GENERAL BIOLOGY REVIEWER

Plant and Animal Organ, Systems, and their Functions. (Reproduction and Development)

Reproduction in Plants
● Sexual Reproduction-Sexual Reproduction takes place with slight variations in different
groups of plants.
- gametophyte stage :haploid gametophyte produces the male and female
gametes by mitosis in distinct multicellular
structures.
- sporophyte stage: diploid sporophyte produces spores by meiosis, which in turn
divide by mitosis to produce the haploid gametophyte.

● Asexual Reproduction- produces plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant
because no mixing of male and female gametes takes place.

Bryophyllum
- When detached from plants they grow into independent plants
Reproduction in Animals
● Sexual Reproduction-combination of (usually haploid) reproductive cells from two
individuals to form a third (usually diploid) unique offspring. Sexual reproduction
produces offspring with novel combinations of genes.
● Hermaphroditism-occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female
reproductive parts. (earthworms, slugs, tapeworms, and snails)
● Asexual Reproduction-produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent
because the offspring are all clones of the original parent.
● Fission(binary fission)- occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in some invertebrate,
multi-celled organisms.
● Budding- form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell
or body region leading to a separation from the original organism into two individuals.
● Fragmentation- breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration.
● Parthenogenesis-form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete
individual without being fertilized.

Development in Animals
● Gametogenesis-stage of animal development where the end-product is the haploid
gamete.
● Fertilization- sperm and ovum fuse during fertilization, the diploid condition of the
animal is restored.
● Cleavage-stage of animal development is characterized by a series of mitosis that give
rise to a multicellular blastula, which could be solid or hollow.
● Gastrulation- cells in the embryo undergo cellular morphogenetic movements.
● Organogenesis-primitive germ layers are included to differentiate into distinct organs
and organ systems of the animal.
● Growth-characterized by the increase in size of the animal before it tapers and reaches
senescence.
Parts of a Flower
 1. PETAL 6.FILAMENT
2. OVARY 7.STAMEN
3. STIGMA 8.PEDICEL
4. PISTIL 9.RECEPTACLE
5. ANTHER 10.SEPAL

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF PLANTS

1. BULB 2. CORM 3. RHIZOME 4. RUNNER 5.TUBER

DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANIMALS

1.ZYGOTE 2. EIGHT-CELL STAGE 3. BLASTULA 4. GASTRULATION 5. BLASTADORE

OOGENESIS- process of making an ovum

3 non-functional gametes- made during gametogenesis in females.
In meiosis the number of chromosomes of the daughter cells is reduced compared to the parent
cell.
Meiosis II- produces four haploid cells.
Animal's digestive tract forms from the endoderm
Embryo layer that forms the skin and nervous tissue is the mesoderm
Repeated cell divisions during embryonic cell development is known as cleavage
Cleavage-process where the zygote undergo to become blastula.
Human reproduction usually involves internal fertilization and internal development
Meiosis and fertilization are important processes because they may most immediately result
in genetic variation
correct order of events in the formation of a human fetus Fertilization → Zygote → Blastocyst
→ Embryo
Zygote- forms into a blastocyst
Zygote -> Eight-cell stage -> Morula -> Blastula -> Gastrula- correct order for early
embryonic development in animals.

Plant and Animal Organ, Systems, and their Functions. (Nutrition and Gas Exchange)

● Nutrition in Animals- nutrients used by animals include carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic

acids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
- Carbohydrates-basic source of energy for all animals.
- Lipids-used to form cellular and organelle membranes, the sheaths surrounding
nerve fibers, and certain hormones.
- Nucleic acids- used for the construction of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
ribonucleic acid (RNA), and ATP.
- Proteins-form the framework of the animal body.

Process of Nutrition in Animals

The process of nutrition in animals involves
the following steps:
Ingestion-Ingestion is the process of taking in food.
Digestion-In this process, the larger food particles are broken down into smaller, water-soluble
particles. There are physical or chemical substances for digesting food.
Absorption-The digested food is absorbed in the bloodstream through the intestinal wall.
Assimilation- The absorbed food is used for energy, growth and repair of the cells of the body.
Egestion- The undigested food is removed out of the body in the feces. This process is known
as egestion.

