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Geology in The Field
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References Cited
Dunham , R. J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional
texture, p. 108-121 in Ham, W. E., editor, Classification o f carbonate rocks: Ameri-
can Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 1.
Fisher, R. V., 1961, Proposed classification of volcaniclastic sedim ents and rocks:-
Geological Society of America B ulletin, v. 72, p. 1409-1414.
Fisher, R. V., 1966, Rocks composed of volcanic fragm ents and their classification:
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Geologic Mapping on a Topographic Base 109
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110 Geology in the Field
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112
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 113
- Flight line
! Side lap of
adjoining photo
Overlap of two strips
adjoining photos
)LJ Parts of two adjoining flight lines of aerial photographs, showing typical
overlaps.
114 Geology in the Field
)LJ Folding pocket stereoscope (left) and mirror stereoscope, with photographs in
position for stereo viewing.
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 115
o o
Ground
)LJ A. Aerial photograph with typical data and construction lines for locating
its center. B. Relations between camera and photographed terrain, with formula for
calcu-lating scale.
between any image dimension, i, and its ground dimension, The latter
ratio is equal to the photograph scale. For example, if the focal length of the
lens is 6 in. (0.5 ft) and the altitude is 10,000 ft, the scale is 0.5:10,000,
or
Each print also includes four black figures called collimation marks at the
center of each margin. These marks can be used to locate the center of a
photograph by aligning a straightedge between each opposite pair of marks
and drawing two short lines to form a cross (Fig. 7-4$). This center point,
often called the principal point (abbreviated P.P.), is where the optic axis of
the camera intersected the earth’s surface. If the camera was not tilted, the
)LJ Displacements of the tops of two pyramids (D and b) from their map-true posi-
tions D DQGE
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 117
point represents a ray of light arriving vertically from the ground. All other
light rays that produced the photo image were inclined obliquely upward
from the ground, increasingly so as their image points are distant from the
principal point (Fig. 7-5).
Image displacements are caused partly by the obliquity j ust described and
partly by differences in elevation of points on the ground surface. In Fig. 7-5,
for example, the tops of the pyramids are displaced radially away from the
center of the photograph compared with their actual map positions. The
amounts of the displacements are proportional to (1) horizontal distance
from the principal point and (2) vertical distance between the image point
and the general level of the area photographed.
The displacements result in untrue bearings between image points at
different elevations. The bearing from point x in Fig. 7-5 to the top of the
pyramid next to it is thus distorted from N 30° W to N 15° W. The example is
not exaggerated and is typical of the outlying parts of large-scale photo-
graphs taken where relief is large compared to the altitude of the aircraft.
Such displacements can be reduced by using the central parts of photo-
graphs in measuring and transferring bearings. They can be eliminated
entirely by taking bearings between points at the same elevation, or by
sighting lines that are radial with respect to the principal point. The bearing
from point jy to the top of the upper right pyramid is close to radial and thus
nearly the same as a true bearing. The bearings between the tops of the
pyramids remain true because the two points are at the same elevation.
Another result of image displacement is a noticeable difference in shape
or width of features in adjoining photographs (Fig. 7-6). These differences
are the basis of the stereoscopic image, and a stereo view will help the eye to
compensate for the differences. Contacts and other geologic data w ill be
easiest to compile or transfer accurately, however, if plotted on the image
closest to the center of a photograph.
6FDOH YDULDWLRQV The camera lens is designed so that all features at one
1 2 1 2
)LJ Geometric relations (left) and two consecutive photographs right) of a deep
V-shaped canyon.
118 Geology in the Field
elevation w ill be shown at the same scale in all parts of a photograph. The
scale varies directly, however, with the distance from the ground to the
camera (Fig. 7-7). The actual variations in scale can be calculated by
substi-tuting the difference in elevation for + in the relation: scale = f/ H
(Fig. 7-4B). If, for example, the scale in one part of a photograph taken with a
0.5 ft lens has been determined to be 1:17,500 (Section 7-5), another
area lying 200 ft lower would have a scale of 1:17,500 + (0.5/200) or
1:17,900, and an area 100 ft higher would have a scale of 1:17,500 -
(0.5/100) or 1:17,300.
Tilt of the camera from vertical at the instant a photograph is taken
results in systematic distortion of scale and of most directions. If the
camera is tilted to the left of vertical, the scale will increase systematically
from the left side of the photograph to the right side, and lines that are
parallel on the ground will converge from right to left in the image. Camera
mountings are designed to compensate for aircraft motion, and therefore
photographs are rarely tilted more than a degree from vertical. T ilt
distortions are removed in rectified images, as orthophotos. The
photographs generally used for geologic mapping may have tilt distortions
that would shift bearings by 1° and introduce small changes in scale.
These distortions must generally be ignored during mapping. They w ill
be removed when the mapped data are transferred to a topographic map or
compiled by controlled photogrammetric methods.
2WKHU.LQGVRI5HPRWHVHQVHG,PDJHU\
Remote-sensed imagery other than aerial photographs may be available in
photographic black and white prints, in color prints, and as negative trans-
parencies. The brief descriptions given here can be supplemented by refer-
ence to Sabins (1978), Lillesand and Kiefer (1979), or Colwell (1983). Current
literature should be checked in any case, because additional kinds of imagery
)LJ Scale variation due to elevation: The craters of the two volcanoes have the same
diameter but their images in one photograph differ greatly in size.
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 119
3KRWRJHRORJLF6WXGLHV
Aerial photographs and other remote imagery provide the only direct view
of an area short of being there, and thus they are an invaluable introduction
to its geography and geology. In addition, photogeologic study in the field is
of great value because the scale and orientation of aerial views permit seeing
features that are invisible on the ground. Once field study has established
the causes of certain photograph tones, patterns, or lines, they can be used
to interpret other parts of an area. A compelling concern is failure to notice
these features on photographs until after the field season. The purpose of
this section is to give a brief description of photogeologic interpretation based
on a set of photographs, or other imagery, and a stereoscope. More thorough
accounts and additional methods have been given by Ray (1960), von Bandat
(1962), Miller and Miller (1961), and Smith and Anson (1968). Terrain prop-
erties of interest to engineering geologists were included by Way (1978).
Photogeologic studies should be based on stereo pairs and also on single
photographs. Stereo views are used to determine the relief, shape, and
orientation of landforms, which are commonly controlled by the kinds of
rocks, the shapes of rock bodies, and the foliations and fractures within
them, as w ill be described shortly. Stream densities and patterns may be
especially expressive of certain rocks or deposits, and streams are typically
oriented by the structural grain of a given area. Uncontrolled but useful
drainage maps can be made by tracing streams on a transparent overlay
after assembling photographs by carefully superimposing details along their
flight lines.
Viewing single photographs is essential because tonal differences and
patterns may go unnoticed in a stereo image due to its dramatic three-
dimensional quality. It is important to examine tonal areas closely, even
though their significance is totally unknown at the outset. Some are
smooth-toned darker or lighter areas, and others are textured by dots, lines,
or perhaps a fuzzy appearance. The separate areas may have elongate or
other distinctive shapes, and they may be joined along straight or evenly
curving lines and may be repeated in patterns. Straight alignments are
clearest when the photograph is tilted away from the eye, so that the view is
along the linear feature. Subdued patterns sometimes can be seen by first
looking closely at parts of the photograph and then looking toward the photo
center while relaxing the eyes to see the entire photograph at once (using
ones peripheral vision, as when driving in heavy traffic).
The causes of the tonal and textured areas may relate directly to: (1) rocks,
deposits, or soils developed on them; (2) natural vegetation, which is com-
monly controlled to some extent by the geology; or (3) burned areas, agricul-
ture, or other human activities. Tonal and textured areas in arid regions
and areas at altitudes above the tree line generally translate directly to cer-
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 121
tain rocks or deposits, and stereo viewing may reveal structural orientations
of contacts or strike and dip of bedding or foliation. In semiarid regions,
photo images are generally caused by some combination of plants and
underlying materials. Areas covered by grass and brush tend to develop
geologically related patterns or contrasts early in the growing season. Trees
in these areas occur only locally and may be controlled by geologic features
or by topography, in the latter case often being on the cooler or moister sides
of ridges. In contrast, geological features under temperate forests or tropical
jungles are likely to be expressed topographically, but not by distinct tonal
or textural patterns.
Identifying rocks from photographic imagesrequires careful study of tex-
turing and of topographic expression. Subparallel elongate patterns, which
may be clear only locally, suggest bedded or strongly foliated rocks. Distinct
vegetative bands suggest sedimentary rather than metamorphic
rocks, because the latter rarely have large contrasts in permeability. Bands
underlain by sedimentary rocks with low permeability, such as clay-rich
rocks in general, are typified by small forms of vegetation and by closely
spaced small-scale drainage networks. These bands may be marked by
landslides in recently uplifted regions and by subdued, smooth topographic
forms in stable regions. Except for areas of pale-toned tuff, soil tones tend to
be dark because of retained moisture.
Bands underlain by permeable rocks, especially sandstone and conglom-
erate, tend to be lighter in tone, to have coarser drainage networks, and to
support large trees where precipitation is adequate. Their high permeability
leads to rapid drying in the summer, thus causing lighter tones than in
adjoining impermeable (moist) materials. Thick-bedded, widely jointed
sandstone units are likely to form ridges in relatively stable areas and to
crop out boldly in recently uplifted areas. Thick-bedded horizontal sandstone
may also show parallel lines of vegetation along master joints.
Limestone commonly supports abundant vegetation and may be recog-
nized by solution sinkholes, discontinuous drainage lines, and steep-sided
hills (karst) in regions with ample rainfall. Limestone is likely to underlie
valleys in humid regions, whereas in arid and semiarid regions it commonly
forms ridges, steep slopes, and light-toned areas. Gypsum and rock salt also
lead to sinkhole topography but not typically to the other features just men-
tioned.
Recent volcanic deposits are usually obvious from their association with
eruptive landforms and flow forms (Chapter 13). Basaltic lava accumulations
of Tertiary age may be characterized by extensive parallel layer-patterns, by
occasional steep bluffs of dark-toned rock with talus aprons, by large upland
areas with sparse drainage lines, by major springs issuing from deeply cut
valley slopes, and by long lines of vegetation marking vertical feeder dikes
and associated vertical fractures. Eroded terrains of intermediate to silicic
122 Geology in the Field
lavas are suggested by pale tones; by scattered hills and linear ridges based
on volcanic necks, pipes, and dikes; by curving patterns of flow structures
(Section 13-4); and by closely spaced variations in vegetation and landforms.
Volcanic rocks older than Cretaceous are likely to be altered, relatively
impermeable, and closely jointed, thus appearing like any unit of layered
hard rock.
Intrusive igneous bodies are suggested by uniformity of tone, texture,
and drainage networks. Silicic and intermediate plutons are noticeably light
in tone and often associated with light-toned dikes. Curving trellis drainage
systems may parallel foliation in marginal facies, and crisscross drainage
lines and tree lines suggest prominent joints within plutons (Section 14-7).
Gabbro and ultramafic rocks show dark tones, and serpentinized peridotite
is likely to support only sparse vegetation.
Aureoles of hornfels around intrusions commonly stand higher than either
the intrusions or the metamorphic rocks outside the aureoles. Metamorphic
rocks otherwise may be recognized by widespread foliation and layering that
impart a parallel linear grain to the topography and drainage. Pronounced,
closely spaced joints approximately perpendicular to ridges and linear pat-
terns suggest folded metamorphic rocks. Terrains of high-grade schist and
gneiss are suggested by overall dark tones interrupted here and there by
pale bands of quartzite and pale-toned small plutons and dikes. In arid and
semiarid regions, marble may also stand out as pale-toned ridges. Complexly
curving landforms based on folded units are common in many metamorphic
areas.
6XUILFLDO GHSRVLWV of late Pleistocene age generally can be recognized
by landforms and other features associated with them. Some examples are
end moraines, drumlins, eskers, and pitted outwash glacial deposits;
patterned ground and thermokarst in a present or past periglacial
environment; alluvial terraces along river valleys; sets of beach ridges and
associated dune fields; coastal terraces with former stacks and subdued
sea-cliff faces at their landward margins; and extensive flat plains once
covered by shallow Pleistocene lakes. Many of these deposits and features
are described briefly in Chapter 10 and more fully in the references given
there. Their photogeology is illustrated by superb stereo pairs collected and
described by Mollard (1973?).
6WUXFWXUHV RI large size must be viewed on small-scale imagery, and
SLAR imagery is typically ideal, as described in Section 7-2. Topographic
forms, drainage patterns, and tonal patterns are used in conjunction to
recognize large plutons, homoclinal sequences of strata, large folds,
foliated metamorphic terrains, block-faulted areas, and major faults.
On intermediate to large-scale imagery, actual linear outcrops and detailed
tonal or textural bands are indicators of stratiform sequences and therefore
of folds, foliations, and faults. Direction of dip is indicated by the directions
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 123
be used to mark all photograph surfaces and are required for plastic-base
photographs. Paper-base photographs can be marked by pens or soft pencils,
which should be tested before the field season. The photograph emulsion is
softened by moisture and must then be marked gently.
If possible, mapped geology should be transferred from aerial photographs
to a topographic base map as the mapping progresses. If the area is not
covered by a map with a scale of approximately 1:24,000, an enlargement of a
1:62,500-scale map or a remotely sensed image that covers the entire area
can be used.
'HWHUPLQLQJ3KRWRJUDSK6FDOHVDQG2ULHQWDWLRQV
Several photograph scales may be needed during field projects: (1) an
approximate average scale for groups of photographs; (2) an average or typi-
cal scale for one photograph; and (3) scales for specific parts of one photo-
graph. The first of these is given on photograph indexes and descriptions of
photography, and can be calculated from the elevation of the aircraft and the
focal length of the camera lens (see the subsection Data printed on aerial
photographs, Section 7-1). In areas of low to moderate relief, the average scale
of an aerial photograph will be nearly the same as the average scale deter-
mined from a flight line including that photograph, which is determined as
follows:
1. Find two points on a map that can be identified exactly on two photo-
graphs within one flight line (Fig. 7-1).
2. Fix one of these photographs to a smooth surface, using paper drafting
tape.
3. Lay the adjoining photograph over it by carefully superimposing images
that are at about the same elevation and near the flight line; tape the photo-
graph in place.
4. Continue similarly with successive photographs until the one with the
second point is in place.
5. Measure the distances between the two points on the photographs and
on the map, and calculate the scale by the relation
*HRORJLF 0DSSLQJLQWKH)LHOG
Geologic aspects of mapping on aerial photographs are described in Chap-
ters 1,3, and 5. Photogeologic methods (Section 7-3) provide a powerful means
of planning mapping as well as of predicting the position of rocks, contacts,
and faults during the course of field work. Some contacts show far more
clearly on aerial photographs than on the ground, and photographs are thus
an ideal base for rapid (reconnaissance) mapping (Section 5-5).
Contacts and faults are drawn as thin pen or pencil lines that are true to
the local photograph imagery. For example, a contact that lies along a tonal
boundary on a photograph is drawn exactly along that boundary, even
though this line might slope so steeply that its image is oriented 5° or more
off its actual bearing (Section 7-1). Such lines are corrected later when map-
ping is transferred to a topographic base or to a planimetric map compiled
from the photographs.
Strike lines, on the other hand, are plotted map-true and must therefore
be based on a true-north arrow (see Section 7-5). Strike lines can be plotted
over a large part of a photograph by using one north line, a transparent
protractor, and, if necessary, a transparent scale to extend the line (Fig.
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 127
c
V \ /
^ \ /
jr \
y * \ \
4.Transfer each center and pass point to the adjoining two photographs
by inspection of the photo image, and spin circles over each. If the image is
not distinctive enough to do this, view the photographs stereoscopically and
place the drop-circle compass on the unmarked photograph exactly at the
pinhole that seems to be in this photograph; spin a circle the same size as the
initial circle. If the location is correct, the two circles will merge into one in
the stereo image and it will seem to lie exactly at the level of the pinhole. If it
lies above or below the pinhole, wipe the ink off quickly and try again.
5.Cut sheets of plastic drawing film that are slightly smaller than the
photographs and fasten a sheet to each photograph, matte side up, using
several small pieces of drafting tape.
6.Write the photograph number on each overlay and trace all pass points
and center points appearing on that photograph.
7. Draw lines (flight lines) on each overlay from the center point through
each transferred center point and somewhat beyond (Fig. 7-9B).
8.Add lines that radiate from the center point through each pass point,
drawing only a 3-cm segment centered on the pass point (Fig. 7-9C).
9.Remove the overlays from the photographs and lay both sets out in the
order of the flight lines.
10.Select two adjoining photographs from one flight line that have their
centers at about the same elevation and preferably in an area where the local
photograph scale has been determined (Section 7-5). Superimpose the two
overlays of these photographs by bringing their flight lines into exact coin-
cidence. If one flight line is longer than the other, the scales of the two photo-
graphs differ. Either length (or any length) can be used; however, it will set
the scale fo r the entire compilation.
11. Add the next consecutive overlay to the first two by superimposing
flight lines and moving the overlay until the pass points in the overlap area
* X ^ /
' \
*
X
*
A X * *
/ / * \
* * \
)LJ Three adjoining overlays with flight lines superimposed and radial
lines forming three-line intersections.
132 Geology in the Field
of the three photographs form 3-line intersections (Fig. 7-10). Tape the three
overlays down lightly.
12. Repeat step 11 with the next overlay and continue similarly throughout
that flight line. If small triangles result at some intersections, check the
accuracy of the radial lines by placing the overlay on its photograph. If all
intersections on one overlay are off consistently, they can sometimes be
improved by shifting the overlay laterally or by rotating it slightly, suggest-
ing that the photograph was tilted.
13. When the overlays of the first flight line are assembled as satisfactorily
as possible, select three overlays in an adjacent flight line, preferably in an
area of relatively low relief. There will be an advantage if the photograph
scales along the flight lines are about the same as those used in step 10.
Tentatively assemble the three overlays as in steps 10 and 11.
14. Place this tentative assembly over the first assembly and bring all
pass-point intersections in the sidelap area as nearly as possible into coinci-
dence. The scales of the two assemblies will typically differ somewhat, so
that the new assembly of three overlays may have to be expanded or con-
tracted parallel to its flight lines to achieve a fit.
15. Continue by adding overlays to the second flight line and adjusting
them as necessary to the pass points located in the first assembly of overlays.
Tape them together lightly so that small readjustments can be made easily.
The final result will typically include intersection triangles that cannot be
resolved and will have to be accepted.
16. When all flight lines have been assembled and joined laterally as in
steps 13,14, and 15, place a sheet of drawing film over the entire assembly of
overlays and trace all center points and pass points with colored ink.
17. Place this master sheet over one of the photographs, preferably starting
in an area of low relief and where the scales of the photograph and the
compilation are about the same.
18. Bring the traced center into coincidence with the actual photograph
center and align the overlay by means of the flight lines and the various pass
points. Using a pencil, draw all geologic lines, drainage lines, and cultural
features around the center. Then shift the overlay sheet so that the closest
traced pass point lies over the corresponding point on the photograph and
draw the features around it. Continue similarly with all neighboring pass
points.
19.To complete lines between these areas, shift the sheet so that its pass-
point marks are positioned symmetrically with respect to two or three pass
points on the photograph and draw the lines in that area (Fig. 7-11). This
procedure changes the scale of the photograph images to the scale of the
compilation, and in areas of high relief it may be necessary to view the
stereo image or to locate additional pass points.
20. When the data from all the photographs have been penciled onto the
compilation, a second sheet is placed over it and the lines and other features
are traced in ink. The map can then be completed to whatever stage is desir-
able, as by the suggestions given in Section 16-2.
&RQWUROOHGUDGLDOOLQHSORWV can be compiled more firmly and are more
accu-rate, but may or may not be worth the effort spent in surveying
control stations or assembling existing survey data (Section 8-7). The
control sta-tions are plotted on a single sheet at the scale most suitable for
the photograph compilation (generally close to the average scale of the
photographs), and the stations are also located exactly on all photographs
on which they appear. The compilation will be simpler mechanically if the
appropriate control stations are transferred to elongate plastic sheets, which
just cover each of the assembled flight lines of photographs. When the radial
line assembly is started for any one flight line (as described in step 10
above), radial lines through the control points are used to hold each
photograph in position and thus to set the scale of the assembly. This is
done by placing the plastic strip with control points traced on it over the
three-overlay assembly of step 10, and expanding or contracting the
assembly until the three-line intersections fit the corresponding control
points of the overlay. Two or so control points per photograph, located in
side-lap areas, are an ideal number; however, even a few points for the
entire map will help control the compilation.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
C olw ell, R. N ., editor, 1983, Manual o f remote sensing (in 2 volum es) , 2nd edition:
Falls Church, VA, Am erican Society of Photogram m etry, 2440 p.
Ellis, M. Y., editor, 1978, Coastal mapping handbook: U.S. Geological Survey and
National Ocean Survey, Washington, Governm ent P rin tin g O ffice, 200 p.
Lillesand, T. M., and Kiefer, R. W., 1979, Remote sensing and image interpretation:
N ew York, John Wile y & Sons, 612 p.
M iller, V. C., and M iller, C. F., 1961, Photogeology: N ew York, M cG raw -H ill Book Co.,
248 p.
