of strength of materials: the determination of stresses by
the known internal force factors.

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4 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials

3. Saint-Venant's Principle
The features of application of external forces are manifested, as a rule, at
distances not exceeding the characteristic dimensions of the cross section of the
bar (see fig. 4).

Fig. 4
Therefore one should neglect the portion of the bar located in the zone of
application of the external forces.
4. Principle of Superposition
Since deformations considered in strength of materials are small it can be
assumed that external forces act independently from one another, i.e. the
deformations and internal forces appearing in elastic bodies do not depend on
the order in which the external forces are applied. Besides, it is assumed the total
effect of the whole system of forces acting on a body is the sum of the effects
produced by each force separately.

5. Construction of Diagrams of Internal Force Factors

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 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials 5

A graph (plot) of distribution of internal force factor along the length of a

bar is called the diagram. There are some very important rules for constructing
the diagrams:
1. In all cases diagrams of internal force factors are constructed on the axial line
which is parallel to the axial line of a rod.
2. The magnitude of the force factor is laid off along a normal to the axis.
3. The diagrams are supplied with denominations, dimensions, signs, numerical
information.
6. Diagrams of Normal Forces
If only normal forces occur at cross sections of a rod then we have got
tension or compression.
Let us consider a bar of constant cross-sectional area with two oppositely
directed forces applied to its ends:

Fig.4

Both in tension and compression, the bar is in equilibrium, i.e. the sum of the

projections of all forces onto the x axis is equal to zero. The normal force Nx can
be found by the method of sections: let the bar be cut in the point where the

force Nx is to be determined and the effect of the rejected portion of the bar onto
the remaining portion be replaced by the internal force N.

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6 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials

Fig.5

In tension, the force Nx is directed away from the section and has the plus sign
and in compression it is directed into the section and has the minus sign.
Rule. If the force Nx is directed away from the section then it has the plus

sign; if the force Nx is directed into the section, then it has the minus sign.
Example 1.

G: The bar of the total length l under the action of the force F.
R.D: the normal force along the length of the bar.
Consider the equilibrium of remaining portion
, , .

In our case, Nx = F = const and the graph is a straight line with abrupt changes in

the points of application of forces F, RB , i.e. at the ends of the bar, by the

magnitude of forces F and RB .

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 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials 7

Example 2. (The same problem for compression).

In this case, Nx = -F = const and the graph is a straight line, but Nx < 0.

Example 3.

G: Bar of a stepped profile:

F1 = 60kN, F2 = 40kN, F3 = 70kN.

N.D.: Nx(x).
The construction of the diagram of normal
forces is started with division of the bar into four
portions I, II, III and IV according to the forces
applied to it.
We begin the construction of the diagram of
normal forces with the free end of the bar.

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8 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials

If a number of forces act on a bar, the internal force factor, i.e. the normal

force Nx, can be found by the method of sections using the conditions of

equilibrium, the force Nx in the section considered is determined as the algebraic

sum of all forces acting on the bar up to the section being considered:

where Fi is an i'th' force acting on the bar.

If it turns out that Nx > 0, it will be directed away from the section and is a
tensile force; otherwise, it is directed into the section and is a compressive force:
kN, kN,
kN,
kN.
One should learn the important rule for constructing the diagrams of
normal forces, since similar rules will be often used in the later discussion. In
points where an external force is applied, including support reactions, a diagram
of normal forces exhibits a jump equal in magnitude to the external force
applied.
In our example, there are four forces (including the support reaction) and
the diagram of forces has respectively four jumps equal in magnitude to these
forces.
7. Torsional Moment Diagram
A bar subjected to torsion is called a shaft. In torsion of a shaft, there
appears a single internal force factor, a torsional moment, or torque, which acts
in the plane of shaft cross section.

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 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials 9

The rule of signs for torque: if viewed from the end of a shaft the latter
rotates counter-clockwise, the torque on the shaft is considered to be negative
(or positive as we wish).
The internal torque appearing in section can be found from the condition
of equilibrium for the right-hand or left-hand portion of the twisted shaft.
A graph of distribution of internal torsional moments along the length of a
shaft is called the torque diagram.

Example 4.

The condition of equilibrium for the right-hand portion of the twisted shaft is
MТ – M2 = 0,
whence
M x = M Т.

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10 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials

Example 5.
G: M1 = 20kNm, M2 = 50kNm,

M3 = 40kNm.

Mx(x) =?
The internal torsional moment in a particular section of a shaft is equal to the
algebraic sum of all external torsional moments which act on the shaft up to the
section considered:

kNm, ,
kNm.
Let us now construct the diagram of torsional moments. For each portion

of the shaft, we lay off Mx on a chosen scale in the same way as has been done

for constructing the diagram of normal forces Nx in tension.

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 V. Demenko. Mechanics of Materials 11

A diagram of torsional moments has jumps in points of application of

torsional moments, which are equal to the magnitude of the torsional moments
applied.
In the case considered, when moving along the shaft from the right to left,

we observe the first jump equal to M1, the second jump equal to M2, the third

jump M3 and the fourth jump is equal to the reaction moment in the built-in end
of the shaft.
VOCABULARY 4
lay off _________ откладывать component _________ компонент
stress _________ напряжение shearing stress _________ касательное
normal stress _________ нормальное напряжение
напряжение omit _________ упускать, не
adopt _________ принимать включать
exceed _________ превышать neglect _________ пренебрегать
superposition _________ суперпозиция diagram _________ эпюра, график,
curve _________ кривая диаграмма
tension _________ pастяжение numerical _________ числовой
projection _________ проекция compression _________ сжатие
portion _________ часть reject _________ отвергать,
reaction _________ pреакция отбрасывать
exhibit _________ показывать tensile _________ растягивающий
downward(s) _________ вниз, книзу support _________ опора
occur _________ иметь место, upward _________ направленный
встречаться, вверх
случаться

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