Nutrition in Simple Animals Amoeba

- Amoeba ingests its food with the help of pseudopodia.

two important modes of nutrition

Autotrophic nutrition: In this type of nutrition, the plants and other photosynthetic organisms
prepare their own food with the help of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide.
Autotrophic – Plants exhibit autotrophic nutrition and are called primary producers. Plant’s
synthesize their food by using light, carbon dioxide and water.
Heterotrophic nutrition: The animals cannot prepare their own food. Therefore, they must rely
on other animals for nutrition. This is known as heterotrophic nutrition.
Heterotrophic(PARASITES)
• Parasitic
• Insectivorous
• Saprophytic
• Symbiotic
– Both animals and human beings are called heterotrophs, as they depend on plants for their
food.
Parasitic Nutrition-heterotrophic plants depend on other plants and animals for nutrition.
Insectivorous Nutrition-special structural features that help them to trap insects and are
commonly known as carnivorous or heterotrophic plants.
Saprophytic Nutrition-derive nutrition from dead and decaying plants and animals.
Symbiotic Nutrition-two different plants belonging to two different categories show a close
association, they are termed as symbiotic.

Breathing- physical action of taking air into the system and releasing gaseous waste.
Respiration-process of taking air into the system, exchanging needed gases for unnecessary
gases, using the needed gases, and releasing the waste form of gases.

Integumentary exchange
- integument is the skin or surface of an animal.
Going over gills
- Animals that live in water have gills, which are extensions of their outer membranes.
The structure and function of gills
- gills are membranous filaments covered by a flap called an operculum.
Tracheal exchange systems
- insects have air tubes that open to the outside of their body. This network of tubes is
called a trachea; the holes that open to the outside surface are called spiracles. (In
humans, the trachea is a tube that carries air down into the lungs.)
The lungs of land animals
- Lungs may be different shapes and sizes in various land animals, but they function
essentially the same as they do in humans.

- process whereby water vapor and oxygen leave, and carbon dioxide enters plant leaves.
Stomata and Guard Cells
- gases move into and out of the plants through specialized openings located along the
lower surface of the leaf.
Ecological Impact
- exchange of gases between living plants and the atmosphere is critical to the survival of
all living organisms.
carbon dioxide + water → sugar + oxygen- photosynthesis
correct order of the processes that take place in the alimentary canal
ingestion, digestion, absorption, egestion

Plant and Animal Organ, Systems, and their Functions. (Transport/Circulation and
Regulation of Body Fluids)

Transport in Plants
- plants evolved and increased in number, competition for light, water, and nutrients
intensified.
xylem-transports water and minerals from roots to shoots.
phloem-transports products of photosynthesis from where they are made or stored to where
they are needed.
transpiration—evaporation of water in the stomata.

The Apoplast and Symplast: Transport Continuums

Apoplast - consists of everything external to the plasma membranes of living cells and includes
cell walls, extracellular spaces, and the interior of dead cells such as vessel elements and
tracheids.
Symplast- consists of the entire mass of cytosol of all the living cells in a plant, as well as the
plasmodesmata, the cytoplasmic channels that interconnect them.
Absorption(loss of water)-occurs by osmosis, the diffusion of water.
Diffusion- effective transport mechanism over the spatial scales typically found at the
cellular level.
Transport in animals-molecular trade that an animal carries out with its environment—gaining
O2 and nutrients while getting rid of CO2 and other waste products—must ultimately involve
every cell in the body.
Open circulatory system-circulatory fluid, called hemolymph, is also the interstitial fluid that
bathes body cells.
Closed circulatory system- circulatory fluid called blood is confined to vessels and is distinct
from the interstitial fluid.
Single circulation-blood passes through the heart once in each complete circuit through the
body, an arrangement called single circulation.
Double circulation-circulatory systems of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals have two
circuits, an arrangement called double circulation.
enhanced by membrane water channels called aquaporins
concentration of solutes inside the cell is greater than that of the external solution, and water
moves into the cell by the process of osmosis.
pressure against the cell wall, is referred to as pressure potential
concentration of solutes also determines water potential and is referred to as solute potential
Osmoconformers- marine animals.
Uric acid forms the pasty white material in bird droppings called guano.
Most mammals have an enzyme called uricase
converts uric acid into a more soluble derivative, allantoin
excessive accumulation of uric acid in the joints produces a condition known as gout.