M ollard, J. D., 1973?, Landforms and surface materials o f Canada, a stereoscopic a ir-
photo atlas and glossary, 3rd edition: Regina, Sask., J. D. M ollard, 56 p. and 336 p.
of stereo views.
134 Geology in the Field
Ray, R. G., 1960, A erial photographs in geologic interpretation and mapping'. U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 373, 230 p.
Sabins, F. F., Jr., 1978, Remote sensing:principles and interpretation: San Francisco,
W. H. Freeman and Co., 426 p.
Sm ith, J. T., and Anson, A., editors, 1968, Manual o f color aerial photography: Falls
Church, VA, Am erican Society of Photogram m etry, 550 p.
von Bandat, H. F., 1962, Aerogeology: Houston, G u lf Publishing Co., 350 p.
Way, D. S., 1978, Terrain analysis: a guide to site selection using aerial photographic
interpretation, 2nd edition: Stroudsburg, PA, Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross,
438 p.
5REHUW5&RPSWRQ
7ZR 0RXQWDLQ 5DQJHV DQG (QFORVHG %DVLQ 1HYDGD [LQFKHV
Ŷ0DSSLQJZLWKWKH
3ODQH7DEOHDQG$OLGDGH
7KH$OLGDGH
Mapping with the plane table and alidade is traditional for geologists
because the map is constructed directly as measurements are made in the
field. Geologic features can be related precisely to topography, and relations
among complex geologic data can be compared and checked immediately.
Projects requiring map-scales greater than 1:10,000 typically employ this
method, especially where exact vertical measurements are required.
A variety of modern alidades are obtainable, including exceptionally com-
pact ones with optical devices for making rapid readings, self-indexing level-
units, and extending rulers for plotting lines of sight (see a supplier’s catalog,
Section 2-1). These instruments and their use are described in literature
available from manufacturers. The descriptions and instructions in this
chapter apply specifically to the standard alidade manufactured by several
companies; the instructions may be applied in principle to other instru-
ments.
The standard alidade(Fig. 8-1) consists of a basal blade (1) aligned parallel
to a telescope (2) by means of a rigidly mounted pedestal (3) and a horizontal
axis and bearing (4) on which the telescope may be elevated and depressed in
the vertical plane of the instrument. This movement can be constrained by
setting the axis clamp screw (5), after which a gradual motion is effected by
turning the tangent screw (6). The telescope can be rotated on its axis through
180° when the retaining rin g(7) is loosened; during ordinary measurements,
® o c a
Lens cap
)LJ Standard alidade, with insert showing view of a stadia rod as seen through
the telescope. Numbered parts are identified in the text.
136 Geology in the Field
the telescope should be turned firmly against a stop, such that the focusing
knob is on the right side (and thus out of sight in the figure). The telescope is
brought to a horizontal sight by referring to the striding level (8), which lies
loosely on two bearing surfaces of the telescope and may be removed after
opening a spring clamp or, in some models, by loosening a screw.
Vertical angles are read from a calibrated arc (9) that is adjusted by means
of a vernier tangent screw (10) and a vernier level (11). Most arcs are also
calibrated with the Beaman arc scale, which is used for correcting stadia
readings (Section 8-4). Stadia hairs and adjustable cross hairs (12) are
mounted in front of the eyepiece (13), which is focused by turning a ring (14).
The blades fiducial edge (15) is parallel to the axis of the telescope, and the
blade has a level (16) for leveling the plane table, a compass (17) for alignments
to magnetic north, and two small knobs (18) for moving the alidade on the
plane table.
&DUHDQG$GMXVWPHQWVLQWKH)LHOG
If cleaned and adjusted before the field season, an alidade will generally
stay in good working order if:
1. It is lifted by the pedestal, never the telescope.
2. It is placed in its carrying box when not in use and not left on the plane
table unattended.
3. The lenses are cleaned when necessary with a soft (camel s hair) brush.
4. The shield of the striding level is turned up and the level is removed
before placing the alidade in its case.
5. The magnetic needle is lifted off its bearing when not in use.
6. The case is cushioned when being transported in a vehicle.
The adjustments that follow are made routinely in the field.
Parallax correction.If a sighted point shifts slightly in relation to the cross
hairs when the eye is moved, the cross hairs must be focused precisely by
the eyepiece ring after pointing the telescope to the sky. The telescope is
then depressed to the original sight and is refocused as necessary.
Striding level.To adjust the level so that it is parallel with the telescope
axis; (1) center the bubble by moving the tangent screw; (2) reverse the level
end for end; (3) if the bubble moves off center, turn the capstan screws on the
level to bring the bubble halfway back to center; (4) center it again with the
tangent screw; and (5) reverse the level, repeating the procedure until the
bubble stays on center when the level is reversed.
Magnetic needle. If the compass needle dips so much that it touches the
window of the compass box, slide the balancing weight along the needle
until it remains level.
If an alidade has been dropped, the set of the cross hairs should, be checked
by: (1) placing the alidade on a solid level surface; (2) releasing the retaining
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 137
ring and rotating the telescope firmly against its stop; (3) sighting on a distant
point and adjusting for parallax; and (4) elevating and depressing the telescope
with the tangent screw to see if the point sighted stays on the vertical cross
hair. If it does not, the cross hairs are rotated by loosening the four capstan
screws of the cross hair mount and rotating the mount by very light taps. The
line of collimation (the axial line through the telescope) is then checked by
releasing the retaining ring and rotating the telescope through 180° to deter-
mine if the cross hairs stay on the point sighted. If they do not, each pair of
capstan screws is turned until the cross hairs stay on the point sighted when
the telescope is rotated.
7KH3ODQH7DEOH0DSSLQJ6KHHWVDQG7ULSRG
The plane table is a firmly constructed drawing board with a baseplate for
attaching it to the tripod. The standard board is small enough (18 X 24 in.) to
permit steep downhill sights from most parts of its surface.
Plane table sheets can be purchased ready-made or can be made easily
from a variety of materials. Factors in selecting materials are durability,
smoothness, resistance to moisture (especially with respect to dimensional
changes), thermal coefficient of expansion, and reflectance (sun-glare from
white or metal sheets may be a problem). An inexpensive sheet may be made
from medium-gauge matte-faced clear plastic (as Mylar) mounted over a
separate sheet of light-brown paper. Expansion and contraction should not
change the map scale seriously, except possibly during triangulation over
)LJ A. Johnson head and upper part of plane table tripod. The cup shape of
the head permits tilting the plane table moderately in any direction when the set
screws are loose. B. Leveling the plane table by observing the level on the blade of
the alidade.
138 Geology in the Field
long distances (Section 8-7). The sheet may be kept clean by an overlay of
brown paper that is cut away as the mapping progresses.
Plane table tripods have a Johnson head that is attached to wooden legs by
bolts and wing nuts (Fig. 8-2A). The wing nuts should be set just firmly
enough to hold the tripod leg unsupported at an angle of about 45°. The
Johnson head is designed so that the plane table can be leveled and oriented
easily, as by the steps that follow:
1. Set the tripod up, with its legs inclined about 30° from vertical; loosen
both set screws of the Johnson head, and move the upper (main) part of the
head until it is evenly upright.
2.Tighten both set screws and screw the plane table down so that it fits
firmly against the head.
3. Place the assembly over the station occupied such that the map is
oriented approximately and the ground marker of the station lies under the
corresponding point on the map.
4.Level the board approximately by moving the tripod legs; on steep slopes,
place two of the legs downhill.
5.Press the tripod feet into the ground or brace them with chunks of rock
so that they will stay solidly in place.
6.Place the alidade without its striding level in the center of the board,
parallel to the board’s length.
7. G rip the far side of the board with one hand, hold the blade down under
that arm, and press the near edge of the board firmly against the waist
(Fig. 8-2B).
8.Loosen both set screws of the Johnson head with the free hand and level
the board by referring to the level on the blade. Tighten the upper set screw
of the Johnson head.
The board can be rotated on what is now the vertical axis of the Johnson
head, and it is oriented for mapping by the following steps:
1.Place the fiducial edge so that it bisects the map point of the station
occupied and also the map point of the station that will be sighted.
2.Rotate the board on its vertical axis until the alidade is pointing at the
station to be sighted; look through the telescope in order to bring the station
sighted exactly on the vertical cross hair.
3.Tighten the lower set screw of the Johnson head, making sure that the
cross hair remains on the station sighted.
4.Check for parallax, and make sure the board and tripod are set firmly
enough so that they will not be disoriented during mapping.
The board can also be oriented by reference to magnetic north; however,
small local variations in the magnetic field tend to make this method less
accurate (see Magnetic anomalies, Section 2-5).
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 139
6WDGLD0HDVXUHPHQWV
The stadia hairs of the eyepiece are spaced so that their intercept on a
graduated rod viewed through the alidade is l/100th of the distance from
the alidade to the rod. Thus if the intercept on the rod is 1.23 (m or ft) (Fig.
8-1), the sighted distance is 123 (m or ft). If the line of sight is not level,
however, the sighted distance must be corrected to a horizontal (map) dis-
tance. The sighted distance must also be converted to a vertical distance in
order to map contours or plot elevations. These conversions can be made by
using the Beaman arc attached to most alidades, as described in principle
below and in detail in a subsection that follows. The conversions may also
be made by measuring the vertical angle to the point sighted and using
trigonometric functions to calculate the horizontal and vertical distances, a
method that will be described after the Beaman arc procedure. Finally, stadia
(slope) distances can be converted to horizontal and vertical distances by
using a stadia slide rule, or the stadia reduction tables included in some
surveying books.
The Beaman arc has two scales scribed next to the vertical-angle arc and
read by a separate index (Fig. 8-3). The H scale is used for the horizontal
conversion and is read by visually projecting the index line across the V scale.
The H reading is multiplied by the stadia intercept to obtain the horizontal
correction. If, for example, the stadia intercept is 3.53 and the H reading is 3.2,
their product, 11.3, is subtracted from the stadia distance, 353, to give the
horizontal distance, 342.
As shown in Fig. 8-3, the V scale reads 50 for a horizontal sight. This number
is subtracted from the V reading in order to obtain the vertical correction
20 u .
Zt— Vernier for
.
factor, giving negative factors for inclined sights and positive factors for
depressed sights. The vertical correction factor is then multiplied by the stadia
intercept to give the vertical distance above or below the alidade. For example,
a V reading of 47 and a stadia intercept of 3.53 would give a vertical distance of
(47 - 50) X 3.53, or -10.6.
The vertical distance from the alidade to the point read on the rod must
then be modified to obtain the elevation on the ground where the rod is held
(Fig. 8-4). The height of the alidade above the ground (the H.l.) is first added to
the elevation of the station occupied to obtain an elevation of the instrument
(sometimes abbreviated E.I.). The cross-hair reading on the rod is then given a
- sign and added algebraically to the vertical distance computed from the
stadia distance, as just described. For example, if the vertical distance is -10.5
and the cross-hair reading is 6.5, the elevation difference is -10.5 - 6.5 or -17.
The elevation on the ground where the rod is held is thus the elevation of the
instrument less 17.
5RGV IRUVWDGLD VXUYH\LQJ A standard leveling rod (Philadelphia rod)
is suitable for large-scale mapping by sights of 100 m or less, and a stadia
rod graduated in feet and tenths, or meters and tenths, for surveys
requiring longer sights. Stadia rods are typically 10 to 15 ft (3 to 5 m) long,
the longer ones being hinged or separable at the center. The brightness and
distinctness of the graduated patterns affect the accuracy of instrument-
readings, so that rods should be handled carefully, cleaned occasionally,
and touched up with paint as necessary. When making stadia sights, the
rod should be held so that its marked face is in the sunlight if possible,
which may require turning it somewhat from the line of sight.
The person holding the rod can keep it plumb (vertical) by balancing it
between his or her fingertips or, in winds, holding a clinometer against it.
The person with the rod also describes each station in a notebook, number-
)LJ Relations of the vertical adia distance to the H.I., the cross-hair reading, and the
vertical distance between two points.
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 141
ing the entries consecutively so that they can be matched with the consecu-
tive numbers recorded in the instrument notebook and on the map.
7KH%HDPDQDUFSURFHGXUH described here is designed for mapping at
scales larger than 1:10,000 and for stadia distances less than 250 m (800 ft).
Persons who have gained even moderate experience in plane table
surveying can easily modify the steps to suit special needs. If a calculator
is not available, the lower part of each notebook page (Fig. 8-5) should be
reserved for computations. The brief remarks help key the stations to
the corresponding numbers and descriptions in the notebook kept at the
rod. In the procedure described here, the person with the rod records the
main geologic observations.
After the plane table has been set up and oriented (Section 8-3), the height
of the instrument is measured with the stadia rod and added to the elevation
of the station to give the elevation of the instrument. This can be recorded as
in Fig. 8-5. Mapping then commences as follows:
1. Point the alidade at the rod by sighting along the top of the telescope,
making sure that the point marking the station occupied is next to the fidu-
cial edge. Using reasonable care, the rod should be visible through the tele-
scope, so that the alidade need be moved only slightly to bring the vertical
cross hair onto the rod. As this is done, the fiducial edge must be positioned a
pencil-line away from the point occupied.
2. Draw a ray with a sharp 8H or 9H pencil, stopping it short of the point
occupied in order not to obscure the needle hole.
3. Tighten the axis clamp screw, then move the telescope with the tangent
screw until either stadia hair is exactly on a whole foot or meter division.
Check for parallax (Section 8-2) and correct the focus as necessary,
because this w ill be the most important reading taken. Count the full
units and tenths, and estimate the hundredths, to the other stadia hair—a
procedure that prevents errors that might result from subtracting. Check
the focus and the count, and record the intercept at once. If too little of
the rod is visible to read a full intercept, count the intercept between a
stadia hair and the horizontal cross hair and double this number before
recording it.
4. Level the telescope by referring to the striding level and use a 2X or 3X
magnifyingglass to bring the Beaman arc index to 50 on the V scale. Do this by
turning the vernier tangent screw (10 in Fig. 8-1). This adjustment cor-rects
for any tilt of the board caused by moving the alidade from one position to
another.
5. Look through the telescope to see if the horizontal cross hair is on the
rod or is close enough to it so that a cross-hair reading can be estimated to the
nearest 0.2 m (0.5 ft). If so, H is 0, V is 50, and all that is needed to
complete the sight is to record the cross-hair reading (see step 7).
6. If the sight is inclined (and thus step 5 cannot be completed), unclamp
and tilt the telescope until the cross hair is near the center of the rod. Then
142 Geology in the Field
)LJ (and see opposite page) Two facing pages of notebook used for stadia
surveying with a Beaman arc. Products are rounded for typical precision when
mapping at a scale of approximately 1:2400.
clamp the telescope and turn the tangent screw (no. 6 in Fig. 8-1) until the V
scale graduation closest to the Beaman arc index is exactly at the index. Use
a magnifyingglass to check this setting. The whole number is used because
it can be read precisely from the V scale and simplifies computations. Read
the V and H scales and record the numbers.
7. Observe where the horizontal cross hair crosses the rod. This number,
the cross-hair reading, generally need be no more exact than the nearest 0.2
m (0.5 ft). It is recorded with a minus sign.
8. Signal the person with the rod to move to the next point.
9. Find the product of the stadia intercept and the H reading and record it
(Fig. 8-5). Subtract this number from the stadia distance (stadia intercept x
100) to obtain the horizontal distance. Record the distance and scale it along
the pencil ray. Mark the point with a small needle hole and number it.
10. Subtract 50 from the V reading and record the resulting Vfactor, then
multiply it by the stadia intercept and record the product. If a calculator is
not available, do the multiplication on the lower part of the notebook page so
that it can be checked.
11. Add this number algebraically to the cross-hair reading and record the
result (the Net diff. in elev. in Fig. 8-5).
12. Add the latter number algebraically to the elevation of the instrument
to obtain the elevation of the point sighted. Record this elevation in the note-
book and next to the point on the map.
In surveys where the person with the rod is moving rapidly through a
series of closely spaced points, the procedure will be more efficient if a third
person records stadia data at the instrument and computes results as the
work proceeds. If only one person is at the instrument, he or she should look
up occasionally while computing, because the person with the rod may be
difficult to spot when standing still at a new point. A pair of field glasses
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 143
two vernier marks closest to two vertical-angle marks can be used to esti-
mate the nearest 30", or perhaps 20", of arc. The latter degree of precision is
usually unnecessary in stadia mapping but may be required in control sur-
veys (Section 8-7).
Most of the steps in the vertical-angle stadia procedure are the same, or
similar, to those in the Beaman-arc procedure. The instrument notebook
may be like that in Fig. 8-5, except that the columns for recording and
calculating Beaman-arc data must be replaced by columns for recording (1)
the vertical angle, (2) the horizontal distance, and (3) the vertical distance.
The first three steps in the stadia procedure are exactly the same as
those given above for the Beaman-arc procedure. Step 4 is the same except
that the vernier 0 mark is brought to the 30 mark on the vertical-angle
scale. Step 5 is the same except that the vertical angle is recorded as 0, and
in step 6 the vertical angle is read (as just described) and recorded. Steps 7
and 8 are identical in the two procedures, but the steps involving stadia
calculations (9 and 10) are replaced by these three steps:
)LJ Notebook and set of data for obtaining horizontal distance from
gradienter readings.
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 145
applied only in very large-scale mapping, as 1:1000 or more. It must be used,
however, in determining the stadia interval factor.
The stadia hairs in many alidades are not set to give a stadia ratio of
exactly 1:100. The difference is typically so small that it can be ignored, but
it may be large enough in some alidades to affect large-scale mapping that
must be unusually precise. The actual stadia interval can be determined by
observing a graduated scale held exactly at right angles to the line of sight
and at a distance of 100 ft (or 100 m), as measured exactly with a tape. The
proximal end of the tape must be held at the point prescribed by the stadia
constant just described. If the stadia interval proves to be significantly dif-
ferent from a ratio of 1:100, it is used in all computations of stadia distances.
0HWKRGVIRU/RQJ6LJKWV
In cases where sights are so long or brush and trees so thick that even a
half-stadia interval cannot be read directly, the methods that follow will
generally give adequate results.
*UDGLHQWHURU6WHELQJHUPHWKRG The tangent screw on most alidades
is calibrated so that one complete turn moves the telescope through one
stadia interval. A gradienter or Stebinger drum attached to the tangent
screw is graduated into 100 divisions; one division is thus equal to l/100th
of a stadia interval. The calibrated drum is used to make measurements as
follows:
1. Turn the tangent screw in a clockwise direction (the telescope may not
move smoothly in the opposite direction) until the horizontal cross hair is on
the lowest visible division on the rod.
2. Record this number and also the gradienter reading (opposite the index
by the gradienter drum) (Fig. 8-6).
3. Elevate the telescope by the tangent screw until the horizontal cross
hair is on the highest division on the rod; record that number and the gra-
dienter reading.
4. Calculate and record the difference between the two cross-hair readings
and the difference between the two gradienter readings (Fig. 8-6). Divide the
former by the latter and multiply the quotient by 100; the product is the
stadia (slope) distance.
5. For sights shorter than 300 m, read the Beaman H scale and use that
number to correct the stadia distance to a horizontal distance (Fig. 8-6).
Read the V scale and corresponding cross-hair reading; obtain the V
factor as described in Section 8-4 and multiply it by l/100th of the stadia
distance. This result is the vertical distance between the alidade and the
point of the cross hair on the rod. Finally, add the cross-hair reading
algebraically to obtain the net difference in elevation to the point on the
ground where the rod was held.
6. For sights longer than 300 m, Beaman arc methods (see the preceding
146 Geology in the Field
step) will not be precise enough. If the sight is at a low angle, use the method
described in the following subsection. If the angle is too steep for that method,
read a vertical angle and calculate the horizontal and vertical distances trigo-
nometrically as described in Section 8-4.
9HUWLFDOGLVWDQFHVE\VWDGLDVWHSSLQJ is an especially useful method
for long sights, because they tend to be more nearly horizontal than short
sights. In addition, the vertical-angle arcs of alidades can be read only to
the nearest 1 or minute, introducing a low precision in long sights.
The stepping method proceeds as follows:
1. Level the telescope by reference to the striding level.
2. Look in the telescope and select a distinct object that is just at the level
of the upper stadia hair, if the rod is above the elevation of the alidade, or the
lower stadia hair if it is below the alidade (Fig. 8-7$).
3. Elevate or depress the telescope with the tangent screw until the other
stadia hair lies on the object selected (Fig. 8-7B).
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 after selecting another object in the view, and
continue similarly until either the upper stadia hair (if the rod is above the
alidade) or the lower one (if it is below the alidade) is on the rod (Fig. 8-7C).
5. Record the rod reading for the stadia hair just noted, giving it a - sign;
also record the number of steps used in moving the stadia hair onto the rod.
6. Bring the horizontal cross hair to the nearest even division on the rod
and read the half-stadia intercept.
7. Multiply the stadia intercept (twice the half stadia intercept) by the
number of steps, and to this product algebraically add the rod reading
recorded in step 5. The result is the difference in elevation between the
alidade and the point on the ground where the rod was held. This difference
in elevation is then added to the elevation of the instrument to obtain the
elevation at the point sighted.
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Compared to geologic mapping on a topographic base or on aerial photo-
graphs, plane table mapping requires expensive equipment, extra personnel,
and routines that are time-consuming and can be tedious. The purpose of
the project should therefore be considered thoroughly. Is an accurate, large-
scale, geologic and topographic map actually needed?
If so, a field reconnaissance is essential (Section 1-4). Particulars to
determine include: (1) the degree to which exposures permit detailed map-
ping of rocks and structures; (2) the effect of trees, brush, and steep slopes
on visibility from typical instrument stations; (3) the degree of vehicle access
within the area; (4) local wind and weather conditions during the field sea-
son; and (5) the locations of preexisting survey data that can be used for
control points.
The map scale may be selected during the reconnaissance, and it is
determined by the smallest features that must be mapped accurately and
shown routinely to scale. It is generally difficult to work with map points
spaced more closely than 4 mm (0.16 in.), and geologic features smaller than
that are tedious to represent to scale. Thus if the smallest features to be
7DEOH Equipm ent for Plane Table M apping, Including a Control Survey
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
A erial photographs Pencils, 2H to 9H
Alidade, w ith pins and screw driver Pencil pointer (file or sandpaper)
for adjustments Pens, fine, medium, for inking map
A ltim eter Pen, ruling
Beam compass Plane table, in case
Brush, sable, for dusting lenses Plane table sheets
Calculator, pocket Pliers w ith w ire cutters
Colored cloth for station signals Plum b bobs for taping
Colored tape for m arking stadia points Reading glass, about 3X
Color pencils Rod, Philadelphia
Crayons (keel) for m arking points Rod, stadia
Dark glasses Scale, precise, for plotting points
Ephemeris, solar Stereoscope
Erasers Straightedge, steel, 24 in. or more
Field glasses Su rveying text
Hatchet Tables, m athematical
Ink, black, green, blue, red, brown Tape, 6 -ft roll-up
Lum ber for signals and stakes Tape, precise, 100-300 ft
M anufacturer s instruction books Taping pins
Nails Taping scale for judging pull
Needles for pricking points T racin g m aterial
Notebooks Triangulation and level survey data
Paper, brown, for covering map sheet Tripod, Johnson, w ith cap
Paper pads for computations W ire for gu yin g station signals
148 Geology in the Field
mapped accurately are 10 m across on the ground, the map scale should be
about 1:2500 (1 cm = 25 m or 1 in. = 200 ft).
The main factor in selecting the contour interval is the vertical control
required by the geologic purpose of the project. Additional factors are steep-
ness of slopes, scale of the map, and spacing of stadia points permitted in the
time available for the survey. For typical areas that will be mapped at scales
of 1:1000 to 1:4000, intervals of 5 or 10 m (20,25, or 40 ft) are typical; however,
contour intervals of 2 or 3 m (5 or 10 ft) may be needed where low topographic
forms must be defined or in cases where the map will be used to determine
vertical dimensions in many places, as in construction or quarrying opera-
tions.
A checklist of equipment for plane table mapping is given in Table 8-1.
Sections 8-1, 8-3, and 8-4 include suggestions for selecting and preparing
equipment. Enlarged aerial photographs might be considered as plane table
sheets if the area has low relief (Section 8-9).
railroad surveys, and plats of property lines and corners. Most surveyors
blueprint maps are not accurate enough for direct scaling of distances or
azimuths, but the survey coordinates can be used to compute distances and
bearings between any two survey points, as described in surveying texts.
*HQHUDO VFKHPH RI WULDQJXODWLRQ A triangulation survey locates
preselected stations by lines of sight that are treated as sides of joined
triangles (Fig.8-8). If the angles at each apex are measured with a transit
or theodolite, the accuracy of the work can be checked as the survey
progresses, because the internal angles of each triangle must sum to 180°.
Triangulation with a plane table and alidade consists of drawing a ray from
any station occupied to each nearby station and thus locating stations
by line intersections. Accuracy in this procedure is checked by reverse
sights and by sights to and from additional stations, for example the sights
BD and DB in the two triangles A B C and ACD (Fig. 8-8).
If the locations of two or more of the stations have been obtained from a
government agency, the length and azimuth of at least one of the triangle
legs will be known; if not, one side w ill have to be taped in the field as des-
cribed in Selecting and measuring a base line. If a transit or theodolite are
used for triangulation, lengths of triangle sides are computed trigonometri-
cally from the known side (base line) and the measured angles. In plane table
triangulation, the base line is plotted to scale at the outset and all other
triangle sides are measured from the plane table map when intersection is
completed. Vertical distances between stations are generally determined in
both kinds of surveys by measuring the vertical angles among stations and
computing trigonometrically from the horizontal distances.
6HOHFWLQJ DQG PDUNLQJ VWDWLRQV. Control stations can be planned
tentatively by examining aerial photographs and are selected during the
field reconnaissance and during the early part of the field season. The
stations must be visible at instrument height (about 1.3 m) from
surrounding stations and must give a clear view of the surrounding
terrain for stadia surveying. Although government triangulation stations
are commonly on high peaks, control stations for mapping may be more
usefully located on low ground or on low hills or spurs. Convenience to
roads is a consideration because a full
set of plane table equipment is heavy to carry. The spacing of stations should
be such that at least two will fall on each plane table sheet used for stadia
mapping. Internal angles of the triangulation network should be between
about 40° and 90° if the stations will be intersected with a plane table and
alidade.
As locations are selected, they are marked with a signal that can be seen
from all nearby stations. A flag of brightly colored cloth 0.5 m long can be
seen with field glasses of an alidade for several kilometers. The pole can be
mounted over a permanent stake by driving a finishing nail partway into
the stake and drilling a hole in the base of the pole, to fit over the nail. The
pole may be guyed by three pieces of baling wire attached to heavy stones or
vegetation. The signal can thus be taken down and reset easily during tri-
angulation. Computations of vertical distances will be simplified by making
all flagpoles the same height.
6HOHFWLQJDQGPHDVXULQJD EDVHOLQH An ideal base line is located on
reason-ably level and open ground. The two ends must be visible from all
points along the line, and all nearby triangulation stations must be visible
from both ends. If the control system will be intersected with a plane table
and alidade, the base line should be at least half as long as the other triangle
sides in the system. The precision of measuring the base line need be no
greater than the precision with which it can be plotted on a plane table
sheet. The latter is determined by the thickness of graduation lines on
scales of good quality, which permit reading lengths of lines to
approximately the nearest0.05 mm (0.002 in.). A plotted base line 12.5 cm
(5 in.) long can thus be scaled with a precision of 1 part in about 2500.
This same degree of precision would require that a base line 500 m long
must be measured to the nearest 0.2 m, which should not be difficult by
using a steel tape of good quality. Additional equipment needed are two
plumb bobs, a set of chaining pins (or long nails flagged with brightly colored
tape), and a hand level or Brunton compass. The precision just noted will
not require that a temperature correction be applied, but the manufacturer s
description of the tape should be checked to determine whether it was stan-
dardized fully supported or for being held unsupported at a 10-lb pull. If it is
standardized fully supported, sag is likely to introduce a systematic error of
approximately 1 part in 1000, and the actual sag factor can be measured by
laying the tape on a floor, marking its length, and then comparing its length
when held at both ends under a 10-lb pull.
The taping is done by three persons and will be easiest going downslope,
as by the steps that follow:
1. Examine the markings at the two ends of the tape (some tapes are
graduated beyond their end measures).
2. One person carries the 0 end of the tape ahead for the first full measure
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 151
or to the point that the tape is level when held at chest height. The second
person (the recorder) sights along the tape with a hand level, thus helping
the person holding the 0 end to keep the tape level within 0.2 m or so. The
third person sits over the end of the base line and sights along it to guide the
others into line with the marker at the far end (Fig. 8-9).
3. The person holding the 0 end places the string of the plumb bob against
the 0 graduation and lets the plumb bob hang just above the ground (Fig.
8-9). The tape is pulled with a force of 10 lb.
4. The person at the other end of the tape holds an even division over the
station marker and calls out the measure to the recorder who sticks a pin
into the ground at right angles to the taped line and under the end of the
plumb bob.
5. The recorder records the measure and the procedure is checked by
repetition.
6. As the tape is moved ahead for the second measure, the person holding
the measure-end of the tape uses the pin as the marker and collects it when
the second measure is completed. The total number of pins thus collected
serves to check the number of measures that should have been recorded at
any stage of the taping.
7. Measures are taken and recorded similarly until the other end of the
base line is reached. The entire measurement should then be repeated as a
check of major mistakes and as a means of ascertaining the precision of the
total measurement.
If the control system will be surveyed with a transit or theodolite, a shorter
base line can be used if it is taped with greater precision, as by taping over
stakes set on slope, described in surveying texts.
Intersecting stations. Although triangulation with an alidade is less precise
than with a transit or theodolite, it takes less time and is precise enough for
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most plane table projects (see Horizontal precision, below). The plane table
sheet should be smooth, matte-surfaced, and waterproof (Section 8-3). Sta-
tions for which geodetic data have been obtained may be plotted in the office
before the field season. The stations are plotted by their latitudes and longi-
tudes after a polyconic grid is constructed on the control-survey sheet. The
methods are described in surveying texts, and the linear distances subtended
by arcs of latitude and longitude are given in feet in Birdseye (1929) and in
meters by the Coast and Geodetic Survey (1935). A steel straightedge, a
beam compass, and an accurate scale are needed for the construction.
If a base line is being used as a starting reference for the survey, it is
plotted on the control-survey sheet by using a steel straightedge, an accurate
scale, and a fine needle to prick the station points at each end. The plotted
base line should be remeasured occasionally over a period of several days to
see how expansion and contraction of the sheet will affect the scale. The
survey can then be planned for times of day when changes in scale are accept-
ably small (generally less than 1 part in 1000).
The survey is started at one end of the base line. The alidade is placed on
the sheet so that the fiducial edge bisects the two needle holes marking the
base line stations, and the plane table is oriented by sighting on the other
end of the base line (Section 8-3). The alidade is then moved so as to sight a
control station signal, and a thin pencil ray is drawn from close to the point
occupied to the full length of the fiducial edge (so that the plane table can be
oriented accurately by a backsight). The vertical distance is determined by
the stepping method, if possible (Section 8-5), or from a vertical angle (see
Measuring vertical angles, below). The pencil ray is lettered lightly with the
letter of the station sighted, and the alidade is turned to sight on the next
station signal. The far end of the base line should be sighted after every two
or three stations to be sure that the plane table has remained correctly
oriented.
When all visible stations have been surveyed, the plane table is moved to
the other end of the base line and the procedures are repeated, resulting in a
pencil-line intersection for each station. The intersected stations are then
occupied in turn, and the plane table is oriented by backsights to either base
line station. The vertical distance is determined again by stepping or mea-
surement of a vertical angle, and rays are drawn to all other visible stations.
The order of occupying the triangulation stations should be based on the
probable accuracy of the initial intersection, which w ill decrease with
horizontal distance, vertical distance, and difference between the intersected
angle and 90°.
Horizontal precisionof such surveying varies with the factors just men-
tioned and also with plotting precision. As each person may determine for
him or herself, a thin line can be measured to about the nearest 0.05 mm
(0.002 in.), but it is difficult to prick a needle hole with that degree of precision
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 153
(the size of the hole is not so much a problem as its placement). Plotting
precision is thus approximately 0.08 mm (0.003 in), equivalent to 0.5 m on
the ground at a map-scale of 1:6000 (1 cm = 60 m or 1 in. = 500 ft.). The pencil
ray itself, however, cannot generally be drawn along the fiducial edge with
more than half that precision. The lines can usually be improved by: (1)
using a hard, sharp pencil; (2) holding it at right angles to the fiducial edge,
with the upper end tilted slightly in the direction in which the line will be
drawn; and (3) drawing the line in one steady stroke. In spite of care, however,
errors perpendicular to plotted lines are likely to be 0.1 mm in many cases.
An average plotting error for locations made by plane table intersection is
thus likely to be between 0.05 and 0.1 mm on the map. For a triangle side 10
cm (4 in.) long this gives a precision of approximately 1 part in 1500. Although
this precision is considerably less than can be obtained by surveying the
control stations with a transit or theodolite, it is acceptable for controlling
subsequent stadia locations, which can be located, at best, about half that
precisely.
Measuring vertical angleswith the alidade requires particular care because
the vertical-angle arc cannot be read as precisely as the arc on a transit, and
sideways tilt of the plane table cannot be detected during the measurement.
Use of the vertical-angle arc and its vernier are described in Section 8-4 (in
the first part of A vertical-angle procedure). Vertical angles are measured as
follows:
1. Level the plane table as exactly as possible and make sure the tripod is
set firmly.
2. Record the vertical distance from the station marker to the horizontal
axis of the alidade (the H.I.) and enter the height of the station signal being
sighted (H.F. in Fig. 8-10).
)LJ Notebook record and calculation of a vertical angle based on two
sets of readings.
154 Geology In the Field
3. For maximum stability, place the alidade in the center of the plane table.
4. Align the telescope on the station and bring the horizontal cross hair
onto the top of the signal. Make the final adjustment by turning the tangent
screw (No. 6 in Fig. 8-1) clockwise. Check to be sure that the cross hair rather
than a stadia hair has been used in the sighting. Do not touch the plane table
or walk around it until the measurement has been completed.
5. Read the vertical-angle vernier with the help of a magnifying glass;
estimate the reading to the nearest half or quarter minute if possible, and
record it.
6. Level the telescope, again by making the final movement with a clock-
wise turn of the tangent screw.
7. Read the vertical-angle vernier and record the reading; then reverse the
striding level, center the bubble again by turning the tangent screw, and
take a second reading. Averaging the two readings (Fig. 8-10) compensates
for an unadjusted striding level.
8. To catch mistakes, repeat steps 4 through 7 after shifting the vernier a
few degrees by turning the vernier tangent screw (No. 10 in Fig. 8-1).
9. Subtract each set of readings, and repeat the entire procedure if the
results do not agree within acceptable limits.
The difference in elevation is computed from the trigonometric relation:
and the + or - sign of the angle is carried throughout the computation. The
H.I. is always given a + sign, the height of the signal (H.F.) a - sign, and the
net difference in elevation is found by adding algebraically (Fig. 8-4). Sights
over horizontal distances greater than 1 km can be corrected for curvature
of the earth and for refraction of light by the atmosphere by multiplying the
square of the distance in kilometers by 0.175, the result being in meters.
The elevation of each station should be determined by sights to or from all
nearby stations. The final elevation is then taken as an average of these
determinations and may be weighted according to the estimated reliability
of each.
Elevation controlcan generally be brought to the control network by refer-
ence to a bench mark or other established station within the area. If eleva-
tions cannot be obtained locally, they can usually be surveyed from a
neighboring area by a plane table traverse (see Control traverses, below). An
approximate elevation can be introduced with an altimeter, allowing for the
variations described in Section 6-3.
A north arrowcan be based on any azimuth supplied for triangulation sur-
veys or other prior surveys of the area. It can also be obtained directly by a
sight on Polaris, as described in surveying textbooks; however, the star is
too high in the sky at some seasons and in some areas to be observed with an
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 155
/RFDWLQJ6WDWLRQVIRU6WDGLD0DSSLQJ
If the area is to be mapped on several plane table sheets and the control
stations were surveyed on one sheet, control stations must first be plotted on
each sheet. The plotting is based on distances and bearings from the control
survey, and is done by: (1) drawing a triangle side on a new plane table
sheet (as A B in Fig. 8-11 A) (2) setting a compass for an adjoining triangle
side, as AC; (3) striking an arc in the general location of C; and (4) doing
the same with BC, so that C is plotted by intersection.
Additional stations will be needed for stadia mapping, and they should be
spaced no farther apart than twice the longest stadia sight acceptable for the
project. A typical spacing for mapping at scales of 1:2000 to 1:6000 is 600 to
700 m. Other factors in selecting stadia stations are visibility of the terrain
and control signals, steepness of slopes, and weather (especially wind, which
may decrease the precision of long stadia sights greatly).
In relatively open areas, the stations should be selected and surveyed onto
156 Geology in the Field
the plane table sheets before stadia mapping is started, using either inter-
section or traverse methods (Section 8-7). Where visibility is limited or
accessibility difficult, the stations can usually be surveyed more efficiently
during stadia mapping. For example, when visibility is such that control
stations are being surveyed by traverses, stadia mapping around each tra-
verse station might be completed as the survey proceeds. The two subsec-
tions that follow describe additional methods for locating stations during the
course of stadia mapping.
Resection is a method of selecting and surveying a new station after stadia
work at an occupied station has been completed. Generally, the person with
the rod selects the new station and holds the rod on it, while the person at
the alidade draws a ray toward it and determines the vertical distance by
stepping or by measuring a vertical angle. The plane table is then set up at
the new site and oriented by a backsight on the station just occupied. The
alidade is placed with the fiducial edge next to the point of any other station
that will provide a strong intersection with the ray just drawn. That station
is sighted, and a line is drawn back along the fiducial edge to intersect the
station occupied. When other stations have been sighted as a check, stadia
mapping can commence from the new station.
Three-point methods must be used when the plane table has been moved to
a new site to which no rays have been drawn but from which at least three
control stations can be seen. The quickest method requires a piece of tracing
paper (or tracing film) and some drafting tape, and proceeds as follows:
1. Prick a needle hole near the center of the tracing paper and tape it
anywhere on the plane table sheet.
2. Lay the fiducial against the hole and sight each of three (preferably four)
signals, drawing pencil rays from near the hole toward each station.
3. Untape the tracing paper and shift it until each pencil ray passes over
the corresponding point on the plane table sheet (Fig. 8-11B).
4. Insert a needle through the hole in the tracing paper to prick a point in
the sheet.
5. Remove the tracing paper and place the alidade edge so that the fiducial
bisects the new hole and that of the farthest station sighted.
6. Loosen the lower screw of the Johnson head and orient the plane table on
the corresponding signal; tighten the head and check the orientation by
sights to other signals.
The only points that cannot be located by three rays are those lying on or
near the circle that passes through the three points to be sighted (the great
circle of Fig. 8-12). These cases become apparent during step 3, and either a
fourth point must be used or the plane table must be moved to a new location.
Lacking tracing paper, the plane table is first oriented by the magnetic
needle or by estimation. Three signals are then sighted and a ray from each
is drawn back along the fiducial edge. The resulting intersection will typi-
cally form a small triangle, and the following rules from Birdseye (1928, p.
203) will help in estimating the true position of the point relative to the
small triangle (Fig. 8-12).
1. If the small triangle is within the great triangle, the true position of the
point is within the small triangle.
2. If the small triangle falls between the great triangle and the great circle,
the true position of the point is outside the small triangle and opposite the
side formed by the ray from the middle station sighted.
3. If the small triangle lies outside the great circle, the point lies outside
)LJ Three stations sighted (A, B and C) used for orienting the plane table
by estimation, and the small triangles that might result upon drawing rays to
intersect the station occupied. The actual positions of the point occupied are
shown by the small circles. The use of the great circle and great triangle are
explained in the text. After Birdseye (1928, p. 203).
158 Geology in the Field
the small triangle and on the same side of the ray from the most distant
station sighted as does the intersection of the other two rays.
In addition, the distances between the true position of the point and the
three rays drawn are proportional to the distances from the point occupied
to the three stations sighted. After a new position is estimated and marked,
the plane table is reoriented by sighting on the farthest station, and rays are
drawn back from each station point as before. If this does not resolve the
location, the procedure is repeated until it does, typically once or twice more.
6WDGLD0DSSLQJ
Stadia mapping of geology and topography may be started at any conve-
nient station and should be completed there before being extended to an
adjoining station. Mapping complex areas will generally be more efficient if
the survey party walks out the geologic features first in order to plan the
mapping. Contacts, faults, and key outcrops may be flagged with strips of
colored tape where relations are crucial or complex. Sketch maps of such
areas, made by pace and compass methods, may also be helpful.
As the stadia mapping starts, the person with the rod should describe the
first series of points to be visited so that the person at the plane table can
concentrate on computing and plotting points and still know approximately
where the person with the rod will be. The person with the rod examines
the geology and makes notes that will be used in drawing the map. The notes
may include large-scale sketch-maps of features that have been paced or
measured with the rod, with the stadia points providing a framework for
these details (Fig. 8-13). Most stadia points are marked by writing the point
number on a smooth stone, outcrop, or piece of colored tape. They can thus
be found again when the map is being checked or refined.
After about 10 to 20 points are mapped, the person with the rod should
return to the plane table to help plot geology and topography. Corresponding
notes in the two notebooks are compared, and the terrain is studied visually.
Drainage lines, roads, and buildings are drawn first; then geologic features;
and finally contours. Drawing is done lightly in pencil in order to permit
adjustments. The first step in drawing contours is to interpolate short con-
tour segments between pairs of stadia points on more-or-less even slopes.
The segments are then connected by using other points or by visual estima-
tion (Fig. 8-14). Where geologic features are spaced so widely that stadia
points are taken solely for contours, the person with the rod can use a hand
level to follow a given contour. After this has been done for every fourth
contour or so, the other contours can be interpolated.
In an efficient survey, neither the person at the plane table nor the one
with the rod has to wait long while the other person completes his or her
part of the work. Small-scale mapping of large geologic features may thus
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 159
)LJ Notes taken per stadia point by the person at the rod.
require two or three persons with rods, and detailed large-scale mapping of
complex relations may require two persons at one rod.
0DSSLQJEDVHGRQDHULDOSKRWRJUDSKV is well-suited to areas of low relief
and may save a good deal of time. An enlarged photograph can be used as a
)LJ Drawing contours by (1) interpolating evenly spaced contours between
two points on an even slope (A); (2) using points (as 14 and 18) to extend the
contours; (3) interpolating again along a stream of even gradient (B) and along a
ridge (C), with local variations keyed to points such as 20 and 21 by visual
estimation.
160 Geology in the Field
plane table sheet after control stations have been transferred to it by inter-
section or by inspection of the photograph image. Stadia mapping from such
points is the same as that on a plane table sheet. Many lines and points may
be located by inspection of the photograph image, so that the principal sur-
veying procedure is determining elevations. Contours may be drawn more
easily on the photograph by using a stereo image than by visualization in the
field, and thus fewer elevations are needed for contouring.
Data can also be transferred from photographs to a plane table sheet by
the method described in Fig. 8-15.
0RYLQJ WKH SODQH WDEOH LQVWHDG RI WKH URG is a stadia method by
which one person can map alone. Mapping is based on a rod made from
square lumber (as 2 X 2 in.) painted with graduations on all sides and fixed
with guy wires at any station that has been located on the plane table
sheet. Such a rod station is equivalent to one of the instrument stations
of Section 8-8. The geologist carries the plane table to an outcrop or other
point of value, orients the table by using the magnetic needle of the
alidade, sights on the rod, and makes the usual stadia readings and
computations. A ray is drawn back from the point representing the rod
station, and the place occupied is plotted with a scale. After geology and
topography around the plane table are mapped by direct observation,
the plane table is moved to the next point of interest.
2IILFH ZRUN RQ WKH PDS Stadia stations may be inked with very
small numbers from time to time, and structure symbols and any resolved
contacts or faults should also be inked. All lettering should read from the
south edge of the map. Elevation numbers, contours, and any geologic
features that remain questionable should be left in pencil until the final
field check of the map. They can be protected in the meantime by an
overlay of brown paper. Additional routine office work is described in
Section 1-6.
Aerial
photograph
Transparent
overlay
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Birdseye, C. H., 1928, Topographic instructions o f the United States Geological Sur-
vey: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 788, 432 p.
Birdseye, C. H., 1929, Formulas and tablesfo r the construction of polyconic projections:
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 809,126 p.
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1935, Tables fo r a poly conic projection o f maps and
lengths o f terrestrial arcs o f meridian and parallels based upon Clark's reference
spheroid o f 1896, 6th edition: Special Publication 8,101 p.
5REHUW5&RPSWRQ
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internal structures; and (6) the nature of their contacts with adjacent beds.
The most common internal structure, lamination, consists of layering
within beds. In cross-bedding (cross-stratification), the laminations are
oblique to the bed containing them, a common relation in current-deposited
sediments. Cross-bedding is described according to the overall geometry of
the cross-bedded units, the shape of the inclined surfaces, and the angles
they make with the top and bottom of the bed (Fig. 9-2).
Grading in beds may be by grain size or by composition, and often is
noticeable due to a color gradation. Some size-graded beds have a matrix of
fine sediment throughout and some consist of relatively well-sorted coarse
and fine materials. Size grading is normally from coarser up to finer sizes,
but may be inverse, complex, or inconsistent.
Similar beds may be grouped in bedsets (Campbell, 1967), and
specific kinds of beds or bedsets may be repeated cyclically, as
ABCABC** , or rhythmically, as ABCBABCB . Cycles of beds that become
broadly coarser grained upward or finer grained upward are of particular
value in interpretLng cyclic changes in the energy of transporting
currents. Beds in coarsening-upward and fining-upward cycles tend also
to thicken upward and thin upward, respectively; however, cycles based
solely on changes in thickness may be due to other causes, such as
variation in sediment supply.
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hyaloclastite that are overrun in due course by subaerial lava (Fig. 13-4,
lower right).
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A number of features can be used to determine: (1) the original extent of
eroded viscous lava flows, (2) the positions of the vents from which they
emerged, (3) the approximate stratigraphic position of a given outcrop
within a flow, and (4) something of the eruption itself. Viscous lavas range
in composition from andesite and trachyte to rhyolite; however, the viscos-
ity of any of them may vary greatly due to factors other than rock composi-
tion, so that each case must be treated without assumptions. For example,
although most siliceous flows are thick and stubby, Bailey and others (1976)
mapped a flow 16 m thick that extended for 6 km.
Next to mapping the distribution of the flow itself, the most valuable
features are its flow structures, which may consist of any or all of these
components: layering (banding); platy joints with surface lineation (but
not all platy jointing is parallel to flow layers); flattened and elongated vesi-
cles; folds; faults oriented at low angles to layering; oriented crystals and
inclusions; and extension cracks. The layers (bands) may be as thin as a
fraction of a millimeter and as thick as several meters. They are generally
discernible by color or tonal differences caused by differences in crystallinity or
vesicularity, by sheets of spherulites or lithophysae, or by alteration
along platy partings. Where the rock parts easily along the flow layers,
lineation and extension cracks may suggest the direction of flow (Fig. 13-7
A . Folds commonly form with hinges at right angles to the direction of
flow; however, their hinges may be parallel to the direction of transport
where a flow was constricted laterally (as in folding by extension, Section
12-3). Folds may also become rotated or superimposed where flow orienta-
tion varied with time. Folds with consistent vergence may be associated
with local thrust faults (Fig. 13-7B .
The bases and tops of flows are typically vesicular to pumiceous and
commonly brecciated. Intermediate lava flows, as those of andesite, may
consist largely of angular blocks, many larger than 1 m in diameter. Solid
spines and craggy ridges on the surface of silicic flows typically stand many
meters above crevasses or alongside piles of angular fragments (Fig. 13-7C).
Basal pumice breccias tend to mix with pyroclastic pumice erupted just
before the flow, so that the basal contact may be gradational, and the under-
lying pumice may be compacted and fused into dense obsidian. Vesicular
fragments from the top or base are often caught up in the main flow, where
they are compacted, fused, and drawn out parallel to other flow structures.
Where oxidized pumice is incorporated, the fused rock may be streaked
with red, yellow, or brown. Williams (1942) described low caves formed
Volcanic Structures and Field Relations 281
where the base of a flow was arrested by obstacles and was arched upward
(Fig. 13-7C).
Some flows have inclined layers that reveal a sense of flow direction and
provide a means of charting the sequential spread of the flow as well as its
source (Fig. 13-7C). Steeply inclined flow structures that formed in an
entirely different way, however, were described by Fink (1983), who made
detailed studies of a number of flows in which a layer of light pumiceous
lava lies beneath dense obsidian. The resulting gravity instability led to
rhythmically spaced diapirs that rose and expanded so as to rotate originally
horizontal flow structures to vertical orientations.
The use of aerial photographs in interpreting patterns of flow structures
and vent positions is well illustrated by Koringa (1973, p. 3859) and by Fink
(1983). Vents in eroded flows may be indicated in the field by greater con-
centrations of phenocrysts or inclusions, by a greater degree of crystallinity
of the groundmass, by abundant tridymite, cristobalite, or hematite in cavi-
ties or along fractures, and by alteration to white, red, or varicolored rocks
consisting largely of clays, tridymite, opal, chalcedony, or zeolites. On
uneroded flows, the vent is generally under the highest part of the flow and
typically marked by a low dome.
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282 Geology in the Field
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Volcanic Structures and Field Relations 283
mixing of water with magma. Some surge blasts, however, are so hot and
dry that they sear vegetation. Dry or moist, the blasts generally are so pow-
erful as to sweep away all vegetation near vents and to sandblast and topple
trees throughout large areas.
Typically, a base surge deposit extends about as far from its vent as the
diameter of the vent (Wohletz and Sheridan, 1979); however, exceptional
surges, as the one from Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, are far more
extensive (Moore and Sisson, 1981).
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include several varieties classified by primary textures, and additional
secondary variants classified by degree of welding and alteration. Of the
primary kinds of deposits, ash flows are by far the most common and
voluminous, and have, by definition, a median grain size less than 2 mm.
Pumice fragments larger than 2 mm are common in ash flows and
predominate in pumice flows. Block flows are typically localized to the
vicinity of the volcano. Although mainly subaerial, pyroclastic flow deposits
may occur in sequences of marine rocks, some being erupted underwater
(Fiske and Matsuda, 1964) and some evidently flowing into the sea and
along the seafloor for many kilometers (Francis and Howells, 1973).
All pyroclastic flow deposits are characterized by: (1) very poor to moder-
ate sorting; (2) lack of bedding within a single flow unit; (3) thicknesses of
meters to tens of meters (in some cases hundreds of meters); (4) presence of
accessory or accidental lithic fragments; and (5) level or smoothly sloping
upper surfaces and uneven (topographic) lower surfaces. Many ash-flow
and pumice-flow deposits can also be recognized by their secondary features:
gradational layers or zones due to differing degrees of compaction and weld-
ing, patterns of columnar joints, and gradational zones due to vapor-induced
A R
Fine ash from cloud Fossil fumaroles
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286 Geology in the Field
)LJ Axial eutaxitic fabric in crystal-rich (left) and crystal-poor welded vitric tuffs,
both showing compacted pumice lapilli (fiamme) and a few undeformed lithic lapilli.
Volcanic Structures and Field Relations 287
some pumice fragments that are still slightly vesicular. Above them is a
complete gradation into more porous but still coherent material with dim-
inishing flattening ratios of pumice fragments. The average flattening ratio
is approximately 2:1 at the boundary between the partially welded zone and
the porous, friable rocks of the nonwelded zone.
4. Zones due to crystallization and vapor effects may be superimposed on
either welded or unwelded flow deposits (Fig. 13-10C). Densely welded rocks
in the devitrified zone become stony in appearance, pale colored, and may
have macroscopic spherulites and lithophysae. Their flattened glass pyro-
clasts consist of radiating (axiolitic) fibrous crystals that may be visible
through a hand lens. Rocks in the zone of vapor-phase alteration are pale
and variably colored from place to place, generally in tints of red or orange.
Most are noticeably porous, often with pumice fragments partially dis-
solved. Openings are typically coated with minute crystals of tridymite,
sanidine, cristobalite, hematite, or iron-rich silicates. T u ff above the zone
of vapor-phase alteration appears unaffected except where gases escaped
through what are now fossil fumaroles and altered the surrounding rocks
(Sheridan, 1970).
5. Cooling units are pyroclastic sequences that accumulated so rapidly as
to compact and cool as a single unit, as shown by a complete gradation of
compaction, welding, devitrification, and vapor-phase alteration. Cooling
units are generally the most obvious mapping units in areas of extensive
pyroclastic flow deposits. Many cooling units consist of more than one
pyroclastic flow, as indicated by repetitions of some or all of the depositional
subunits of Fig. 13-10$ and B , or by a parting surface or an abrupt change
in crystal content, rock color, or weathering characteristics. Flow contacts
in welded or altered parts of cooling units are generally obscure and difficult
to map except locally. Compound cooling units do not have a regular grada-
tion of compaction forms, welding, or alteration, and probably result when
)LJ Evidence of lateral flow in a welded ash-flow deposit: linear shard-fabric, linear
fiamme (commonly pulled apart on minute extension fractures), folds, a minor thrust
fault (ramp), and extension fractures (here, approximately vertical).
288 Geology in the Field
some flows were deposited after preceding flows had begun to cool but had
not cooled completely.
5HZRUNHGS\URFODVWLFPDWHULDOV are generally classified as pyroclastic
even though they were transported and deposited by streams, winds, or
waves. They are common as rocks because many pyroclastic deposits are
eroded easily. They can be recognized by the presence of nonpyroclastic
detritus or by sedimentary structures and associated rocks. It may be
helpful to name these rocks water-laid tuff, lacustrine tuff, and so on.
than secondarily from the caldera walls. Megabreccias may help in locating
and interpreting the lower parts of calderas in deeply eroded areas. They
may also lead to recognition of intracaldera pyroclastic flow deposits. Other
features that may help in recognizing calderas have been reviewed by
Christiansen (1979).
)LJ A. Intrusive sequence, as numbered, for two dikes and a sill, as shown
by cutting relations, chilled margins (closely dotted), and columnar joints. B. Butte
developed on a cylindrical volcanic neck, showing changes in columnar joints with
depth.
292 Geology in the Field
and continuous with the outward-fanning flow layers of the flows or domes
they fed (Fig. 13-8).
The upper parts of volcanic necks are commonly mixed with fragmental
rocks that slid or fell from the crater walls, and these materials may become
emplaced to depths of hundreds of meters after powerful continuous gas
discharges have cleared the upper part of the feeding column. Breccia pipes
extending to still greater depths are diatremes, formed at depth by more or
less continuous gas discharges, explosions, and rock bursts caused by
release of confining pressure on the walls of a feeding pipe (Gates, 1959;
McCallum and others, 1975). Diatremes may be recognized by: (1) domi-
nance of country rock fragments; (2) attrition and rounding of the farthest
traveled clasts; (3) rounded and polished crystals; and (4) accretional pellets
consisting of crystal fragments mantled by fine volcanic matrix (Rust, 1937).
The proportions of nonpyroclastic igneous materials in diatremes increase
with depth, and some pipes extend to pluton cores (Gates, 1959; Richey,
1961).
$OWHUDWLRQ in and near volcanic feeders is common and in some
cases intense. Green rocks containing secondary epidote and chlorite and
pale-toned rocks converted to clays and other fine, hydrated silicates are
especially common. These alterations are typically produced by
geothermal systems related to underlying plutons, as described in
Sections 14-8 and 15-7. Except for the effects of vapor, however, volcanic
feeders have limited effects on wall rocks. Basalt magma may fuse a thin
skin of silicic walls and partially melt inclusions, but most magmas discolor
or alter wall rocks for only a meter or so from intrusive contacts.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
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and geochronology of Long Valley caldera, Mono County, California: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 81, p. 725-744.
Ballard, R. D., Holcomb, R. T., and van Andel, T . H., 1979, Th e Galapagos Rift at
86°W: 3. Sheet flows, collapse pits, and lava lakes of the rift valley: Journal of
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Carlisle, D., 1963, Pillow breccias and their aquagene tuffs, Quadra Island, British
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Christiansen, R. L., 1979, Cooling units and composite sheets in relation to caldera
structure, p. 29-42 in Chapin, C. E., and Elston, W. E., editors, Ash-flow tuffs:
Geological Society of America Special Paper 180.
Curtis, G. H., 1954, Mode of origin of pyroclastic debris in the Mehrten Formation of
the Sierra Nevada: University of California Publications in Geological Sciences,
v. 29, no. 9, p. 453-502.
Fink. J. H., 1983, Structure and emplacement of a rhyolitic obsidian flow: Little
Glass Mountain, Medicine Lake Highland, northern California: Geological
Society of America Bulletin, v. 94, p. 362-380.
Volcanic Structures and Field Relations 293
Fisher, R. V., and Schmincke, H.-U., 1984, Pyroclastic rocks: New York, Springer-
Verlag, 472 p.
Fiske, R. S., Hopson, C. A., and Waters, A. C., 1963, Geology of Mount Ranier
National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 444,93 p.
Fiske, R. S., and Matsuda, T., 1964, Submarine equivalents of ash flows in the
Tokiwa Formation, Japan: American Journal of Science, v. 262, p. 76-106.
Francis, E. H., and Howells, M. F., 1973, Transgressive welded ash-flow tuffs among
the Ordovician sediments of NE Snowdonia, N. Wales: Journal of the Geological
Society of London, v. 129, p. 621-641.
Gates, 0., 1959, Breccia pipes in the Shoshone Range, Nevada: Economic Geology,
v. 54, p. 790-815.
Grolier, M. J., and Bingham, J. W., 1978, Geology of parts of Grant, Adams, and
Franklin Counties, east-central Washington: State of Washington Division of
Geology and Earth Resources Bulletin 71, 91 p.
Hildreth, W., and Mahood, G., 1985? Correlation of ash-flow tuffs: GeologicalSociety
of America Bulletin, in press.
Holcomb, R. T., 1980, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii: chronology and morphology of
the surficial lava flows: Stanford University, CA, PhD Dissertation, 321 p.
Honnorez, J., and Kirst, P., 1975, Submarine basaltic volcanism: morphometric
parameters for discriminating hyaloclastites from hyDORWXIIVBulletin Volcano-
logique, v. 39, p. 441-465.
Hooper, P. R., Knowles, C. R., and Watkins, N. D., 1979, Magnetostratigraphy of
the Imnaha and Grande Ronde Basalts in the southeast part of the Columbia
Plateau: American Journal of Science, v. 279, p. 737-754.
Korringa, M. K., 1973, Linear vent area of the Soldier Meadow Tuff, an ash-flow
sheet in northwestern Nevada: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, p.
3849-3866.
Lipman, P. W., 1976, Caldera-collapse breccias in the western San Juan Mountains,
Colorado: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 1397-1410.
Lipman, P. W., and Mullineaux, D. R., editors, 1981, The 1980 eruptions of Mount
St. Helens, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1250,844 p.
Lirer, L., Pescatore, T., Booth, B., and Walker, G.P.L., 1973, T w o Plinian pumice-fall
deposits from Somma-Vesuvius, Italy: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v.
84, p. 759-772.
Lockwood, J. P. and Lipman, P. W., 1980, Recovery of datable charcoal beneath
young lavas: lessons from Hawaii: Bulletin Volcanologique, v. 43, p. 609-615.
Lydon, P. A., 1968, Geology and lahars of the Tuscan Formation, northern Califor-
nia, p. 441-475 in Coats, R. R., Hay, R. L., and Anderson, C. A., editors, Studies in
volcanology: a memoir in honor of Howel Williams'. Geological Society of America
Memoir 116.
McCallum, M. E., Woolsey, T . S., and Schumm, S. A., 1975, A fluidization mecha-
nism for subsidence of bedded tuffs in diatremes and related volcanic vents:
Bulletin Volcanologique, v. 39, p. 512-527.
Macdonald, G. A ., 1967, Forms and structures of extrusive basaltic rocks, p. 1-61 in
Hess, H. H., and Poldervaart, A ., editors, Basalts, the Poldervaart treatise on rocks
of basaltic composition, v. 1 : New York, Interscience.
Mahood, G. A., and Drake, R. E., 1982, K-Ar dating young rhyolitic rocks: a case
study of the Sierra La Primavera, Jalisco, Mexico: Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 93, p. 1232-1241.
Moore, J. G., 1965, Petrology of deep-sea basalt near Hawaii: American Journal of
Science, v. 263, p. 40-52.
294 Geology in the Field
Moore, J. G., 1967, Base surge in recent volcanic eruptions: Bulletin Volcanologique,
v. 30, p. 337-363.
Moore, J. G., Phillips, R. L., Grigg, R. W., Peterson, D. W., and Swanson, D. A., 1973,
Flow of lava into the sea, 1969-1971, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii: Geological Society
of America Bulletin , v. 84, p. 537-546.
Moore, J. G., and Schilling, J.-G., 1973, Vesicles, water, and sulfur in Reykjanes
Ridge basalts: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 41, p. 105-118.
Moore ,J. G., and Sisson, T. W., 1981, Deposits and effects of the May 18 pyroclastic
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Geological Survey Professional Paper 1250.
Peterson, D. W., 1979, Significance of the flattening of pumice fragments in ash-flow
tuffs, p. 195-204 in Chapin, C. E., and Elston, W. E., editors, Ash-flow tuffs: Geo-
logical Society of America Special Paper 180.
Peterson, D. W., and Tilling, R. I., 1980, Transition of basaltic lava from pahoehoe
to aa, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii: field observations and key factors: Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 7, p. 271-293.
Richey, J. E., 1961, British regional geology: Scotland, the Tertiary volcanic districts,
3rd edition: Edinburgh, H. M. Stationery Office, 105 p.
Rose, W. I., Jr., 1972, Santiaguito volcanic dome, Guatemala: Geological Society of
America Bulletin ,v. 83, p. 1413-1434.
Rust, G. W., 1937, Preliminary notes on explosive volcanism in southeastern M is-
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Schmincke, H.-U., 1967, Stratigraphy and petrology of four upper Yakima Basalt
flows in south-central Washington: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 78,
p. 1385-1422.
Self, S., and Sparks, R.S.J., 1978, Characteristics of widespread pyroclastic deposits
formed by the interaction of silicic magma and water: Bulletin Volcanologique,
v. 41, p. 196-212.
Sheridan, M. F., 1970, Fumarolic mounds and ridges of the Bishop Tu ff, California:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, p. 851-868.
Sheridan, M. F., 1979, Emplacement of pyroclastic flows, a review, p. 125-136 in
Chapin, C. E., and Elston, W. E., editors, Ash-flow tuffs: Geological Society of
America Special Paper 180.
Sheridan, M. F., and Ragan, D. M., 1976, Compaction of ash-flow tuffs, p. 677-713 in
Chilingarian, G. V., and Wolf, K. H., editors, Compaction of coarse-grained sedi-
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Survey Professional Paper 354-F, p. 148-159.
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transport of pyroclasitc flows: Sedimentology, v. 23, p. 147-188.
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lic of South Africa Geological Survey Handbook 6 , 452 p.
Volcanic Structures and Field Relations 295
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in Hawaii: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 994, 98 p.
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)LHOG 6WXGLHVRI3OXWRQV Ŷ
)LJ A. Pluton emplaced into a radial array of somewhat older dikes. B. Dike
broken, intruded, and partly granitized within the rock it intruded.
to the contact; (3) features in the older rock (inclusions, fabric, schlieren,
layers, dikes) cut off by the younger rock; and (4) mild to moderate deforma-
tion of the grains in the older rock, which generally makes the rock darker
than usual. The latter criterion must be used with caution, because magmas
that are largely crystallized may develop a dark schistose or mylonitic con-
tact facies due to ductile shear against an older rock (V. R. Todd, personal
communication, 1984).
Relative ages can be determined from most of the features just listed.
Where none of these features can be found, the younger unit commonly
shows a broad gradation away from the contact, generally involving one or
more of color, grain size, mineral content, numbers of inclusions, and
abundance of schlieren (Moore, 1963, p. 43). Emplacement of the younger
unit will typically remove the original marginal facies of the older, which
will therefore be more uniform than the younger. Age relations are more
difficult to determine where a septum of country rock lies between two
intrusions; however, dikes of the younger may intrude the older, or dikes
associated with the older may be cut off, deformed, or metamorphosed by
the younger (Fig. 14-3).
Relative ages of emplacement are not necessarily resolved by cross-
cutting relations, especially in areas where the country rocks are broadly
metamorphosed. In a case described by Soula (1982), magmatic diapirs
)DEULFVRI3OXWRQLF5RFNV
Preferred orientation of mineral grains, inclusions, and miarolytic cavi-
ties can be used to judge flow directions in many plutons. Fabrics may be
foliate, lineate, or both (Fig. 14-5). They are measured and plotted as
de-scribed in Sections 3-5,3-6, and 5-4. Lineations typically are parallel to
( “ lie in”) the plane of foliation, but they may be oblique to it and may have
more than one preferred orientation. Degrees of preferred orientation
(fabric strength) have not been standardized; however, strongly developed
fabrics are easily visible in hand specimens, moderately developed ones
are clear only on outcrop surfaces of 1 sq m or more, and weakly
developed ones require study of much larger outcrops. Oriented inclusions
are often the most obvious indicators of otherwise weak fabrics; however,
inclusions are not always parallel to grain fabrics. Where fabrics are
obscure they can be measured on oriented samples sawed and etched with
HF, which
Field Studies of Plutons 301
)LJ Strongly developed fabrics in seriate rocks with the same mineral composition.
A. Fabric planar with respect to all elongate and tabular components. B. Fabric linear
with respect to all elongate components. C. Fabric linear with respect to elongate compo-
nents (here, hornblende prisms and some inclusions) and planar with respect to tabular
components (as tabular feldspar).
302 Geology in the Field
A B
)LJ A. Fabric typical of stage when inclusions (left) and crystals (right) can rotate
more or less freely. Note that fabrics of some inclusions are not parallel to pluton fabrics.
B. Strong fabric typical of late magmatic stage, with schistose zones parallel to inclusions
(left) and sample showing gradation from moderately to highly deformed (mylonitic) rock.
Mylonitic fabrics are shown at hand-lens magnification in Fig. 4-19G and H.
,QFOXVLRQVLQ3OXWRQV
The term inclusion is used here for any kind of rock body enclosed in
plutonic rock, regardless of the body’s origin. Most inclusions have the
aspect of fragments or lumps of rock, but they may grade to less distinct
clots or streaks called schlieren (Section 14-5). Typical sizes or abundances
of inclusions may characterize certain plutonic units (Moore, 1963, p. 118).
Specific kinds of inclusions of preexisting rocks (xenoliths) often provide
clues to an intrusion’s history; for example, metasedimentary xenoliths
identifiable with formations in the surrounding country rocks can be used
to measure net displacements since they were incorporated.
Igneous and meta-igneous xenoliths can sometimes be matched to older
plutons, dikes, or volcanic sequences. Others are cognate xenoliths, which
are composed of rocks formed during the intrusive history of the pluton
that contains them. Cognate xenoliths can sometimes be correlated with
earlier marginal or dike facies, and these correlations generally require
study of the entire pluton and its surroundings (Fiske and others, 1963).
Cognate xenoliths may also form if magma related to a pluton intrudes the
pluton when the latter is viscous enough to fracture yet is hot or fluid
enough to modify and incorporate the new magma (Fig. 14-25). Such mix-
tures sometimes result in inclusion swarms that can be walked to places
where a dike is still more or less intact. Cognate inclusion swarms may also
form by accumulation of inclusions at certain levels or against solidified
faces within a pluton.
Dark, igneous-appearing inclusions that cannot be matched to marginal
or internal sources may be so widespread and evenly distributed as to sug-
gest that they came up with the pluton magma from deeper sources (Moore,
1963, p. 120). Such inclusions may be restites, bodies residual to the partial
melting of rocks at depth. They might also be cognate xenoliths of mafic
igneous rocks emplaced at depth ahead of the ascending pluton. The term
autolith (an inclusion formed from the magma that contained it) has also
been applied to dark, granular inclusions in the belief that they have some-
how crystallized as mafic segregations. A case that seems reasonably valid
304 Geology in the Field
Calcite, olivine
— Calcite,
And rad ite diopside
Hornblende,
feit sphene and
Biotiti Hornblende
-Hornblende piagioclase
)LJ Mineral and texture zones in and around inclusions that have reacted with
silicic and intermediate magmas. All are about fist size. A. Limestone in granodiorite.
B. Quartzite in granodiorite. C. Peridotite in granodiorite. D. Claystone in granite.
E. Limestone in potassic granite. F. Epidote nodule (from metabasaltic or meta-andesitic
tuff-breccia) in granodiorite. G. Gabbro in granodiorite. H. Dolomite in granodiorite.
Field Studies o f Plutons 305
j H
ivLT** :
1 III
^Contact , 10 cm , ^ Contact , 1 cm ,
6FKOLHUHQDQG 5HODWHG6WUXFWXUHV
Schlieren (literally, streaks) are compositional or textural domains that
are typically lenticular, planar, or elongate but may be more or less equidi-
mensional. They differ from inclusions in being less distinctly circum-
scribed, especially at their ends, and from compositional layers in being less
tabular, and less likely to compose sets. We know little for certain about the
origin of schlieren, but they are useful physical characteristics of certain
plutons or pluton facies, and can be classified in a descriptive way. Some
schlieren grade into layered rocks or inclusion swarms, and in the latter
case appear to have formed by partial assimilation of the inclusions (Fig.
14-1$). In other cases, schlieren are deflected around inclusions as
sinuous flow streaks (Fig. 14-10%).
Schlieren may be classified into those darker and those lighter than their
host rock. The two may occur separately or together. Light schlieren, which
are far less obvious than dark ones, are commonly aplitic (Didier, 1973), but
they may be as coarse or coarser than their host, in some cases being peg-
matitic. Light schlieren that form sheets and patches in miarolytic facies
may be late-stage segregations, akin to pegmatite and aplite. Dark schlieren
in granitic rocks are commonly thin sheets and wisps that cut across one
another, in some cases so systematically as to suggest regular late-stage
displacements or cross-bedding (Fig. 14-10C). Others, however, have bizarre
308 Geology in the Field
or whether they came from elsewhere, perhaps from another pluton. The
suggestions for mapping zones of hydrothermal alteration (Section 15-7)
and migmatites (Section 15-6) may be helpful.
Pegmatite is generally the most obvious of the volatile-related rocks. The
influence of volatiles in its crystallization is indicated by large grain-size,
euhedral feldspar, pronounced mineral segregation, alterations of early-
formed minerals to minerals containing volatile components, dissolution of
minerals, and filling of vugs by euhedral late-stage minerals. Pegmatite in
gabbro typically forms dikes, lenses, or schlieren of coarse piagioclase and
pyroxene, of piagioclase and hornblende, or of piagioclase, pyroxene, and
fayalitic olivine, all with fine-grained quartz or granophyre. These rocks
typically occur in the upper halves of differentiated sheets, or in their mar-
ginal facies, in the latter case commonly associated with partially assimi-
lated quartzofeldspathic inclusions. Pegmatite bodies in peridotites
described by Moores (1969) have margins of coarse pyroxene, with plagio-
clase locally in their cores. Pegmatites of intermediate and silicic plutons
CORE ' / X .
)LJ A. Vertical face exposing gently inclining pegmatite-aplite dike with vertical
spiracles that cut across the dike’s aplitic margin (see detail, lower left) and are headed by
zoned pods of pegmatite (detail, lower right). From photographs by R. A. Osiecki (and see
Osiecki, 1981). B. Diagrammatic vertical section through granite pegmatite dike with
zoned lower facies. The aligned white crystals of the shell are K-feldspar euhedra, gra-
phically intergrown with quartz where they are stippled. The black elongate crystals in
the lower shell are beryl, topaz, or minerals containing Li or P. After Uebel (1977, p. 92).
©E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, copied with permission.
310 Geology in the Field
)LJ A. Two aplite-pegmatite dikes, the marginal pegmatite of the upper one con-
sisting largely of elongate K-feldspar crystals that suggest inward growth, and the lower
with an irregular aplite margin (stippled) that grades inward to coarse pegmatite. B.
Four parallel dikes of pegmatite and layered aplite (stippled) composing a multiple intru-
sion. The base of each successive dike is indicated by partial screens of country rock
(dark).
312 Geology in the Field
Berger (1972, p. 156) documented and discussed cases that appear plutonic.
Lamprophyre is usually emplaced during or just after the late magmatic
stage of a pluton and is thought to be formed when basaltic or basanitic
magma mixes with the pluton’s residual melts or volatiles (Rock, 1977). A
point in evidence is the close age relation between lamprophyre and aplite
or pegmatite (Fig. 14-13). Indications of volatiles in lamprophyres include:
high degree of alteration; euhedral forms of most minerals; and, in alkaline
varieties, nodules (ocelli) of feldspathoids or carbonates.
In addition, lamprophyre often occurs with small stocks and thick dikes
of rocks characterized by long prisms of early, euhedral hornblende. These
gabbroic and dioritic rocks are commonly associated further with granular
diorite and may grade to hornblendite and hornblende-pyroxene-olivine
rocks. Many of the dark rocks are cut by networks of feldspathic veins that
intersect at pegmatitic nodes. Abundant volatiles are also suggested by bio-
titic facies and by hydrothermal alteration, especially to chlorite. This
association of dark hornblendic rocks is called the appinite suite in Britain,
and has been described and reviewed by Pitcher and Berger (1972, p.
143-168).
)UDFWXUH6\VWHPVLQ 3OXWRQV
Fractures form at a late magmatic or postmagmatic stage in most plutons
and are commonly filled by fine-grained phaneritic rocks similar in compo-
sition to those of the pluton, or by one or more of the volatile-related rocks
described in Section 14-6. A close age-relation to the pluton is indicated
where these minor bodies: (1) form hybrids with the pluton; (2) occur as
fragments in the pluton (Fig. 14-2%); (3) are locally intruded by the pluton;
(4) are offset along faults that are healed within the pluton (Fig. 14-14A); (5)
have a fabric continuous with that of the pluton (Fig. 14-14%); or (6) are
overgrown by megacrysts that are also in the pluton (Fig. 14-14C). Late
magmatic fractures that are not filled with magma can be recognized by
coatings or drusy fillings of late magmatic to postmagmatic minerals:
quartz, potassium feldspar, albite, micas, epidote, actinolite, chlorite, mag-
netite, hematite, sulfides, carbonates, and so on (Section 14-8). These
mineralized fractures may cut late dikes as well as the pluton, thus affording
evidence of the late magmatic age of the dikes (Neff, 1973).
Fractures can often be classified genetically where they cut small-scale
structures of a pluton. Most fractures are due to simple extension, as
expressed by drusy fillings or by dilation of features cut by dikes (Fig. 14-
14D). Faults and zones of simple shear are indicated by displaced crystals,
inclusions, layers, dikes, schlieren, and so on, and locally by thin sheets of
schistose or mylonitic rock that may include folds or other lineations sug-
gesting a direction of displacement (Fig. 12-5). Dikes offset by faults soon
after emplacement may show distinctly plastic strains (Fig. 14-14(), or may
have sigmoidal fabrics in cross sections aligned parallel to the direction of
simple shear (Fig. 14-14F).
The different kinds of fractures and fracture fillings should be mapped
with different symbols as much as practicable; for example, by a small
letter placed by a strike-and-dip symbol, or by a color. Except for large or
otherwise unusual dikes, each symbol generally is used for localities where
several dikes or fractures are parallel or nearly so.
Maps of fracture systems and rock fabric may be interpreted in light of
the mapped shape of the pluton or one of its local phases. Steeply inclined
)LJ Geometric relations between dikes and the plutons they intruded. See text for
interpretations. Fis after Moore (1963, p. 126) and is of a dike approximately 1 in. across.
314 Geology In the Field
B C
)LJ A. Simplified map showing radial fractures, foliate fabric, and reverse faults
suggesting upward bulging of an underlying core. B. Map of pluton with lineated margi-
nal zone broken along fractures suggesting extension parallel to the margin. C. Vertical
cross section through pluton margin and country rocks that have steeply inclined bed-
ding. Orientation of the dikes and their systemmatic dilation indicate upward movement
of the magma relative to the walls.
Field Studies of Plutons 315
$XWRPHWDPRUSKLVPRI3OXWRQV
Most plutons are altered to some degree by magmatic volatiles during
late stages of crystallization. Many are also altered by geothermally circu-
lated groundwater. Detailed studies of copper-bearing and molybdenum-
bearing shallow plutons have provided a general model for these auto-meta-
morphic processes (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Burnham, 1979; White and
others, 1981). Expansion of magmatic volatiles exsolved at an early stage
result in either miarolytic cavities or, in more quenched facies, a myriad of
small irregular fractures, as described above under Fractures in volatile-rich
cupolas. Alterations at this stage produce minerals that are stable at high
temperatures and in the presence of abundant volatiles: quartz, potassium
feldspar, biotite, sodic plagioclase, and sulfides in silicic rocks, and quartz,
biotite, sodic plagioclase, and sulfides in intermediate ones. Mafic rocks
have not been studied in these associations but would probably be altered to
hornblende (possibly actinolite), epidote, sodic plagioclase, quartz, biotite,
and sulfides. In rocks of silicic composition, phenocrysts are easily recog-
nizable and groundmass is completely reconstituted to a sugary (aplitic)
mixture consisting mainly of quartz and alkali feldspar. Mapped as an
alteration zone, these rocks lie completely within the pluton or extend for
short distances beyond it. High volatile pressure at this stage keeps
groundwater out of the pluton, but geothermal circulation may form a
hydrothermal aureole outside it (Section 15-7).
As a pluton cools, the model predicts further fracturing, growth of larger
and more tabular veins, and alteration of potassium feldspar and plagioclase
to sericite, typically with quartz and sulfides and in some cases tourmaline,
topaz, or fluorite. Igneous textures in these rocks are fuzzy to obscure due to
the abundant sericite, which defines a broad zone of sericitic alteration.
316 Geology in the Field
Meteoric groundwater may form a major share of the altering fluid at this
stage and may become dominant in still later, lower temperature alterations
that produce clays and a variety of other fine-grained minerals (pyrophyllite,
diaspore, alunite, etc.). The latter rocks are pale, locally vuggy, and generally
without relict igneous texture. They are generally mapped as a zone of
argillic alteration.
The close spatial relation between the concentric alteration zones and a
given pluton, and the characteristics of the fractures and veins (Section
14-7), are the basic evidence for autometamorphism.
In plutons that are not so strongly nor so pervasively altered, or where
alterations are of other kinds, one or more of the following relations may
suggest autometamorphism by magmatic volatiles: (1) alteration is con-
fined to the pluton, perhaps not even affecting its marginal facies; (2) if
alteration is not confined to the pluton, it is most intense within it and is
concentric around it; (3) in composite plutons or closely grouped intrusions,
each intruded body has its associated alterations, a relation proven where
younger intrusions cut across veins or alteration zones of an older intrusion
(Gustafson and Hunt, 1975, p. 881); (4) alteration is widespread within any
one intrusive unit, is selective of the minerals altered, and is unrelated to
fracture-controlled alterations of regional extent; (5) alteration is confined
to, or centered around, miarolytic or pegmatite-bearing units or facies; (6)
alteration is concentrated in areas of small irregular veins that appear to
have formed at a late magmatic stage (Section 14-7, last part); and (7) altera-
tion minerals are those requiring temperatures higher than 550° to 600°C
and the presence of abundant volatiles.
Relations suggestingalteration of a pluton by geothermal (largely meteo-
ric) fluids are: (1) alteration is in wall rocks as well as in the pluton, and is
especially intense in the outer and upper parts of the pluton; (2) alteration is
concentrated near fracture systems; (3) minerals are dominantly OH-
bearing species and are commonly OH-rich (chlorite, sericite, clays, etc.);
and (4) successive alterations are overprinted on earlier ones (because
geothermal circulation is likely to continue throughout the cooling history
of the pluton).
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Balk, R., 1937, Structural behavior of igneous rocks: Geological Society of America
Memoir 5, 177 p.
Bateman, P. C., Clark, L. D., Huber, N. K., Moore, J. G., and Rinehart, C. D., 1963,
The Sierra Nevada batholith; a synthesis of recent work across the central part: U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 414-D, 46 p.
Beane, R. E., and Titley, S. R., 1981, Porphyry copper deposits, Part II: hydrothermal
alteration and mineralization, p. 235-269 in Skinner, B. J., editor, Seventy-fifth
anniversary volume: El Paso, Economic Geology Publishing Co.
Field Studies of Plutons 317
Burnham, C. W., 1979, Magmas and hydrothermal fluids, p. 71-136 in Barnes, H. L.,
editor, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits, 2nd edition: New York, John
W iley *& Sons.
Cameron, E. N., Jahns, R. H., McNair, A. H., and Page, L. R., 1949, Internal structure
of granitic pegmatites'. Economic Geology Monograph 2,115 p.
Compton, R. R., 1960, Contact metamorphism in Santa Rosa Range, Nevada: Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 71, p. 1383-1416.
Dalrymple, B. G., and Lanphere, M. A., 1969, Potassium-argon dating; principles,
techniques, and applications to geochronology: San Francisco, W. H. Freeman Co.,
258 p.
Davies, H. L., 1971, Peridotite-gabbro-basalt complex in eastern Papua: an overthrust
plate of oceanic mantle and crust: Bureau of Mineral Resources (Australia),
Geology and Geophysics Bulletin 128, 48 p.
Didier, J., 1973, Granites and their enclaves; the bearing of enclaves on the origin of
granites: Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 393 p.
Drever, H. I., and Johnston, R., 1967, Picritic minor intrusions, p. 71-82 in Wyllie, P.
J., editor, Ultramafic and related rocks: New York, John W iley & Sons.
Duffield, W. A., 1968, The petrology and structure of the El Pinal tonalite, Baja
California, Mexico: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 79, p. 1351-1374.
Fiske, R. S., Hopson, C. A., and Waters, A. C., 1963, Geology of Mount Ranier
National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 444,93 p.
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Chile: Economic Geology, v. 70, p. 857-912.
Irvine, T. N., 1974, Petrology of the Duke Island ultramafic complex, southeastern
Alaska: Geological Society of America Memoir 138, 240 p.
Irvine, T. N., and Smith, C. H., 1967, The ultramafic rocks of the Muskox intrusion,
Northwest Territories, Canada, p. 38-49 in W yllie, P. J., editor, Ultramafic and
related rocks: New York, John W iley & Sons.
Jackson, E. D., 1967, Ultramafic cumulates in the Stillwater, Great Dyke, and
Bushveld intrusions, p 20-38 in Wyllie, P .J., editor, Ultramafic and related rocks:
New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Jahns, R. H., and Burnham, C. W., 1969, Experimental studies of pegmatite gene-
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nomic Geology, v. 64, p. 843-864.
Jahns,R. H .,andTuttle, 0. F., 1963,Layeredpegmatite-apliteintrusives: Minera-
logical Society of America Special Paper 1, p. 78-92.
Komar, P. D., 1972, Mechanical interactions of phenocrysts and flow differentiation
of igneous dikes and sills: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 973-988.
Mattinson, J. M., 1977, Emplacement history of the Tatoosh volcanic-plutonic
complex, Washington: ages of zircons: Geological Society of America Bulletin , v.
88, p. 1509-1514.
McBirney, A. R., and Noyes, R. M., 1979, Crystallization and layering of the Skaer-
gaard intrusion: Journal of Petrology, v. 20, p. 487-554.
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California: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1130, 152 p.
Moore, J. G., and Lockwood, J. P., 1973, Origin of comb layering and orbicular struc-
ture, Sierra Nevada batholith, California: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 84, p. 1-20.
Moores, E. M., 1969, Petrology and structure of the Vourinos ophiolitic complex of
northern Greece: Geological Society of America Special Paper 118, 74 p.
318 Geology in the Field
Morse, S. A., 1969, The Kiglapait layered intrusion, Labrador. Geological Society of
America Memoir 112, 204 p.
Neff, T. R., 1973, Emplacement of a dike swarm in the Buffalo Mountain pluton,
Nevada: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, p. 3689-3696.
Nelson, C. A., and Sylvester, A. G., 1971, Wall rock decarbonation and forcible
emplacement of Birch Creek pluton, southern White Mountains, California:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 2891-2904.
Osiecki, R. A., 1981, Textural development of pegmatite, aplite, and associated rock
types in the Mason-Milford granite: Stanford University, CA, PhD Dissertation,
158 p.
Parsons, I., 1979, The Klokken gabbro-syenite complex, South Greenland: cryptic
variation and origin of inversely graded layering: Journal of Petrology, v. 20, p.
653-694.
Pitcher, W. S., 1970, Ghost stratigraphy in intrusive granites: a review, p. 123-140
in Newall, G., and Rast, N., editors, Mechanism of igneous intrusion: Geological
Journal Special Issue No. 2, Liverpool, Gallery Press.
Pitcher, W. S., 1978, The anatomy of a batholith: Journal of the Geological Society of
London, v. 135, p. 157-182.
Pitcher, W. S., 1984, Granite: typology, geological environment and melting rela-
tionships, p. 277-285 in Atherton, M. P., and Gribble, C. D., editors, Migmatites,
melting and metamorphism: Nantwich, England, Shiva Publishing, Ltd.
Pitcher, W. S., and Berger, A. R., 1972, The geology of Donegal: a study of granite
emplacement and unroofing: New York, Wiley-Interscience, 435 p.
Rehrig, W. A., and Heidrick, T . L., 1972, Regional fracturing in Laramide stocks of
Arizona and its relationship to porphyry copper mineralization: Economic
Geology, v. 67, p. 198-213.
Rock, N.M.S., 1977, The nature and origin of lamprophyres: some definitions, dis-
tinctions, and derivations :Earth-Science Reviews, v. 13, p. 123-169.
Shaw, S. E., and Flood, R. H., 1981, The New England Batholith, eastern Australia:
Geochemical variations in time and space: Journal of Geophysical Research, v.
86, p. 10530-10544.
Soula, J.-C., 1982, Characteristics and mode of emplacement of gneiss domes and
plutonic domes in central-eastern Pyrenees: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 4,
p. 313-342.
Tabor, R. W., 1963, Large quartz diorite dike and associated explosion breccia,
northern Cascade Mountains, Washington: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 74, p. 1203-1208.
Thayer, T. P., 1963, Flow-layering in alpine periodotite-gabbro complexes: Min-
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Uebel, P.-J., 1977, Internal structure of pegmatites, its origin and nomenclature:
Neues Jahrbuch fu r Mineralogie Abhandlungen, v. 131, p. 83-113.
Wager, L. R., and Brown, G. M., 1967, Layered igneous rocks: San Francisco, W. H.
Freeman and Co., 588 p.
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Volcanologique, v. 32, p. 15-32.
Ŷ)LHOG6WXGLHVRI
0HWDPRUSKLF5RFNV
phenocrysts are especially likely to remain intact during both dynamic and
thermal metamorphism.
Fossils are often preserved in low-grade metasediments and even in high-
grade contact metamorphic aureoles. In phyllite and slate they can be found
by splitting the rock along the cleavage at places where it is parallel to
bedding, such as in the limbs of isoclinal folds. Fragments of echinoids in
limestone tend to resist recrystallization and deformation because each is a
large single crystal. Large corals and mollusks in sandstone may retain
their original shapes even though they recrystallize to calcite aggregates or
are replaced by wollastonite or garnet.
If metamorphism has destroyed all primary features, original lithology
can often be Estimated from the proportions of metamorphic minerals in
each rock, assuming the common situation of isochemical metamorphism
(Fig. 15-1). In addition, a high proportion of Fe to M g is indicated by the
presence of chloritoid, staurolite, and abundant black biotite in aluminous
rocks, which were originally iron-rich clay stone. Deep red rather than tan
to green garnet in calcsilicate rock suggests a ferruginous limestone proto-
lith or, more commonly, a metasomatized limestone (skarn). Protoliths rich
in potassium (illitic shale, micaceous siltstone, and igneous rock ranging in
composition from syenite to granite) are suggested by abundant muscovite,
biotite, or potassium feldspar; however, potassium is sometimes added
A A
to black when chlorite (or actinolite) and epidote react to form abundant
hornblende.
Arrested mineral reactions that can often be recognized without a hand
lens are: (1) partial reaction of chert bodies and limestone to form wollas-
tonite; (2) partial reaction of chert in dolomite to form tremolite and calcite,
or diopside with or without wollastonite; (3) conversion of epidote-rich
nodules (which commonly develop during low-grade metamorphism of
basaltic or andesitic lavas and pyroclastic rocks) to deep red andradite and
quartz; (4) partial reaction of andraditic bodies to black hornblende; (5) cal-
citic concretions in metashales that may then be partly reacted to rocks rich
in plagioclase and biotite; (7) calcitic concretions in metashale reacted to
garnetiferous rocks that are partly reacted to hornblende-rich envelopes; (6)
dolomitic concretions that are first metamorphosed to rocks rich in tremolite
or actinolite and then partly to hornblende or pyroxene; (8) gneisses or other
siliceous metamorphic rocks containing fragments of ultramafic rocks
reacted to zoned bodies with hornblende-rich rims; and (9) metalimestone
and metashale that interact along contacts to a reaction skarn, presumably
in the presence of abundant pore fluid (Section 15-7). The zoned inclusions
of Fig. 14-8 illustrate some of these reaction relations.
Using a hand lens, arrested reactions can sometimes be recognized by
rims or relict cores of mineral grains, or by aggregates pseudomorphing
mineral grains that had distinctive shapes. Some common reactions are: (1)
garnet, staurolite, or cordierite to biotite; (2) garnet or clinopyroxene to
hornblende; (3) ilmenite to sphene; (4) garnet and clinopyroxene (together)
to glaucophane; (5) garnet, staurolite, or cordierite to chlorite; (6) alumino-
silicates to white mica; (7) plagioclase to epidote; (8) orthopyroxene or olivine
to serpentine, perhaps with talc or brucite; (9) quartz and calcite to wollas-
tonite; (10) quartz and dolomite to diopside; (11) clinopyroxene to actinolite;
and (12) actinolite to hornblende (as dark rims). Garnets may express com-
positional variations during metamorphism by color zoning. Garnets with
tan or greenish (grossularite) cores and dark red (andradite) rims reflect a
)LJ A. Inclusion of a fine early schistose fabric, indicating the porphyroblast grew
before coarser grains of the groundmass. B. Included sigmoidal fabric indicating por-
phyroblast grew during gradual rotation, presumably due to simple shear within the
groundmass. C. Partially replaced relics parallel to groundmass fabric, indicating
post-tectonic growth of the porphyroblast.
Field Studies of Metamorphic Rocks 323
change in the oxidation state of iron. The cores of zoned garnets may also be
replaced preferentially, the rim surviving as a partial spherical layer
(atoll) around secondary minerals.
Finally, mineral reactions are implied where a rock believed to have been
originally uniform shows geographic variations in mineral content, as
where a uniform lithologic unit is traced toward an igneous body. Such
changes may be abrupt, gradual, or sporadic, and generally require mapping
specific mineralogic variations, as described in the section that follows.
0HWDVRPDWLVP
Almost all rocks gain and lose substances during metamorphism,
although in most cases these changes involve only volatile components, as
+ 2, &O )&2 S, and organic compounds. Numerous cases of
moderate to extreme silicate metasomatism are known, however, and
such changes should be anticipated in rocks that have undergone
hydrothermal alteration (Section 15-7), or appear to be segregated (Section
15-5 .Metasomatism may also be expected between adjacent rocks that
contain materials likely to react at metamorphic temperatures. T w o
examples are marble and aluminous metasediments that react to form
skarn along mutual contacts (Einaudi and others, 1981), and periodotite
that reacts with diabase or other sources of calcium to form rodingite
(Hietanen, 1981, p. 22).
Field relations indicating metasomatic origin for rock bodies include the
relations shown in Fig. 15-3 as well as the following: (1) broadly gradational
boundaries; (2) mineralogic changes in structure of known original com-
326 Geology in the Field
)LJ Structural relations indicating replacement. A. Layering and a thin dike
(black) can be projected through the dike in question (left) rather than being displaced in
a dilational sense (right). B. Irregular boundaries, septa crossing the body, included
relics (skialiths), and enlargements of the body where it crosses certain kinds of rocks or
permeable zones. C. Compositional variations contiguous with compositional layers
outside the body, or with contacts between contrasting rocks. D. Boundaries of body,
often consisting of crystal strings, extending outward along cleavage or fractures. E.
Progressive diminution of mineral grains (Oight) in a younger matrix.
)LJ Uniform layer of cordierite hornfels (metashale) altered locally to
black corundum-bearing hornfels and muscovitized hornfels along a quartz vein.
Chemical analyses of samples from sites such as those indicated by the small
squares show an Si02 content of 65% in the uniform hornfels, 62.5% in the
muscovitized hornfels, and 41.5% in the black hornfels. In the same three rocks,
K2O
is 2.5%, 5%, and 6%. For the complete analyses, see Compton (1960, p. 1390,
nos. 5A, B, and C).
!B 1"234./ 05 6 7BB89:#BB$ ;%&'- B(< B)*=5+>?5,@AB
15-5). Evidence of dilation (Fig. 15-3A) and of repeated dilation (Fig. 15-6)
may be helpful.
The actual sequence of alterations must be determined in order to
interpret metasomatism. The two zones illustrated in Figure 15-4, for
example, could have been formed simultaneously by a fluid that migrated
outward from a channel (now the vein) and became modified physically or
chemically as it penetrated the rocks. Possibly, however, the outer zone
formed first and then a different fluid formed the inner zone; or perhaps the
inner zone formed first and the outer zone was formed by a fluid that
moved deeper into the rock at a later time. The inner zone is so changed
texturally that it could well have gone through several states of alteration.
Such possibilities can be resolved only by finding enough examples to see
all stages in the formation of the zones. These examples must generally
include small veins as well as large ones, with some crossing others so that
an age sequence can be established. An example of a widely distributed and
thoroughly studied array of veins and alteration zones is that at Butte,
Montana, described and interpreted by Meyer and Hemley (1967, and in
references cited by them). These zones and structural relations are de-
scribed briefly in Section 15-7.
6HJUHJDWHG0HWDPRUSKLF5RFNV *QHLVVHV
The rocks described in this section may be of any metamorphic grade
but are similar in that all have been differentiated metamorphically into
two megascopic domains of contrasting composition. Rocks in which one
domain is of granitic or other igneous-appearing material are described
together with other migmatites in Section 15-6. In all segregated rocks, the
two contrasting domains may be more or less equal in volume but typically
one predominates. This domain contains lenses, layers, rods, veins, pods, or
irregular bodies of the less voluminous domain. Some domains are no more
than clusters or strings of porphyroblasts. In thoroughly segregated rocks,
the principal minerals in one set of domains are likely to number only two
or three species and to differ from an equally simple assemblage in the other
set. An important additional relation is that small numbers of grains of
each mineral assemblage occur in the other assemblage.
Segregation (metamorphic differentiation) may be caused by chemical
potentials arising without deformation, or may be due partly or entirely to
deformation. Segregation with little if any deformation is suggested by lack
of schistose texture and by the shapes of the segregated bodies (Fig. 15-7).
Features inherited from the original rocks or from an earlier metamorphic
stage are undeformed. In mafic metalavas, amygdular and brecciated zones
are commonly replaced by epidote and quartz or carbonates before the other
parts of the rock. Glassy rims of pillows tend to become differentiated from
the central parts of pillows (Vallance, 1965). Smith (1968) described meta-
lavas in which low-grade segregation without deformation was expressed
by yellow-green bodies, containing epidote and quartz, that crossed primary
igneous structures.
Segregation by penetrative deformation has been demonstrated in mylo-
nite and recrystallized mylonite that have developed compositional layering
)LJ A. Succession of deformed veins, the more folded being cut by
progressively less folded ones. B. Segregations black) at fold hinges, between
boudins, and at the ends of a concretion in metaclaystone, suggesting the extension
indicated by the arrows.
330 Geology in the Field
)LJ Structural varieties of gneiss. Gneisses are commonly migmatitic and may
thus show superimposed structural varieties such as those in Fig. 15-12.
lage, together making up the composition of the original rock; (3) small
numbers of mineral grains of one domain in the other domain; (4) domains
relatively small in size and more or less evenly distributed; (5) lack of altera-
tion envelopes in the wallrocks of veins (Section 15-7); and (6) age relations
showing that the two domains developed simultaneously.
Gneisses are foliated and (or) lineated rocks having uniformly distributed
domains which are so small as to impart a textural aspect when viewed
from a few meters away. Examined with a hand lens, however, the domains
can be seen to consist of groups of certain mineral grains. Most, or all, of the
rock is granoblastic and cleaves only crudely parallel to the foliation. Figure
15-9 illustrates some structural varieties.
Gneiss may form in the same ways as other foliated segregated rocks,
and criteria for recognizing a specific origin are similar to those already
noted. In addition, gneiss formed by deformation acting throughout grain
growth is characterized by strongly lineated and often plicated domains,
with micas, amphiboles, and other platy or linear grains lying parallel to
foliation and lineation (Fig. 15-1$) . In gneiss formed mainly by grain
growth after deformation, platy and elongate minerals are oriented more or
less randomly (Fig. 15-10%), or grains that are usually platy or prismatic
may be nearly equidimensional (Fig. 15-10C) . Protomylonite may have a
gneissose aspect (Fig. 15-1$), as may mylonite in which groundmass grains
have grown to visible sizes (Fig. 15-11%) . The progressive development of
gneiss from sheared ultramafic rocks and gabbro has been described by
Moore (1973).
Gneiss developed from igneous rock (orthogneiss) may be difficult to dis-
tinguish from gneissose metasedimentary rock (paragneiss) if the igneous
rock has been segregated into layers. A sedimentary protolith is indicated
by intercalated quartzite, marble, or other carbonate-bearing rocks, and
mapping or reconnaissance may disclose gradations or suggest correlation
)LJ Structural varieties of migmatite, with leucosome shown by the lighter
patterns.
0LJPDWLWHV
These composite rocks consist of two domains: (1) metamorphic rock and
(2) igneous or igneous-appearing rock. The latter domain is most commonly
quartzofeldspathic but may be dioritic and even gabbroic. It is typically the
lighter colored of the two, and is thus called the leucosome. Structural varie-
ties of migmatites are illustrated in Fig. 15-12. Migmatites differ from igne-
ous rocks with inclusions in that the metamorphic domain is dominant or is
the host domain. Exceptions are nebulites, which might also be called
schlieric granite except that they are contiguous with other migmatites.
Migmatites can often be interpreted genetically, although more than one
process is likely to have operated at a given site. Intruded leucosome will
show dilative relations (Fig. 15-3A and perhaps other features typical of
igneous rocks (Chapter 14). Criteria for replacive bodies are presented in
Section 15-4. Segregation is indicated by the relations described in Section
15-5 and by: (1) mafic or cordierite-rich haloes next to the leucosome; (2)
granitic leucosome most abundant in metashales and quartzofeldspathic
rocks; (3) lack of granitic leucosome in quartzite and marble; and (4) leuco-
some compositions that vary with the compositions of the host rocks; for
example, granite leucosome with abundant potassium feldspar in schists
containing abundant mica or potassium feldspar versus hornblende tonalite
leucosome in amphibolite. Segregated migmatite may also grade to other
segregated rocks (Section 15-5). Migmatites generated by circulation of
vapor or hydrothermal fluid are likely to be rich in OH-bearing minerals
relative to unaffected rocks, an example being the alteration of granulite
facies rocks during a second metamorphism in northwest Scotland (Sutton
and Watson, 1951). A number of papers describing the origin and interpre-
tation of migmatites are included in Atherton and Gribble (1983).
Migmatites often show structural relations implying relative ages of
events. Examples are folded bodies of leucosome cut by unfolded ones;
metasomatic migmatites consistently cut by intrusive leucosome; migmat-
ite cut by dilative basic dikes that are later migmatized; and migmatite cut
off at an unconformity that is later crossed by additional leucosome.
Mapping the distribution of migmatites provides a means of interpreting
them relative to major intrusions, folds, unconformities, and fracture
zones. Mapping is generally keyed to abundance of leucosome at each
locality, which can be plotted as an approximate percentage or by colored
lines, dots, or patches spaced to indicate proportion of leucosome. The
symbols may also show the structural type of migmatite at each locality
(Fig. 15-13).
+\GURWKHUPDO$OWHUDWLRQ
Hydrothermal metamorphism, or alteration, is caused by circulation of a
hot fluid through rocks. The fluid may be a gas, a liquid, or a mixture of the
two, and generally carries a variety of substances in solution. Metasomatic
changes are typical and may be dramatic; however, some compositional
changes are no more than moderate additions of volatile substances. The
fluid is related to nearby igneous intrusions in many cases, being either
magmatic water exsolved at a late magmatic stage or meteoric groundwater
334 Geology in the Field
that has been heated by the pluton and circulated geothermally (Section
14-8). In some cases the fluid is groundwater that has been heated because
of its deep position in the earth and mobilized by broad gravity-related
potentials (Hanor, 1979).
Hydrothermal fluids tend to alter rocks selectively, some of the more
susceptible rocks being limestone, dolomite, and mafic or glassy igneous
rocks. Alteration also tends to be most intense along permeable zones such
as open fractures, breccias, uncemented coarse clastic rocks, and rocks
that are readily hydrofractured. In rocks of moderate permeability, altera-
tion is likely to be strongest near contacts with less permeable rocks, or at
fault gouge that acted as a barrier to circulation. Because permeability is
increased by fracturing, the most brittle rocks in a given association are
often the most veined and altered.
Some hydrothermally altered rocks contain only one abundant new min-
eral, and they are classified and named accordingly: silicified, dolomitized,
chloritized, albitized, and so on. T w o distinctive kinds of hydrothermally
metamorphosed rocks named long ago by miners are skarn, which is des-
cribed later in this section, and greisen, a coarse muscovite-rich rock that
forms in and around granite plutons and generally also contains quartz,
alkali feldspars, and one or more of topaz, fluorite, and tourmaline. Some
additional kinds of alteration in and near plutons of silicic to intermediate
composition have been classified into the following general types (Meyer
and Hemley, 1967):
Varieties of altered rocks may vary from these ideal types, and the names
just listed are used somewhat loosely. Therefore textures, mineralogic rock
compositions, and the nature of rocks prior to alteration should be recorded
as fully as possible.
Alterations may be selective of original mineral species, as noted above,
or may be pervasive (as in most cases of advanced argillic alteration). Alter-
ations are sometimes restricted to the margins of veins, fractures, or igneous
Field Studies of Metamorphic Rocks 335
bodies, and in these cases are commonly zoned, as will be described below.
$OWHUDWLRQV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK YHLQV Veins are deposited by
hydrothermal fluids moving along fractures. They are classified as dilative
or replacive (Figs. 15-3,15-5, and 15-6) and are described according to
their thickness and extent, their shape, the minerals in them, and the
textural and structur-al arrangements of these minerals.Important
structural details are breccia bodies, folds, faults, stylolites, and reopened
(multiple) vein fillings (Fig. 15-6). Age relations are determined at places
where veins cross or where their alteration envelopes overlap. Strikes and
dips taken over large areas may help in classifying veins by age and
perhaps point to the causes of fracturing (Sections 12-5, 12-6, and 14-7).
Unless alteration becomes pervasive in veined rock bodies, individual
veins are typically enveloped in symmetrical zones of wall-rock alteration.
These zones may be uniform and single or may be composite. Composite
zones must be studied carefully to determine whether or not the different
parts developed simultaneously or in an age sequence. Simultaneous com-
posite zoning, which is probably the most common type, was first proven at
Butte, Montana, where an initial phase of high-temperature potassic alter-
ation was followed by a protracted period of hydrothermal alteration during
which large numbers of veins that were opened at various times were all
enveloped by the same kinds of composite zones (Sales and Meyer, 1948;
Meyer and Hemley, 1967). The Butte study also documented progressive
spatial changes in vein thickness and mineralogic composition that are
coupled to changes in wall-rock alteration (Fig. 15-14). These distributions
point to the general source of hydrothermal fluid and its course through the
overlying rock.
)LJ Alteration envelopes on quartz veins in the central (left), intermediate
(center), and peripheral parts of the main-stage ore zone at Butte, Montana. Ore minerals
in the veins are (left) pyrite, covellite, digenite, djurleite, and enargite, with or without
chalcocite and bornite; (center) pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, and
tennantite, with or without enargite; and (right) pyrite, with or without rhodochrosite,
rhodonite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and bornite. Based on p. 189 of Meyer and Hemley
(1967).
336 Geology in the Field
6NDUQ is calcsilicate rock of coarse and often uneven grain size and is
commonly zoned mineralogically. Both properties correlate with a hydro-
thermal origin. Studies of textures and stable isotopes (Taylor and O’Neil,
1977) indicate that skarn develops later than isochemical contact metam-
orphism. It is thought to form in two stages, first by high-temperature
metasomatism by magmatic fluids, and then by hydrolyzing reactions
between the early skarn and increasingly meteoric geothermal fluids.
Metasomatism is proven by skarn zones lying across original bedding or
metamorphic structures, or by calcsilicate rocks lying in pure marble.
Skarn is of particular value in field studies because of its coarse grain
and because certain varieties may suggest depth of metamorphism. Einaudi
and others (1981) noted that skarns alongside mesozonal (moderately deep-
seated) plutons tend to have a garnet-pyroxene zone near the igneous body
and a zone of wollastonite, often with idocrase, next to the marble. Scheelite
is a characteristic mineral, and the low oxidation states typical of these
deep-seated rocks cause garnet to be grossularitic (often pale colored) and
pyroxene to be hedenbergitic. These early stage minerals are commonly
altered in later stages to biotite, hornblende, actinolite, and epidote.
Skarns next to shallow plutons tend to be finer grained than mesozonal
skarn, to become more altered and veined in late stages, and to contain
abundant sulfides of Cu, Mo, Zn, and Pb. Garnet is more abundant in the
inner zone of shallow skarns, and a typically high oxidation state makes the
garnet more andraditic, clinopyroxene more diopsidic, and magnetite and
hematite common accessories (Einaudi and others, 1981). Garnet is gener-
ally greenish (often more grossularitic) away from the igneous body, and an
outermost zone is characterized by wollastonite with accessory garnet, ido-
crase, and clinopyroxene. When the pluton is sericitized and argillized, the
early skarn minerals are altered to abundant tremolite, actinolite, iron-rich
smectite, and lesser amounts of calcite, siderite, quartz, opal, iron oxides,
pyrite, talc, epidote, and chlorite. Shallow skarns are typically fractured
repeatedly, so that late-stage minerals may form alteration envelopes along
thin veins. In cases where fluids carry Zn and Pb, these metals are deposited
as sulfides in skarns formed in permeable zones far from the intrusion.
Early stage zones in these outer skarns contain garnet with magnetite and
calcopyrite near the fluid channel, and clinopyroxene with sphalerite next
to marble.
$JHRI0HWDPRUSKLVP6HTXHQFHRI0HWDPRUSKLF(YHQWV
A numerical age of metamorphism can be determined by dating igneous
bodies intruded during metamorphism, as indicated by fabrics and struc-
tures parallel to (and locally continuous with) those in the metamorphic
rocks. Dating metamorphic minerals will give a minimum age of metamor-
Field Studies of Metamorphic Rocks 337
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Atherton, M. P., 1965, The chemical significance of isograds, p. 169-202 in Pitcher,
W. S., and Flinn, G. W., editors, Controls of metamorphism: Edinburgh and
London, Oliver and Boyd.
Field Studies of Metamorphic Rocks 339
Atherton, M. P., and Gribble, C. D., editors, 1983, Migmatites, melting and meta-
morphism: Nantwich, England, Shiva Publishing Ltd., 326 p.
Bishop, D. G., 1972, Progressive metamorphism from prehnite-pumpellyite to
greenschist facies in the Dansey Pass area, Otago, New Zealand: Geological
Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 3177-3198.
Compton, R. R., 1955, Trondhjemite batholith near Bidwell Bar, California: Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 66, p. 9-44.
Compton, R. R., 1960, Contact metamorphism in Santa Rosa Range, Nevada: Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 71, p. 1383-1416.
Einaudi, M. T., Meinert, L. D., and Newberry, R. J., 1981, Skarn deposits, p. 317-391
in Skinner, B. J., editor, Seventy-fifth anniversary volume: El Paso, Economic
Geology Publishing Co.
Hanor, J. S., 1979, The sedimentary genesis of hydrothermal fluids, p. 137-172 in
Barnes, H. L., editor, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits, 2nd edition, New
York, John W iley & Sons.
Hietanen, A., 1981, Geology west of the Melones fault between the Feather and North
Yuba Rivers: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1226-A, 35 p.
Lindgren, W., 1933, Mineral deposits, 4th edition: New York, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 930 p.
Meyer, C., and Hemley,J. J., 1967, W all rock alteration, p. 166-235 in Barnes, H. L.,
editor, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits. New York, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Miyashiro, A ., 1973, Metamorphism and metamorphic belts: New York John W iley
& Sons, 492 p.
Moore, A. C., 1973, Studies of igneous and tectonic textures and layering in the
rocks of the Gosse Pile intrusion, central Australia: Journal of Petrology, v. 14, p.
49-80.
Pitcher, W. S., and Berger, A. R., 1972, The geology of Donegal: a study of granite
emplacement and unroofing: New York, Wiley-Interscience, 435 p.
Prinz, M., and Poldervaart, A., 1964, Layered mylonite from Beartooth Mountains,
Montana: Geological Society of America Bulletin , v. 75, p. 741-744.
Read, H. H., 1957, The granite controversy: London, Thomas Murby, 430 p.
Sales, R. H., and Meyer, C., 1948, Wall rock alteration at Butte, Montana: American
Institute of M ining Engineers Transactions, v. 178, p. 9-35.
Smith, R. E., 1968, Redistribution of major elements in the alteration of some basic
lavas during burial metamorphism: Journal of Petrology, v. 9, p. 191-219.
Sutton, J., and Watson, J., 1951, The pre-Torridonian metamorphic history of the
Loch Torridon and Scourie areas in the North-West Highlands, and its bearing
on the chronological classification of the Lewisian: Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
logical Society of London, v. 106, p. 241-307.
Tanner, P.W.G., 1976, The progressive metamorphism of thin calcareous bands
from the Moinian rocks of N. W. Scotland: Journal of Petrology, v. 17, p. 100-134.
Taylor, B. E., and O ’Neil, J. R., 1977, Stable isotope studies of metasomatic Ca-Fe-
Al-Si skarns and associated metamorphic and igneous rocks, Osgood Mountains,
Nevada: Contributions to Minerology and Petrology, v. 63, p. 1-49.
Turner, F. J., 1941, The development of pseudo-stratification by metamorphic dif-
ferentiation in the schists of Otago, New Zealand: American Journal of Science,
v. 239, p. 1-16.
Turner, F. J., 1981, Metamorphic petrology', mineralogical, field , and tectonic aspects,
2nd edition: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 524 p.
* HRORJ\ LQ WKH )LHOG
Vallance, T. G., 1965, On the chemistry of pillow lavas and the origin of spilites:
Mineralogical Magazine, v. 34, p. 471-481.
Winkler, H.G.F., 1979, Petrogenesis of metamorphic rocks, 5th edition: New York,
Springer-Verlag, 348 p.
5REHUW5&RPSWRQ
'HVHUW3HDNDQG1HDUE\5DQJHV [LQFKHV
Ŷ3UHSDULQJ,OOXVWUDWLRQVDQG
:ULWLQJ5HSRUWV
structures, have the thrust of selling ideas, often to specific readers, and
must be organized and worded accordingly.
Outlines and further suggestions for several kinds of reports are pre-
sented in Section 16-4. No preexisting outline, however, provides a basis for
actually beginning a specific report, whereas the following questions may:
1. In view of the project's purpose and a final review of the literature,
what are the more valuable conclusions resulting from the study?
2. What data and relations led to these conclusions?
3. Were the methods of the study unusual enough so that they should be
described? Regardless of their originality, will a description be needed to
convince the reader of their validity and precision?
In order to adopt a direct writing style at the outset, respond to these
questions as if they were being asked by a reader. For question 2, for
example, list the data and relations in the order that will be most convincing
to the reader. Write as though you were talking to the reader, or perhaps as
though you were talking informally to several geologists. Go over what you
have written several times, on several days, and at times when you are not
rushed.
When you are satisfied with your answers to the three questions, recom-
pose the answers into a summary of the project. Give the purpose first,
then the methods, then the chief findings, and finally the conclusions. This
summary will be a brief version of your report and might be condensed
later into the report's abstract. The purpose and conclusions may be
brought together to make the first paragraph of the report itself. Before
organizing further sections, however, complete and study the map and
sections as well as other illustrations that will contribute directly to the
statements of your summary. You may want to modify your summary
after doing these things.
0DMRU,OOXVWUDWLRQV)LUVW
Maps, cross sections, and columnar sections convey most of the data in
geologic reports. If they are prepared before the report is written, the report
is likely: (1) to be more accurate than otherwise; (2) not to repeat informa-
tion shown clearly on these illustrations; and (3) include descriptions of
data and relations not apparent in the illustrations. If pencil drafts of the
illustrations have not been completed in the field (Sections 1-7,6-5, and 11-9),
they should be completed before summarizing the field study, as described
above.
The final illustrations should meet the needs of the project yet require as
little time and expense as possible. If the map and cross sections are placed
on one plate, readers can visualize the geology in three dimensions conve-
niently. The plate should be as small as consistent with clarity, and Fig.
Preparing Illustrations and Writing Reports 343
16-1 suggests a layout. Use of color on the final map is desirable and
practical when only a few copies will be needed, whereas colored maps and
sections are costly to reproduce and are usually published only by govern-
ment agencies. When planning a map for publication, the publisher’s
requirements must be determined at the outset.
A major question is whether the geologic map will need a topographic
base or whether a planimetric base of drainage and roads will be adequate.
An inexpensive way to produce a combined topographic and geologic map is
to draft the geology in black ink on a green chronoflex topographic base
(Section 6-1) or on a screened black reproduction of the topographic base.
When printed by most of the methods described below, the black ink lines
will reproduce distinctly darker than the green or screened lines, so that
topography can be distinguished from geology. If mapping was done on
plane table sheets, and the contours and other geographic features will obs-
cure the geology if all are shown in black, the geography and contours can
be traced first in black and reproduced as a screened transparent positive
on which the geology is inked. Use of a standard topographic map as a base
is limited by the fact that it will be illegible when reduced more than 50%.
*HRJUDSKLFQDPHV must be accurate, and all names used in the text of
a report should appear on at least one map accompanying the report. The
Domestic Names Committee of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names
supervises the standardization of geographic names in the United States,
and only names authorized by this committee appear on published maps
and charts of the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Forest Service, and the
National Ocean Survey. These sources thus serve as standards for use on
new geologic maps and in reports. The basic policy of the committee is to
)LJ Layout of map, cross sections, and explanation. The title is generally
placed along the upper or lower margin or in a box in one of the corners. See figures and
text that follow for details.
344 Geology in the Field
)LJ Part of a geologic map, showing features broken for crucial data, as at 1, where
section line and road are broken for a structure symbol. Point 2 indicates the section line
and point 3 a fossil locality. The patterning of schist, on the right, is drawn parallel to
local strike of the foliation.
346 Geology in the Field
EXPLANATION
Qa
UNCONFORMITY
Alluvium
Km
Silt, sand, and gravel
—Kmb—
Munroe Formation
Greenish gray shale
with bentonite bed (Kmb)
Terrace deposits
Alluvial sand and gravel
UNCONFORMITY
Rodelle Limestone
Tb Thin-bedded g ,
with shale interbeds
Basalt
j- Pliocene
^ Miocene
Lower PERMIAN
Permian
)LJ Explanation for a geologic map, with the upper part showing age relations
among units and the lower part descriptions of the units (the lower part is a fragment.)
348 Geology in the Field
margins close to the edges of the map (see a U.S. Geological Survey quad-
rangle map).
Cross sections are prepared in pencil draft as described in Section 6-5.
When the geologic map is completed and checked, they are compared with it
and corrected as necessary by placing each transparent section strip along
its section line or by using a set of dividers to make sure that all contacts
and faults are in exactly the right position relative to the ends of the section.
The map should then be studied thoroughly to be sure that the sections
include all geologic features which do not cross a section line but project into
the sections at depth.
The sections are then traced with ink. Sections on a separate plate must
have a bar scale, a title, and an explanation or a reference to the explanation
of the map plate. If the sections will be colored, lines parallel to bedding or
foliation are all that need be added to the units. If the sections will not be
colored, the units can be indicated by patterns like those used on the map or
by simplified lithologic patterns drawn parallel to bedding (Appendix 8),
whichever makes their structural relations clearer.
Engineering geologic cross sections and sections of surficial deposits com-
monly are constructed with exaggerated vertical scales in order that thick-
nesses and depths to units can be scaled directly from the illustrations. The
© ©
GEOLOGIC MAP OF FOX RIDGE, COE COUNTY, TEXAS
%< 5 0 / ( ( ' $ 1 ' * + ' , / / 6
© Contour interval 20 ft
© Datum is mean sea level
196 mils
)LJ Title and accessory information for a geologic map. The numbered items are
identified in the text.
Preparing Illustrations and Writing Reports 349
)LJ Cross section with vertical scale exaggerated to show dimensions of
surficial deposits, based partly on two wells (vertical lines). Rcsg, soil of clayey sandy
gravel; Rcs and Rcs VRLOV of clayey sand; C, colluvium; Asg, alluvial sandy gravel;
As and As2 sands of alluvial terraces; Gt and GW, successive tills; Es, eolian
sand; and Kps, Cretaceous formation.
3KRWRJUDSKV'UDZLQJVDQG'LDJUDPV
When the main subjects of the report have been determined (Section 16-1),
field sketches and photographs can be selected to present points in evidence
or clarify complex relations. This section describes some examples and
suggests ways of making them effective.
3KRWRJUDSKV that show convincing relations are scarce and of excep-
tional value as illustrations. Writers tend to see more in their photographs
than readers do, and therefore the effectiveness of photographs should be
tested on other persons. Color photographs are generally superior for illus-
trating scenes and earth materials, whereas black and white photographs
are superior for structures and other features that must be shown crisply
or with a strong sense of the third dimension. Glossy prints are required for
published reports, but matte-surfaced prints are generally more attractive
and far easier to retouch. Retouching removes dust spots and interfering
highlights and shadows. To retouch, mix black ink and china white paint in
a white dish with a pointed sable brush, and apply the paint a small spot at
a time. Photographs can be clarified by adding unit symbols, arrows, and
obscure contact lines, or by tracing a line drawing from the photograph and
mounting the two side by side. If no hammer or other recognizable object is
in the photograph, the dimensions of an obvious feature should be given in
the caption.
Vertical aerial photographs often make valuable illustrations, and they
can be reduced to small prints of high quality by first obtaining transparent
negatives, which are generally available from suppliers of aerial photo-
graphs. Topographic forms on vertical photographs will appear natural
rather than inverted if they are oriented so as to appear lighted from the
upper left. Geographic orientation can be described in the caption or shown
by a north arrow on the print.
'UDZLQJV are used for a variety of illustrations: (1) objects shown natu-
Preparing Illustrations and Writing Reports 351
)LJ Perspective diagrams based on convergence of parallel lines toward two points
(A) and three points (B).
352 Geology in the Field
)LJ Isometric diagram of a breccia body (lined pattern) along a fault, developed by
mine workings and drill holes. Isometric drawings may be constructed from maps and
subsurface data by: (1) making measurements along N-S, E-W, and vertical lines, and (2)
laying out these distances on the three mutually perpendicular axes of the diagram, each
of which is parallel to one of the scaled lines in the figure.
160°00'
Js
46°15'
\
I
'
Js
r
Curtis
anticline
Ko
)LJ Map used in text of a report to show location of the area, access to it, and
major geologic structures and rock units in the vicinity.
Preparing Illustrations and Writing Reports 353
VWUDWLgraphic names compared to their use by the author (as in Sando and
others, 1975, p. 6). Charts summarizing stratigraphic units and their
corresponding events are especially valuable for reports on Quaternary
history (as Mullineaux, 1970, p. 73). Diagrams comparing thicknesses of
lithostratigraphic units to geologic age-ranges have been described by
Meyer and Dickinson (1984). For showing horizontal orientations of
currents, wind-rose graphs are recommended over sector graphs because
the latter give visual bias to the more abundant orientations (Fig. 16-11).
A variety of other graphs are described and illustrated diagrammatically
by Bishop and others (1978, p. 70), and Tufte (1983) has described the
basis, design, and preparation of a great variety of diagrams.
Fig. 16-11. Current data accumulated in 20° intervals of azimuth and depicted by a
sector diagram (left) and wind-rose diagram. The numbered circles indicate numbers of
measurements.
354 Geology in the Field
tell what was done; and (b) new methods and a discussion of their validity.
Throughout the report, inferred information must be distinguished clearly
from observed or tested data.
2. Emphasis in Rock units on surficial deposits, soils, and engineering
properties (Section 5-7) with age and origin of rocks treated briefly unless
they are important to engineering decisions. Abundance and nature of
exposures are important and should be documented by outcrop maps (Sec-
tion 5-6). Where possible, descriptions of surficial units should include their
correspondence to specific landforms.
3. Emphasis in Structure on faults, degree and orientation of fracturing,
and discontinuities (as contacts) that might lead to sliding.
4. A section on Geomorphic relations as they apply to surface stability,
erosion problems, and site selections.
5. A section on Hydrology with a complete description of surface water
systems and groundwater (specific topics are suggested in the subsection
Environmental assessments, Section 5-7).
6. A section on Geologic processes or Historic events describing specific
erosion, sliding, earthquakes, ground collapse, subsidence, creep, and other
on-going processes(Section 5-7).
7. A section on Economic geology describing availability of construction
materials.
8. Engineering geology, a principal section giving specific practical judg-
ments or recommendations derived from all the foregoing, such as founda-
tion conditions per area, siting of septic and refuse systems, slope stabilities
per use or area, restrictions on quarrying and fill, and so on.
Maps, borehole logs, diagrams, and cross sections should carry as much
of these descriptions as possible. Engineers' needs and vocabulary should
guide the writing in all cases (Rose, 1965).
5HSRUWV FRQVLVWLQJ PDLQO\ RI UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV are typically
specific in scope and not intended for general geologic readers nor for the
scientific record. They are usually prepared for a limited readership and
are com-monly in-organization reports, often essentially memoranda.
They will work best for the writer if: (1) the purpose of the study and thus
the report is clearly understood by both the writer and the reader; (2) the
writer takes the reader’s interest, schedule, and idiosyncrasies into
account; and (3) the writing is as direct and convincing as possible, with
details presented in lists, tables, maps, and sections of an appendix. The
report should always begin with a statement of purpose and a brief
description of the recommen-dations and their principal logic or basis.
The remainder of the report develops a fuller argument, and can be
organized much as the outlines given above. Tichy (1966) and Rose (1965)
have given valuable suggestions for preparing this kind of report.
Preparing Illustrations and Writing Reports 357
7KH:ULWLQJ ,WVHOI
are further elements of style. T o learn about these specifics and at the same
time get a sense of first-rate style, read Strunk and White (1959) from cover
to cover. Read it carefully and in one sitting if possible (it’s a little book).
Revision is typically essential but of little value until a complete draft of
the report can be set aside for several weeks. Other tasks can be completed
during this period, as final drafting of figures and writing figure captions.
When it is time for revising, try reading the report aloud or have someone
read it to you. Another way to sense major problems with awkward or
heavy writing is to first read something that is well written; for example,
reread Strunk and White (1959). Comparing the figures and figure captions
with the text will almost always lead to simplification. Let the figures
carry as much of the presentation as possible, and avoid giving the same
information in text and captions.
6SHFLILF3DUWVRIWKH5HSRUW )RUPDW
Acknowledgmentsare traditionally placed either in the introduction or
at the end of the report. They credit help from individuals and organizations
not cited elsewhere in the report. Each credit should be simple and specific
and need not state gratitude (which will be implied).
References cited in the report are listed alphabetically by author in a
separate section placed immediately after the last part of the text. The
exact style of citations varies from decade to decade and journal to journal,
so that recent journal issues should be consulted for preparing lists that
will be published. Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey or the Geolog-
ical Society of America may be used as guides for reports that will not be
published; however, fuller references (e.g., those in this book) are never
incorrect. The basic rule is to include enough information so that readers
can find the items in libraries easily. Names of journals should not be
abbreviated unless the terms will be absolutely clear.
Citations in the text are given by the author’s name and the year of
publication. Page numbers should be included if the reader will need them
to find the relevant material, such as topics in long documents that are not
subheaded or indexed. Citations for unpublished information should give
the person’s full name, an affiliation if appropriate, and the nature and date
of the communication; for example, The fossils were identified by William P.
Nash of the Illinois State Survey (written communication, 1974).
Many abstracts prepared for talks are inaccurate or incomplete because
they are written long before studies are completed. Thus always correspond
with authors before using and citing these sources.
Lists and tables may save space or may present data more clearly than it
could be presented in the text. Lists are organized in one or two columns,
and the items should have parallel construction if they are statements. The
stratigraphic log in Section 11-9 is an example. Items in tables are divided
360 Geology in the Field
tables where they will be most useful to the reader. Plates are oversized
illustrations that are folded and inserted in an envelope glued firmly inside
the back cover of the report or placed in a separate, fully titled cover. Plates
should either be folded so that the plate number can be seen without
unfolding them, or the number should be lettered on the outside of the
folded plate.
)URQW PDWWHU generally consists of a title page, an abstract, a table
of contents, and a list of illustrations, in that order. In addition to the title
of the report, the title page includes the name of the author, his or
her affiliation during the project, and the date when the report was
completed (or published). The abstract has already been described. The
table of contents is a paginated list of headings and subheadings, but
perhaps without those of lowest rank, such as the repetitive subheads
under each rock unit. The rank of headings is indicated by indenting each
successively lesser rank at last five spaces to the right. The list of
illustrations gives numbers, captions, and pages of text figures, and then
numbers and names of plates. Long captions should be reduced in the list,
as from Outcrop of Farley Conglomerate viewed from the east, showing
cross sections of filled stream channels to Outcrop of Farley Conglomerate or
Channel structures in Farley Conglomerate, depending on the chief message.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Bates, R. L., and Jackson, J. A., editors, 1980, Glossary of Geology, 2nd edition:Falls
Church, VA, American Geological Institute, 749 p.
Bates, R. L., and Jackson ,J. A., editors, 1984, Dictionary of geological terms:Garden
City, NY, Anchor Press/Doubleday, 571 p.
Bishop, E. E., Eckel, E. B., and others; Eric,J. H., coordinator, 1978, Suggestionsto
authors of the reports of the United States Geological Survey, 6th edition: Wash-
ington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 273 p.
Cochran, W., Fenner, P., and Hill, M., editors, 1979, Geowriting; a guide to writing;
editing, and printing in earth science, 3rd edition: Falls Church, VA, American
Geological Institute, 80 p.
Easterbrook, D. J., 1973, Map showing percolation rates of earth materials in western
Whatcom County, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologic
Investigations Map I-854-A.
Easterbrook, D. J., 1976, Map showing engineering characteristics of geologic mate-
rials, western Whatcom County, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Miscel-
laneous Investigations Series Map I-854-D.
Hoelscher, R. P., and Springer, C. H., 1956, Engineering drawing andgeometry: New
York, John Wiley & Sons, 520 p.
Landes, K. K., 1966, A scrutiny of the abstract, II: American Association of Petro-
leum Geologists Bulletin, v. 50, p. 1992.
Lobeck, A. K., 1958, Block diagrams and other graphic methods used in geology and
geography, 2nd edition: Amherst, MA, Emerson-Trussell Book Co., 212 p.
Meyer, L., and Dickinson, W. R., 1984, Time-thickness diagrams: Simultaneous
display of lithostratigraphic thickness and chronostratigraphic age: Geology, v.
12, p. 7.
362 Geology in the Field
Mullineaux, D. R., 1970, Geology of the Renton, Auburn, and Black Diamond quad-
rangles, King County, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
672, 92 p.
North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 1983, North Ameri-
can stratigraphic code: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
v. 67, p. 841-875.
Pewe, T. L., and Bell, J. W., 1976, Map showingfoundation conditions in the Fairbanks
D-2 SWquadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investiga-
tions Series Map I-829-E.
Rose, D., 1965, A civil engineer reads a geology report: Geotimes, v. 10, no. 1, p. 9-12.
Sando, W. J., MacKenzie, G. Jr., and DutroJ. T.,Jr., 1975, Stratigraphy andgeologic
history of the Amsden Formation (Mississippian and Pennsylvanian) of Wyo-
ming. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 848-A, 83 p.
Schenk, E. T., and McMasters, J. H., 1956, Procedure in taxonomy, 3rd edition
(revised by A. M. Keen and S. W. Muller): Stanford, CA, Stanford University
Press, 149 p.
Slosson,J. E., 1984, Genesis and evolution of guidelines for geologic reports: Asso-
ciation of Engineering Geologists Bulletin, v. 21, p. 295-316.
Strunk, W., Jr., with revisions, an introduction, and a new chapter on writing by E.
B. White, 1959, The elements of style, New York, Macmillan Co., 71 p.
Tichy, H. J., 1966, Effective writing fo r engineers, managers, scientists: New York,
John Wiley & Sons, 337 p.
Tufte, E. R., 1983, The visual display of quantitative information: Cheshire, CT,
Graphics Press, 197 p.
Varnes, D. J., 1974, The logic of geologic maps, with reference to their interpretation
and use fo r engineering purposes: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
837, 48 p.
Ŷ Appendixes
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Appendix 3 367
*To convert the results to weight percentages, multiply each volume percentage by the
specific gravity of that mineral and recalculate the resulting numbers so that they
sum to 100.
25%
368 Geology in the Field
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The dimensions given in the diagrams below are ideal (for example, some
townships are somewhat more or less than 6 mi on a side). Most section
corners and some corners can be found in the field by a vertical pipe
with ascribedbrasshead,orbyaconcreteorstonemarker.As examples
of location notations, the 40-acre plot (lower right) is the SE of the
SE of Sec. 12, T2S, R1W, and point A is 394 ft south and 552 ft
east of the N corner of Sec. 12, T2S, R1W.
1 mi
^ 6 5 4 3 2 1 O A
7 8 9 10 11 12 '
N W 1/4 N E 1/4
18 17 16 15 14 13
T2S
19 20 21 22 23 24 ^ C e n te r Sec. 12
30 29 28 27 26 25
31 32 33 34 35 36
S W 1/4 SEV4
R1W
[ 40 acres
^ i
Section corner K 1/4 corner
370 Geology in the Field
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Color is an important aspect of materials, and it must be standardized
for two reasons: (1) a given color will often be named differently by different
persons, and (2) a given color w ill appear differently when seen next to
other colors (e.g., gray appears bluish when seen next to orange or brown
earth colors). Both of these problems can be resolved by use of charts that
provide a color notation based on standard color chips, and that permit
comparisons against a neutral gray background. The most widely accepted
system of color notation in the United States is the Munsell color system,
and it is the basis of the Munsell Soil Color Charts, which provide a detailed
coverage of colors characteristic of soils, sediments, and most rocks. These
charts are bound in a hard loose-leaf cover and are available from the Mun-
sell Color Company, 2441N. Calvert St., Baltimore, MD 21218. A somewhat
broader but less detailed coverage is given in the Rock-Color Chart, available
from The Geological Society of America, P.O. Box 9410, Boulder, CO 80301.
The descriptions and instructions given below specify the Munsell Soil
Color Charts but can be applied readily to the Rock-Color Chart.
Each chart is based on a primary color or on a specific mixture of primary
colors, designated by a symbol at the top of the chart. As examples, the hue
of the chart with the symbol 5R is spectrum red; the chart 5Y is spectrum
yellow; and the chart 5YR spectrum orange. Additional charts are based on
intermediate hues, such as 7.5 YR, which is a yellowish orange. For each
chart, the basic hue is mixed with near-white in five or six graded steps
arranged across the top of the chart, from near-white on the left to the
fullest chroma (amount of the basic hue) appearing in most soils and rocks
(see the diagram). Black is then mixed with each of these chromatic divi-
sions to give seven grades (values) forming vertical sets of chips that range
from mixtures with nearly pure white to mixtures with nearly pure black
(pure white would have a value of 10 and black a value of 0). Colors thus
become lighter in value from bottom to top and more intensely colored
(chromatic) from left to right. No chart has a full array of chips because
colors not represented in natural materials are omitted.
Small sediment or rock samples are placed under the apertures in order
to find a color match. The color is then recorded as the letter-and-number of
the chart plus the numbers of the value and chroma. For example, a rock
matching the chip X in the diagram would be color 5YR 6/4. Intermediate
colors can usually be estimated to the nearest half-and-half mixture, and
are designated accordingly (as 5YR 6.5/4). Color names are given on the
page facing each chart but are not subdivided as fully as the color chips and
their notation.
Appendix 6 371
5YR
Color chip
8/
Aperture
II
6
Ōnnnnu
VALUE
5/
4/
nnnnnn
3/
LILT
2.51
n 12 /3 IA /6 /8
---- CHROMA -------------ź
372 Geology in the Field
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Contact, showing dip where trace is horizontal, and strike and dip
where trace is inclined
&RQWDFW, located approximately (give limits)
Fault zone or shear zone, width to scale (dip and other accessory
symbols may be added)
Faults with arrows showing plunge of rolls, grooves or
slickensides
Fault showing bearing and plunge of net slip
Folds, conjectural
Trace of single bed, showing dip where trace is horizontal and where
it is inclined
Horizontal foliation
Vertical veins
Horizontal veins
Spring
Thermal spring
Mineral spring
Asphaltic deposit
Bituminous deposit
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7. Feldspathic 8. Tuffaceous
sandstone sandstone sandstone
3 r Z ! _ 1 1
21. Limestone 22. Cross-bedded 23. Dolomite 24. Dolomitic
limestone (dolostone) limestone
6 6 6
1 , ^ «1
33. Fossiliferous 34. Oolitic 35. Pelletal 36. Intraclastic
limestone limestone limestone limestone
Ŷ 9 F F I 0 _ 0 _ 0 > T J ^ 7 1 ³
F F F ²² L² ² U U
to 0 _ P
37. Crystalline 38. Micritic 39. Algal 40. Limestone
limestone limestone dolomite conglomerate
Appendix 8 377
~t"1-"f ~ ~~
41. Limestone
breccia
mi
42. Algal dolomite
breccia
43. Gypsum bed,
gypsiferous shale
~7A7 f
44. Anhydrite, anhy-
dritic dolomite
==
++++++
~
+ + + ++.
~~~=-§_-=-~~ ++~+++
+++++-
45. Rock salt, 46. Peridotite 47. Gabbro 48. Mafic plutonic
salty mudstone rock
~ o ~; o~--~
~ll~~ 17~0,d
ae:,o ~ ~c:f~ " ~ 4
49. Coarse 50. Fine 51. Porphyritic 52. Porphyritic
granitic rock granitic rock plutonic rock plutonic rock
>< )(.)()(XX
)( )C)(X)(.
V V V V V
r V
53. Mafic lava 54. Silicic lava 55. Intrusive 56. Pillow lava
volcanic rocks
H4Hi::J li~ ~ II II II ., I II 4' II ~ II V II ~
4 • H• O .ti
~ H.. .- .. " u u :3 fl <S II 4 II Cl
tt .Cl. H .. c1'.H.b I II II II I(
u O ,, <) u
. . . . .. - ll I
~ U
'+ '';+'-+ -
, \'+'-+.'
~ ~~~-
\ I_ • ~I_ I ,. / : 4S-'5-s-
~
~~~
I ' /, ', - '
/ ( ,-~ - '' I -
73. Foliated
marble
74. Foliated calc-
silicate rock
la~::>l - ··;~ :..
76. Alteration
zones
~ bti'
~~~
: '.;·
:
77. Quartzite 78. Quartzite 79. Silicic 80. Mafic
migmatite migmatite
378 Geology in the Field
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Ammonites Vertebrates
Belemnites Wood
Graptolites Burrows
Leaves Pellets
Ostracodes Oolites
Pelecypods Pisolites
Spicules Stylolite
Stromatolites Concretion
*Chiefly after the Standard Legend of the Royal Dutch/Shell Group of Companies (Shell International
Petroleum Maatschappij B. V., The Hague, July 1977)
Appendix 10 379
Format modified slightly from Sohl, N.L., and Wright, W.B. (1980, Changes in stratigraphic nomen-
clature by the U.S. Geological Survey, 1979: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1502-A, p. A1-A3.),
with Precambrian units from Harrison, J.E., and Peterman, Z.E. (1980, A preliminary proposal for
the Precambrian of the United States and Mexico: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 91,
Q 1128-1133). See these articles for sources of the original data.
Ranges reflect uncertainties of isotopic and biostratigraphic age assignments. Ages of boundariesnot
closely bracketed by data shown by_ .
A time term without specific rank.
Time terms only.
380 Geology in the Field
oo
1.000 .9205 .4245 2.356 67°
.0087 .9999 .0087 114.6 .3987 .9171 .4348 2.300
1° .0175 .9998 .0175 57.29 89° 24° .4067 .9135 .4452 2.246 66°
.0262 .9997 .0262 38.19 .4167 .9100 .4557 2.194
2° .0349 .9994 .0349 28.64 25° .4226 .9063 .4663 2.145 65°
00
o
00
.0436 .9990 .0437 22.90 .4305 .9026 .4770 2.097
3° .0523 .9986 .0524 19.08 26° .4384 .8988 .4877 2.050 64°
00
o
.0610 .9981 .0612 16.35 .4462 .8949 .4986 2.006
<3
00
4° .0698 .9976 .0699 14.30 27° .4540 .8910 .5095 1.963 63°
.0785 .9969 .0787 12.71 .4617 .8870 .5206 1.921
5° .0872 .9962 .0875 11.43 85° 28° .4695 .8829 .5317 1.881 62°
.0958 .9954 .0963 10.39 .4772 .8788 .5430 1.842
6° .1045 .9945 .1051 9.514 84° 29° .4841 .8746 .5543 1.804 61°
.1132 .9936 .1139 8.777 .4924 .8704 .5658 1.767
00
CO
12° .2079 .2126 4.705 35° .5736 .8192 .7002 1.428 55°
o
.9781
.2164 .9763 .2217 4.511 .5807 .8142 .7133 1.402
13° .2250 .9744 .2309 4.331 77° 36° .5878 .8090 .7265 1.376 54°
.2334 .9724 .2401 4.165 .5948 .8039 .7400 1.351
14° .2419 .9703 .2493 4.011 76° 37° .6018 .7986 .7536 1.327 53°
.2504 .9681 .2586 3.867 .6088 .7934 .7673 1.303
15° .2588 .9659 .2679 3.732 75° 38° .6157 .7880 .7813 1.280 52°
.2672 .9636 .2773 3.606 .6225 .7826 .7954 1.257
16° .2756 .9613 .2867 3.487 74° 39° .6293 .7771 .8098 1.235 51°
.2840 .9588 .2962 3.376 .6361 .7716 .8243 1.213
17° .2924 .9563 .3057 3.271 73° 40° .6428 .7660 .8391 1.192 50°
.3007 .9537 .3153 3.172 .6494 .7604 .8541 1.171
18° .3090 .9511 .3249 3.078 72° 41° .6561 .7547 .8693 1.150 49°
.3173 .9483 .3346 2.989 .6626 .7490 .8847 1.130
19° .3256 .9455 .3443 2.904 71° 42° .6691 .7431 .9004 1.106 48°
.3338 .9426 .3541 2.824 .6756 .7373 .9163 1.091
20° .3420 .9397 .3640 2.747 43° .6820 .7314 .9325 1.072 47°
O
o-
o
Underlined numbers are exact; others are rounded to the nearest numeral
on the far right.
1 m = 1000 mm; 100 cm; 10 dm; 0.1 dkm; 0.01 hectometer; 0.001 km
1 km = 1000 m; 0.621 mi; 3281 ft
1 m = 39.37 in.; 3.281 ft; 1.094 yd; 0.000624 mi
1 cm = 10 mm; 0.394 in.
1 in. = 2.54 cm; 25.4 mm; 0.0833 ft; 0.02778 yd
1 ft = 0.3048 m; 12 in.; 0.061 rods; 1/6 fathom; 0.0001894 mi
1 yd = 0.9144 m; 3 ft; 0.1818 rods; 0.0005682 mi
1 rod = 5.0292 m; 198 in.; 16.5 ft: 5.5 vd
1 mi = 1609 m; 1.609 km; 5280 ft; 1760 vd; 320 rods
1 international nautical mile = .999 U.S. nautical mile; 1.151 mi; 1852 m
1 sq km = 100 hectares; 247.1 acres; 0.386 sq mi
1 hectare = 10,000 sq m; 2.471 acres; 11,960 sq yd
1 sq m = 10.76 sq ft; 1.196 sq yd
1 sq mi = 259 hectares; 2.59 sq km; 640 acres
1 acre = 4048 sq m; 0.405 hectare; 43,560 sq ft; 4840 sq yd
1 sq ft = 929.0 sq cm; 144 sq in.
1 liter = Xcu dm; 1000 cc; 61.02 cu in.; 1.057 liq quarts; 0.264 gallon
1 cu m = 1000 liters; 1.308 cu yd; 35.32 cu ft; 264.2 gallons
1 cu ft = 7.481 gal; 28.3 liters; 0.0283 cu m; 0.0370 cu yd
1 acre ft = 1233 cu m; 43,560 cu ft
1 U.S. liq ounce = 29.57 cc; 1.805 cu in.
1 U.S. liq quart = 0.964 liter; 57.75 cu in.; 0.833 British quart
1 U.S. gallon = 3.785 liters; 231 cu in.; 0.833 British gal; 0.0238 bbl pet
1 kilogram = 1000 gr; 2.205 lb
1 gram = 0.035 ounce; 15.43 grains
1 ton metric (megagram) = 1000 kilograms; 2205 lb; 1.102 net ton;
0.984 gross ton
1 lb avoir. = 453.6 grams; 7000 grains; 16 oz; 1.215 lb troy
1 ounce (avoir.) = 437.5 grains; 28.35 grams
1 ton, net = 0.907 metric ton; 2000 lb avoir.; 0.893 gross ton
1°F = 5/9°C; T in °F = (T in °C X 9/5) + 32; T in °C = (T in °F - 32)5/9
3 82 Geology in the Field
T o prepare the net for use: (1) cut it out and glue it to a smooth-surfaced flat board,
such as one made of -inch masonite; (2) make a small hole through the
board exactly at the center of the net; (3) insert a thumbtack through the hole from
the back of the board, and glue or tape it firm ly in place; (4) cut a rectangular sheet
of plastic drafting film or tracing paper that is somewhat larger than the net; (5) stick
a small piece of drafting tape on the back of the sheet at its center; (6) press the
sheet down over the board so that the tack comes through the piece of tape and the
sheet lies flat on the net; (7) mark and label pencil ticks on the sheet at the N and S
poles of the net.
Data may now be plotted on the net, and Fig. 3-11 describes how to plot a planar
feature and a lineation that lies parallel to the feature. The same figure describes
each step in converting a lineation measured by its pitch into a lineation based on
bearing (trend) and plunge. In addition, Fig. 9-12 describes the steps in rotating
inclined linear features and planar features so that they are horizontal, and Fig.
9-14 describes rotations used to unfold or unfault linear and planar features. Turner
and Weiss (see the references for Chapter 12) have described basic as well as more
complex procedures with a stereographic net; and basic procedures are also des-
cribed in some structure texts.
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Index
385
386 Index
Textures (and see specific kinds), igneous, Turner, F. J., 320, 325, 330
61-65 Turner, F. J., and Weiss, L. E., 254, 383
metamorphic, 68-72, 322, 325, 331, 337 Type locality of a rock unit, 85
sedimentary, 48-55 Type section of a rock unit, 85
Thayer, T. P., 306
Thermal infrared scanning imagery, 119 Uebel, P.-J., 309
Thickness of strata, calculating, 234, 235 UltramyIonite, 73
Thiessen, R. L., and Means, W. D., 254 Unconformity, general, 178-180
Three-point method, of locating plane table angular, 178
stations, 156-158 disconformity, 178
of measuring strike and dip, 37-38 in volcanic rocks, 273
Tichy, H.J., 356, 357 Units of weight and measure, 381
Tidal channels, 181-182,182, 183 U-Pb dating of plutons, 299
Tidal environments, 180-184 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 152
T ill, 203-204
Todd, V. R., 255, 298 Vallance, T. G., 329
Tonalite, 69 Varioles, 64
Topographic maps (described), 99-100 Varnes, D.J.,95, 97,344
accuracy of, 100 Varves, 189, 205
choice of as a base, 5-6 Veins, age relations among, 245, 246, 328,
interpreting geologic lines on, 106-107 329
locating geology on, 101-106 alterations associated with, 327, 328, 335
sources of, 100-101 in plutons, 312-316
Township-section cadastral system, 99, 369 metamorphic, 329-331,335
Trace fossils (defined), 176 Vergence of folds, 250
in dysaerobic environments, 189 Vernier scale, reading, 143-144
in judging rates of deposition, 180 Vertical angles, measuring w ith alidade,
in judging soft-sediment deformation, 171 143-144,153-154
marking diastems, 179 m easuring w ith clinom eter (Brunton
in pelagic chalk, 187,192 compass), 19
Trachyte, 67, 280 Vertical distances, by altimeter, 104-105
Transit, in control surveys, 149 by hand leveling, 19-20
in m easuring stratigraph ic sections, by stadia methods, 141-144,146
236-
236 by the stadia stepping method, 146
Transpositional layering, 257 from vertical angles, 19,143-144,153-154
Transverse dune, 201 Verwoerd, W. J., 290
Transverse ripples, 165 Vesicles, in subaerial basalt, 277
Trautmann, C. H., and Kulhawy, F. H., 3 in subaqueous basalt, 278
Traversing, with altimeter, 104-105 in subaqueous tuffs, 283
with compass, 75-77, 103-104 in viscous lava, 280,281
with plane table and alidade, 155, 156, Vitrophyric texture, 63
237-238 Volcanic intrusions, age relations among,
Trend (bearing) of linear features, 38 290-291
Triangulation, with a compass, 105-106 associated alterations, 292
with plane table and alidade, 149-154 Volcanic necks and pipes, 291-292
for stratigraphic measurements, 238 Volcanic rocks, classified, 67
with a transit or theodolite, 149 primary structures in, 274-292
Trigonometric functions, 380 Volcanic vents, forms of, 290-292
Tripod, plane table, 138 indications of, 281, 282, 283, 292
Trondhjemite, 69 von Bandat, H. F., 120,123
True dip and apparent dip, 382 Vuagnat, M., 278
Tuff, devitrified, 64
naming, 68, 288 Wacke, 55
Tufte, E. R., 353 Wackestone, 58
Tumuli, 275 Wager, L. R., and Brown, G. M., 304,305,306
Turbidites, 167-168,189-191 Walker, G.P.L., 274, 277, 283, 285
Turbidity currents, 164,166-168, 201 Walker, G. W., 274
398 Index
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